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This can be used in a classroom lesson about heating and cooling to split students up to talk about heating, some about cooling, how heating can be reversed, and how cooling can be reversed. This will help students understand the important words in the standard and what it is trying to ask.

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A jigsaw strategy is where a student becomes an expert on a specific part of a topic, explains to their classmates what it means, and gives valuable information.

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The jigsaw classroom is a widely used cooperative learning technique originally developed by Elliot Aronson in 1971 at the University of Texas, Austin as a way to promote cooperation in the classroom by making individuals dependent on each other in pursuit of a common goal. Since that time, the jigsaw technique has been modified and used successfully by educators in a wide variety of classrooms ranging from kindergarten to graduate school.

The basic premise of the jigsaw is that students work in small, interdependent groups with individuals given the responsibility for becoming "expert" in one aspect of a topic that they then teach to their peers in order to accomplish a group goal [1]. In a common version of the jigsaw, students are divided into small groups of 4-5 members with each group responsible for becoming expert on a different aspect of the same problem or topic. Each group discusses the material for which it is responsible until all members of the group understand the material well. The expert groups break up and new groups are formed, with at least one representative from each expert group in each new group. Each individual then teaches his material to the other members of the mixed group so that everyone has a deeper understanding of the different aspects of the problem or topic. Students go on to do a group problem solving task or an activity that synthesizes the material they have learned.

The benefits of cooperative assignments like the jigsaw have been widely documented. Reviews of the research have consistently found that when compared with more traditional competitive or individualistic learning methods, cooperative learning has a positive effect on student achievement, improves student's attitudes towards their subject area, improves relationships between students and increases student retention [2] [3] [4]. The effectiveness of cooperative learning depends on the particular method used. The most successful approaches incorporate two key elements: group goals and individual accountability [5].

Variations on the jigsaw have been implemented effectively in undergraduate courses across a variety of disciplines, including statistics [6], philosophy [7]; biology [8], geology [9], language courses [10], psychology [11] [12], chemistry [13] [14] multi-disciplinary computational science and engineering [15], sociology [16] and interdisciplinary environmental science [17].

Studies of jigsaw use in undergraduate courses report positive effects when jigsaw assignments are structured to incorporate elements central to effective cooperative learning. These key elements include positive interdependence between students, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction, emphasis on interpersonal and small group skills, and group processing [18]. Reported benefits include students taking more responsibility for their own learning, becoming more actively engaged, asking more questions and relying on each other for information rather than the instructor. In gaining practice in self and peer teaching, students deepen their understanding of the material and improve their communication skills. When every student's contribution is essential, every student has the opportunity to contribute meaningfully.
-Bok Center, Harvard University
[1] Aronson, E.; Blaney, N.; Stephin, C.; Sikes, J., & Snapp, M. (1978). The jigsaw classroom. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Publishing Company

[2] Johnson, D.W.; Johnson, R.T.; (1999). Making cooperative learning work. Theory into Practice, 38(2), 67-73.

[3] Springer, L; Stanne, M.E.; Donovan, S. (1999) Effects of small group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 69(1), 21-51.

[4] Johnson, D.W.;Johnson, R. T.; Stanne, M. B. (2000). Cooperative learning methods: a meta-analysis. University of Minnesota, 60 Peik Hall, 159 Pillsbury Drive, S.E., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

[5] Slavin, R., (1991). Synthesis of research on cooperative learning. Educational Leadership, 48(5), 71-82.

[6] Perkins, D.W.; Saris, R. (2001). A "jigsaw classroom" technique for undergraduate statistics courses. Teaching of Psychology, 28(2), 110-113.

[7] Faust, J.L.; Paulson, D.R.(1998). Active learning in the college classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 9(2), 3-24.

[8] Colosi, J.C.; Zales, C.R. (1998). Jigsaw cooperative learning improves biology lab Courses. Bioscience, 48(2), 118-141.

[9] Tewksbury, B.J. (1995). Specific strategies for using the "jigsaw" technique for working in groups in non-lecture-based courses. Journal of Geological Education, 43, 322-326.

[10] Qiao, M.; Jin, X., (2010). Jigsaw as a cooperative learning technique: focusing on the language learners. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33(4), 113-125.

[11] Krauss, J. (1999). A jigsaw puzzle approach to learning history in introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 26(4), 279-280.

[12] Carroll, D.W. (1987). Use of the jigsaw technique in laboratory and discussion classes. Teaching of Psychology, 13(4), 208-210.

[13] Doymus, K. (2008). Teaching chemical bonding through jigsaw cooperative learning. Research in Science and Technological Education, 26(1), 47-57.

[14] Doymus, K.; Karacop, A.; Simsek, U. (2010) Effects of jigsaw and animation techniques on students' understanding of concepts and subjects in electrochemistry. Educational Technology and Research Development, 58, 671-91. doi:10.1007/s11423-010-9157-2

[15] Burkhardt, J.; Turner, P.R. (2001). Student Teams and Jigsaw Techniques in an Undergraduate CSE Project Course. 31st Frontiers in Education Conference, 2, F3D-12-17.

[16] Hedeen, T. (2003). The reverse jigsaw: A process of cooperative learning and discussion. Teaching Sociology, 31, 325-32.

[17] Choe, S.W.T.; Drennan, P.M. (2001). Analyzing scientific literature using a jigsaw group activity. Journal of College Science Teaching, 30, 328-30.

[18] Johnson, D.W.; Johnson, R.T.; Smith, K.A. (1991). Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Further Resources:

Fink, L.D., (2004). Beyond small groups: harnessing the extraordinary power of learning teams. In Michaelsen, L.; Knight, A.; Fink, D. (eds), Team-based learning: a transformative use of small groups: Sterling, VA, Stylus Publishing.

Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning, Inc.

Michaelson, L.K.; Fink, L.D.; Knight, A. (1997). Designing effective group activities: lessons for classroom teaching and faculty development. In DeZure, D. (ed), To Improve the Academy: Resources for Faculty, Instructional and Organizational Development, Stillwater OK, New Forums.

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The jigsaw classroom is a widely used cooperative learning technique originally developed by Elliot Aronson in 1971 at the University of Texas, Austin as a way to promote cooperation in the classroom by making individuals dependent on each other in pursuit of a common goal.

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A hands-on strategy can also be a manipulative that students can use to touch and look at during a lesson to gain knowledge and understanding about a topic kinesthetically.

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To use this strategy in a classroom during the lesson you could use several things, just something that can be altered by heating and cooling to alter its shape. To teach that it can be reversed you could free an ice cube, let it melt in the student's hands, and refreeze the water. What can't be reversed is popping a kernel of popcorn and giving the students a kernel before heat and after heat.

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Ask the Cognitive Scientist: Do Manipulatives Help Students Learn?

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Question: Is there any reason to be cautious when using manipulatives in class? I understand that some educators might have mistakenly thought that manipulatives—concrete objects that students handle mostly during math and science lessons—help because they give kinesthetic learners the hands-on expe…

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The notice and wonder strategy is an opportunity for students to ask questions and look at the problem in different ways before trying to solve it and realizing what it means.

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How to use a Notice and Wonder Strategy in a Classroom

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How to use a Notice and Wonder Strategy in a Classroom

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Using this in a classroom means that the students will be presented with a problem about the popcorn and it will say "What do you notice about the popcorn after it had heat added to it?" and students would be able to examine the popcorn kernel and wonder about how it turned from the shell into the popcorn piece as well as wonder if it can be reversed.

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Sometimes you discover a great blog, only to learn that the authors have just posted their final article. At least, in this case, the posts are archived by a professional association, and in searching through said archive, you find a gem. Such is the story of The Teaching Tidbits Blog, hosted by the Mathematical Association of America.

The gem of a post is The Exercise with No Wrong Answer: Notice and Wonder (April 18, 2018) written by May Mei, Assistant Professor of Computer Science and Mathematics at Denison University. Mei asks: "How often have your students said nothing rather than risk saying something wrong? And how often in our own writing are we so paralyzed by the fear of imperfection that we end up writing nothing at all?" The solution is an exercise called Notice and Wonder, which "has no wrong answers." The concept is to present students with an idea, which could be in the form of a drawing, diagram, graphical presentation, image, video clip, a sentence written on the blackboard, etc., and ask students what they notice about it. After students have explored the possibilities, they are asked what they wonder about it. Mei states: "This provides opportunities to discuss what is still unknown and puts all students on equal ground-everyone can wonder about something. Because there are no wrong answers for either of these questions, all students can participate in the activity.

Notice and Wonder exercises allow students to brainstorm ideas and explore a problem before attempting to find a solution or uncover meaning. These activities can be used in-class, but the concept is flexible enough to be adapted to online discussion board threads or outside-of-class group work. Mei uses it as a way to help her students review for exams. "If my students have an upcoming exam, I will use the class period before as review, and sometime before that review period I ask each of my students to email me one thing they noticed and one thing they're still wondering about. Just before class on the review day, I put all the students' Notices and Wonders into one document and distribute it to the class. As I'm making this document I'm able to recognize themes and repeated observations or questions and can focus on those during the in-class review."

Many of the examples of these activities revolve around mathematics, and/or are directed at the K-12 population. But as creative thinkers, it is easy to see that this is an idea that can be expanded to any discipline or age group. A video by Annie Fetter, on staff at Math Forum (which is now part of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics), is often cited in articles on Notice and Wonder. It is directed at K-12 teachers, but demonstrates the concept in a way that will be useful to anyone considering using Notice and Wonder exercises. See Ever Wonder What They'd Notice (5 minutes).

Notice and Wonder activities involving data visualizations and images can help students develop interpretive, critical thinking, analytical, and visual literacy skills. The New York Times offers two resources: What is Going on in This Picture and the more recently launched What is Going on in This Graph. Of the latter, the Times says: "The content and statistical concepts will be suitable for most middle and high school students. Often, we'll strip it of some key information, then ask students three question - inspired by Visual Thinking Strategies, but anchored in math and statistics thinking: * What do you notice? * What do you wonder? * What's going on in this graph?" Again, these platforms are directed towards a K-12 audience, but looking at the examples may inspire you to conceive examples that will be relevant for your college-age students.

Have you used Notice and Wonder exercises in your class? If so, please share your experience in the comments.

Macie Hall, Senior Instructional Designer
Center for Educational Resources

Image Source: Image from Pixabay.com

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Sometimes you discover a great blog, only to learn that the authors have just posted their final article. At least, in this case, the posts are archived by a professional association, and in searching through said archive, you find a gem. Such is the story of The Teaching Tidbits Blog, hosted by the Mathematical Association of America.

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Project-based learning is where the students will have an end goal of a project or question that they must answer with all of the knowledge they have learned from the unit itself. This is different from rote memorization because it gives them a challenge that they have to solve to connect all of the dots of the unit.

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When to use Project Based Learning in a Classroom

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When to use Project Based Learning in a Classroom

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To use this for my science standard, the students at the end of the unit about heating and cooling and irreversible or reversible effects must come up with an example of one of these and explain which one it is and why it is affected the way it is. They also would have to explain if it is reversible or not.

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Project-Based Learning: Principles to Sustain Student Learning and Teacher Change in Practice - Part 1 | National Science Teaching Association

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Have you wanted to implement a Project-Based Learning (PBL) unit in your classroom? Would you like to introduce PBL curriculum in your school? Multiple Literacies in Project-Based Learning (ML-PBL), an open educational resource, provides interdisciplinary science units for Grades K-5. This PLU is Part 1 of a two-part series. You will engage in the ML-PBL Grade 4 Dynamic Earth Unit called, How will this place on Earth change in 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, and 1,000,000 years? All lessons are designed to be (1) flexible and adaptive, (2) responsive to student ideas and cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and (3) both enjoyable and intellectually satisfying for the teacher and students. The project-based design supports a high level of student interest and engagement and includes performance-based equity and social and emotional learning goals. ML-PBL provides embedded support for Multilingual Learners.

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The think-pair-share strategy is useful when students are trying to come up with reasonings behind a specific problem, or question or breaking down a statement into simpler terms. This activity is done where first the students will think to themselves on the topic, then pair up with a partner and talk about ideas, then finally there is a class discussion about the topic.

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When to use Think-Pair-Share in a Classroom

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When to use Think-Pair-Share in a Classroom

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For the standard, it would be useful to use Think-Pair-Share when the students are introduced to the idea of things being affected by heating and cooling and asked to come up with examples of things that are altered by heating and cooling. The students would first think to themselves some examples, then share with a partner to extend their ideas and finally, they would have a class discussion on what is affected.

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Gunter, M. A., Estes, T. H., & Schwab, J. H. (1999). Instruction: A Models Approach, 3rd edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Lyman, F. (1981). "The responsive classroom discussion." In Anderson, A. S. (Ed.), Mainstreaming Digest. College Park, MD: University of Maryland College of Education.

Rasinkski, T., & Padak, N. (1996). Holistic reading strategies: Teaching children who find reading difficult. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

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Think-pair-share is a cooperative learning strategy where students work together to solve a problem or answer a question about an assigned reading.

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Definition of Thick and Thin Questioning 

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Definition of Thick and Thin Questioning 

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This type of questioning is used when stimulating a discussion and creating important connections between the topic and the student's brain. The thin questions are ones with simple answers and basic recall to connect basic knowledge of the story but thick questions are where the question pose deep thinking and bigger knowledge connections.

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When to use Thick and Thin questioning  in a Classroom

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When to use Thick and Thin questioning  in a Classroom

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A teacher will use Thick and Thin questioning after reading a book and connecting it to what they have previously talked about definition-wise. For example with the popcorn, you would read the book and then ask "Why did the heating make a difference?" or "Do you think the heat is reversible?"

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"Sometimes questions are more important than answers." - Nancy Willard (American poet and writer)

Learning is fueled by curiosity, so how do we inspire mathematical curiosity in our students? The classroom atmosphere we create can either stimulate or stifle the inquisitiveness of our young learners. If we teach our developing mathematicians to inquire and question in meaningful ways, we are opening the door to deeper thinking and directing them to greater understanding.

Thought provoking questions promote dialog and don't usually have one quick answer. They linger and cause children to ponder the possibilities. They encourage students to make connections, predict, infer, and problem solve. In Building Mathematical Comprehension, Laney Sammons shares research that recommends "teaching students to distinguish between thick and thin questions."

Thick questions lead the learner to deeper thinking. They connect to background knowledge and have longer more thought provoking answers than thin questions. Answers to thick questions are complex, open ended, and deal with the "big picture." Thin questions deal with specific content and the answers are short and close ended. Thin questions are asked "to dispel confusion" and can be answered simply. These questions are needed, but they do not usually lead to stimulating discussions. Both types of questions have their place, but we should encourage students to see the value of the thick questions that lead to better conceptual understanding.
Thick Questions:

What if . . . ?

Why did . . . ?

How do you know . . . ?

What caused . . . ?

How can you prove . . . ?

Why do you think . . . ?

How can you support that?

Can you think of another way to . . .?

Thin Questions:
Teachers can model the two types of questions and help students develop their questioning skills. Thick questions promote math talk and engage children in higher level thinking. By explicitly teaching questioning techniques, and celebrating more than the quick answer, we empower students to ask more thought provoking questions. This helps them to become more self-sufficient problem solvers who can use inquiry to assess their work. Questions that linger and inspire thought can motivate our young mathematicians and create an excitement for mathematics. After all "Good questions work on us, we don't work on them." - Peter Block

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Thick and Thin Questions - Education Resource Group

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"Sometimes questions are more important than answers." - Nancy Willard (American poet and writer) Learning is fueled by curiosity, so how do we inspire mathematical curiosity in our students? The classroom atmosphere we create can either stimulate or stifle the inquisitiveness of our young learners. If we teach our developing mathematicians to inquire and question...

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Using a wait time in a classroom is when the teacher will pose a question and let the students think about what their response would be and why for a longer period than a normal question.

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When students are asked a question about why or why can't the heat on the popcorn kernel be reversed the teacher will give a wait time between the question and the discussion to allow students to formulate more thoughtful answers.

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View printable Wait time (PDF)
What Is Wait Time?

Wait time refers to two specific practices where instructors deliberately pause. First, wait time 1 constitutes a 3-5 second pause between asking a question and soliciting an answer. Second, wait time 2 is a 3-5 second pause after a student response. This time provides students with time to think about the question and develop a response, either to the instructor's question or a peer's response. As a result, more students may be willing to answer the question and responses may be more thoughtful. While this deliberate pause sounds simple to implement, many instructors have been habituated to resist any silence in the classroom and may find it surprisingly difficult to enact this pause.

Introduction to Wait Time

Writing that "Reading and writing float on a sea of talk," James Britton argued that engaged classroom discussion, substantive interactions between teachers and learners, as well as student-to-student interactions are crucial to learning (p. 11). But through a two-year study of 450 language arts and English classes, Martin Nystrand and his colleagues (1997) discovered "most schooling is organized ... for the plodding transmission of information through classroom recitation. Teachers talk and students listen. ... Almost all teachers' questions, moreover, required students to recall what someone else thought, not to articulate, examine, elaborate, or review what they themselves thought" (3). Other researchers have described this form of classroom discourse as IRE: teachers interrogate by posing a question to the class, a student responds, and the teacher then evaluates that student response before once again interrogating the class, thus beginning the cycle again. In IRE-dominated classrooms, teachers dominate the classroom talk through more turn taking, more floor time, and by establishing the terms of the discussion (Cazden, 2001; Nystrand et. al, 1997; Tobin, 1987). Additionally, research has suggested that the time faculty wait for responses to their questions rarely lasts longer than 1.5 seconds, implicitly suggesting to students that the questions are not authentic questions which teachers expect students to answer.

In response to research on IRE classroom talk patterns, Mary Budd Rowe developed and studied the effects of a concept she described as "wait time." Her research demonstrated that "If teachers can increase the average length of the pauses at both points [after interrogation and after student response], namely after a question (wait time 1) and, even more importantly, after a student response (wait time 2) to 3 seconds or more, there are pronounced changes (usually regarded as improvements) in student use of language and logic as well as in student and teacher attitudes and expectations" (Rowe 43). Rowe identified several improvements in student learning as a result of wait time:

An increase in length of student responses.

An increase in the number of unsolicited but appropriate student responses.

An increase in speculative responses.

A decrease in the number of students failing to respond.

An increase in the number of responses by students identified by their teachers as slow learners.

An increase in the scores of students on academic achievement tests.

Stahl noted that when teachers practice wait time, positive changes occur in their own behavior:

Their questioning strategies tend to be more varied and flexible.

They decrease the quantity and increase the quality and variety of their questions.

They ask additional questions that require more complex information processing and higher-level thinking on the part of students.

The positive changes can lead to students taking more control over the conversation, through asking and answering their own questions of each other or the instructor. However, the interactive, student-driven discussion that wait time facilitates is not a free-for-all, unguided by faculty, where anything goes. Instead, faculty responsibilities shift from mediating every student contribution (thus, establishing the instructor at the center of the learning environment) to being responsive to student contributions by:

Guiding conversation to productive avenues of thinking.

Answering factual questions and clearing up misinterpretations.

Creating space for students trying unsuccessfully to join into the discussion.

Implementation

When initially establishing student-led classroom talk using wait time, teachers may have to wait longer than 3-5 seconds in order to convince students that their participation is authentically desired. Students may not be used to this wait time; they may expect the teacher to evaluate the student response, and the silence may make both you and your students uncomfortable. To mediate this challenge, faculty can avoid eye contact by looking through the text or writing notes while waiting for the student response.

1. Arrange the room so that everyone can make eye contact with everyone else. In contrast, in an IRE-dominant classroom, the instructor mediates every student contribution to the discussion. All students face the instructor because student engagement in conversation with one another is not emphasized.

2. Pose good questions.

1. Use authentic questions; "questions without pre-specified answers" (Nystrand, 7).
"Authentic" questions convey the teacher's interest in students' thinking and opinions and are designed to support interpretation and the co-construction of meaning through whole-class conversation.

2. Questions that do not seek information are easily answered with specific facts or are answered easily with a yes/no response.

3. Questions with no "right" answer or has multiple correct answers.

4. Gold-star alternative: have students develop the authentic questions & post or bring to class with them. Once IRE classroom discourse has been disrupted and wait-time discourse has been established, have students prepare discussion questions prior to class meetings and write them on the board (or project them on the computer) to set the direction for the discussion. Once the questions have been shared, proceed with steps 3 - 4.
Student generated questions increase student motivation to participate and engage

3. Wait for a student response (Wait Time 1). Wait at least 3 - 5 seconds to demonstrate that the question is not rhetorical.

4. Wait after the student response. (Wait Time 2). Wait at least 3 - 5 seconds for another student to respond to the initial student response to emphasize that students are being asked to engage with one other's ideas and contributions (rather than the instructor always doing so).

Frequently Asked Questions

How often should I use wait time?

We recommend using wait-time during any portion of class where questions are being asked and answered. Different types of courses will divide up class time differently between lecture, discussion, hands-on activities, etc.
Is wait-time appropriate for all questions posed to the class?

Implementing wait-time can be difficult, as it requires the development of new habits and opens the door for more student-driven interactions in class. Until wait-time is your default mode of working, it's best to use it all the time to reinforce the habit, both for yourself and for the students. While there may be some instances where waiting is not required, it seems unlikely that a three second pause will cause problems.
What do I do if the same student answers the questions every time?

Setting expectations for students and communication norms can help alleviate this challenge. Raising hands and calling on different students is one step. More hints can be found on the Facilitating Discussions Teaching Tool.
What if students don't provide a response after the 3-5 seconds of delay, and instead there is uncomfortable silence? How long should I wait? What if it doesn't improve?

Different classroom dynamics can shape students' response to this technique. This simply requires patience and a willingness to keep trying. As the gold star alternative noted above, asking students to come prepared with their own questions, or using a small bit of discussion time to allow groups of students to devise discussion questions (see Rothstein & Santana, 2011 for more on this technique) can help jump start these discussions. If you have asked an authentic and difficult question, it might take students a few minutes to develop an appropriate response. In cases like these, you might anticipate the delay and work the questions into a Think, Pair, Share or Jigsaw activity (See other Teaching Tools in a Flash on these topics).
Is there a better way to craft questions to demonstrate to students that the question is not rhetorical?

The key here is to avoid asking students to produce a response that matches some pre-determined answer. For example, an instructor could shift from asking questions of fact (e.g., "what are the five key factors that led to the Great Depression"), to asking students what they think, what they find most interesting or troubling or complex (e.g., "which of the factors leading to the Great Depression do you think played the biggest role, or was the hardest for people to bear, or could have been most easily avoided?"). Again, the instructor's role here shifts from merely evaluating each response to guiding the discussion away from casual opinions and toward engaged, evidence-based analysis and interpretation.

References

Britton, James. Language and Learning: The Importance of Speech in Children's Development. Second Edition. Heinemann, 1993.

Cazden, Courtney. Classroom Discourse: The Language of Teaching and Learning. Second Edition. Heinemann, 2001.

Nystrand, Martin, with Adam Gamoran, Robert Kachur, and Catherine Prendergast. Opening Dialogue: Understanding the Dynamics of Language and Learning in the English Classroom. NY: Teacher's College Press, 1997.

Rothstein, Dan & Santana, Luz. Make Just One Change: Teaching Students to Ask Their Own Questions. Boston: Harvard Education Press, 2011.

Rowe, Mary Budd. "Wait Time: Slowing Down May Be a Way of Speeding Up." AMERICAN EDUCATOR 11 (Spring 1987): 38-43, 47. EJ 351 827.

Stahl, Robert J. Using "Think-Time" and "Wait-Time" Skillfully in the Classroom. ERIC Digest. https://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/think.htm

Tobin, Kenneth. "The Role of Wait Time in Higher Cognitive Level Learning." Review of Educational Research 57 (Spring 1987): 69-95. EJ 371 356.

Cite this resource: Takayoshi, P and Van Ittersum, D. (2018). Wait Time: Making Space for Authentic Learning. Kent State University Center for Teaching and Learning. Retrieved [today's date] from [insert URL].

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Wait Time: Making Space for Authentic Learning

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Wait Time: Making Space for Authentic Learning Center for Teaching and Learning | View printable Wait time (PDF)