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Answer the key questions - information and evaluation of your chosen innovation.

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Answer the key questions - information and evaluation of your chosen innovation.

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You have been given a hard copy of this. Make sure to hand it in after your presentation is over.

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Group members and chosen innovation/legacy (To be approved) and WHY you would like to choose this to research on

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Group members and chosen innovation/legacy (To be approved) and WHY you would like to choose this to research on

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Resources - Website URLs and Names / Book Titles and Authors / Youtube Video Titles and creator

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Resources - Website URLs and Names / Book Titles and Authors / Youtube Video Titles and creator

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Ancient Civilisation: India, Legacy: Yoga 

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We would like to do research on this innovation because we are fascinated by how this ancient form of care for the mind and body is still practiced today. However it has evolved in how it is practised around the world and we would like to explore how it has changed and why it is still popular

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compass or gnpowder because compass is a very useful object that most people still use it, gunpowder would also be gd

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(Ancient India and China)

(Ancient China) We would like to do research on gunpowder because we are fascinated by how this ancient powder is still used in guns and weaponry today. It has evolved in how it is used around the world and we would like to explore how it has changed. (Backup) Paper, a legacy of China, was invented by Cai Lun, a government official. We want to know what they used paper for back then.
(Ancient India) We would like to say how Ancient India's legacies have changed the world, for example, Ancient India's medicines. We would also like to say about a place which was famous in Ancient India as well as the history of Ancient India. Backup (other) legacies include music like Gandhava, a formal and composed music, and Gana, entertainment music.

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we chose china
china has invented many things including tea production,earthquakes detecters and alcohol.
Our main topic would be tea production,tea production was discovered by shenong around 2,737 bc(according to old Chinese legend.)

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Topic: China and India
The legacy of China is acupuncture and the legacy of India is Ayurveda. Acupuncture is helpful for blood flow and is the practise of penetrating the skin with thin, solid, metalic needles which are then activated through gentle and specific movements of the practitioner's hands or with electrical stimulation. Fun fact: Did you know they are 365 acupunctre points in the body. India's medicine legacy is Ayurveda. Ayurveda is simply an ancient indian medicine system to help everyone heal from their sickness? Fun fact: Did you know that Ayurveds is the oldest, continuosly practiced form of medicine in the world and it is the science of life. Which one do you think is better? Acupunctre or Ayurveda?

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China
We would like to do chinese medicine "acupuncture "
Becuause acupuncture helps to give immune system support and it also improve sense of wellbeing. People tend to feel relaxed after an acupuncture treatment and we want to encourage people to go acupuncture treatment.

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Me and eilliyah have chosen India legacy, because India has many features and their language is the oldest in the world. There’s many topics to talk about India, eg; culture, legacies, legends, landmarks and many more.

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Our innovations are the Ruler and Gunpowder from ancient India and China. The reason is that we like the way they make both gunpowder and the ruler is amazing. Our backups are Pythagorean theorem and the umbrella.

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I chose umbrella as it has helped us not get wet from the rain for shockingly 4000 years

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India and china

india: (Tasha) Sanskrit. Sanskrit is a language which other languages are derived from. I hope to learn more about it and known what languages are derived from it. I hope to learn things like when was Sanskrit founded and when was Sanskrit used
China: (Earnest) Absent

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we chose china.china has invented many things including tea production,earthquakes detecters and alcohol.Our main topic would be tea production,tea production was discovered by shenong around 2,737 bc(according to old Chinese legend.)

Our first backup is earthquakes detector and the second is alcohol .

Earthquake detectors.According to court records of the later Han Dynasty, it was created by Zhang Heng in 132 AD.it function is to determine direction of earquakes.modern seismographs only began development in 1848 in Europe.

Website :
https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/Chinese%20Inventions.pdf

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We decided on compass and typography. compass and typography are one of the 4 most significant inventions in China. (The other 2 are gunpowder and papermaking.)
I'm sure everyone knows what compasses are, so...

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Toothbrush as we use it in our daily lives to clean and remove bacteria from our teeth. Tea production as it originated in China but now expanded to a kind of a national drink for the UK. India plastic surgery as it is now a popular way to beautify your body.

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cupping is a ancient healing method

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A compass is a device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. It commonly consists of a magnetized needle or other element, such as a compass card or compass rose, which can pivot to align itself with magnetic north. Other methods may be used, including gyroscopes, magnetometers, and GPS receivers.

Compasses often show angles in degrees: north corresponds to 0°, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90°, south is 180°, and west is 270°. These numbers allow the compass to show azimuths or bearings which are commonly stated in degrees. If local variation between magnetic north and true north is known, then direction of magnetic north also gives direction of true north.

Among the Four Great Inventions, the magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han Dynasty (since c. 206 BC), and later adopted for navigation by the Song Dynasty Chinese during the 11th century. The first usage of a compass recorded in Western Europe and the Islamic world occurred around 1190.

Magnetic compass

The magnetic compass is the most familiar compass type. It functions as a pointer to " magnetic north", the local magnetic meridian, because the magnetized needle at its heart aligns itself with the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the needle, pulling the North end or pole of the needle approximately toward the Earth's North magnetic pole, and pulling the other toward the Earth's South magnetic pole. The needle is mounted on a low-friction pivot point, in better compasses a jewel bearing, so it can turn easily. When the compass is held level, the needle turns until, after a few seconds to allow oscillations to die out, it settles into its equilibrium orientation.

In navigation, directions on maps are usually expressed with reference to geographical or true north, the direction toward the Geographical North Pole, the rotation axis of the Earth. Depending on where the compass is located on the surface of the Earth the angle between true north and magnetic north, called magnetic declination can vary widely with geographic location. The local magnetic declination is given on most maps, to allow the map to be oriented with a compass parallel to true north. The locations of the Earth's magnetic poles slowly change with time, which is referred to as geomagnetic secular variation. The effect of this means a map with the latest declination information should be used. Some magnetic compasses include means to manually compensate for the magnetic declination, so that the compass shows true directions.

Non-magnetic compasses

There are other ways to find north than the use of magnetism, and from a navigational point of view a total of seven possible ways exist (where magnetism is one of the seven). Two sensors that use two of the remaining six principles are often also called compasses, i.e. the gyrocompass and GPS-compass.

Gyrocompass

A gyrocompass is similar to a gyroscope. It is a non-magnetic compass that finds true north by using an (electrically powered) fast-spinning wheel and friction forces in order to exploit the rotation of the Earth. Gyrocompasses are widely used on ships. They have two main advantages over magnetic compasses:

they are not affected by ferromagnetic metal (including iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, and various alloys) in a ship's hull. (No compass is affected by nonferromagnetic metal, although a magnetic compass will be affected by any kind of wires with electric current passing through them.)

Large ships typically rely on a gyrocompass, using the magnetic compass only as a backup. Increasingly, electronic fluxgate compasses are used on smaller vessels. However, magnetic compasses are still widely in use as they can be small, use simple reliable technology, are comparatively cheap, are often easier to use than GPS, require no energy supply, and unlike GPS, are not affected by objects, e.g. trees, that can block the reception of electronic signals.

GPS receivers used as compasses

GPS receivers using two or more antennae mounted separately and blending the data with an inertial motion unit (IMU) can now achieve 0.02° in heading accuracy and have startup times in seconds rather than hours for gyrocompass systems. The devices accurately determine the positions (latitudes, longitudes and altitude) of the antennae on the Earth, from which the cardinal directions can be calculated. Manufactured primarily for maritime and aviation applications, they can also detect pitch and roll of ships. Small, portable GPS receivers with only a single antenna can also determine directions if they are being moved, even if only at walking pace. By accurately determining its position on the Earth at times a few seconds apart, the device can calculate its speed and the true bearing (relative to ) of its direction of motion. Frequently, it is preferable to measure the direction in which a vehicle is actually moving, rather than its heading, i.e. the direction in which its nose is pointing. These directions may be different if there is a crosswind or tidal current.

GPS compasses share the main advantages of gyrocompasses. They determine true North, as opposed to magnetic North, and they are unaffected by perturbations of the Earth's magnetic field. Additionally, compared with gyrocompasses, they are much cheaper, they work better in polar regions, they are less prone to be affected by mechanical vibration, and they can be initialized far more quickly. However, they depend on the functioning of, and communication with, the GPS satellites, which might be disrupted by an electronic attack or by the effects of a severe solar storm. Gyrocompasses remain in use for military purposes (especially in submarines, where magnetic and GPS compasses are useless), but have been largely superseded by GPS compasses, with magnetic backups, in civilian contexts.

The first compasses in ancient Han dynasty China were made of lodestone, a naturally magnetized ore of iron. Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone, which appeared in China by 1088 during the Song Dynasty, as described by Shen Kuo. Dry compasses began to appear around 1300 in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world. This was supplanted in the early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.

Modern compasses

Magnetic compass

Modern compasses usually use a magnetized needle or dial inside a capsule completely filled with a liquid (lamp oil, mineral oil, white spirits, purified kerosene, or ethyl alcohol are common). While older designs commonly incorporated a flexible rubber diaphragm or airspace inside the capsule to allow for volume changes caused by temperature or altitude, some modern liquid compasses use smaller housings and/or flexible capsule materials to accomplish the same result. The liquid inside the capsule serves to damp the movement of the needle, reducing oscillation time and increasing stability. Key points on the compass, including the north end of the needle are often marked with phosphorescent, photoluminescent, or self-luminous materials to enable the compass to be read at night or in poor light. As the compass fill liquid is noncompressible under pressure, many ordinary liquid-filled compasses will operate accurately underwater to considerable depths.

Many modern compasses incorporate a baseplate and protractor tool, and are referred to variously as " orienteering", "baseplate", "map compass" or "protractor" designs. This type of compass uses a separate magnetized needle inside a rotating capsule, an orienting "box" or gate for aligning the needle with magnetic north, a transparent base containing map orienting lines, and a bezel (outer dial) marked in degrees or other units of angular measurement. The capsule is mounted in a transparent baseplate containing a direction-of-travel (DOT) indicator for use in taking bearings directly from a map.

Other features found on modern orienteering compasses are map and romer scales for measuring distances and plotting positions on maps, luminous markings on the face or bezels, various sighting mechanisms (mirror, prism, etc.) for taking bearings of distant objects with greater precision, gimbal-mounted, "global" needles for use in differing hemispheres, special rare-earth magnets to stabilize compass needles, adjustable declination for obtaining instant true bearings without resorting to arithmetic, and devices such as inclinometers for measuring gradients. The sport of orienteering has also resulted in the development of models with extremely fast-settling and stable needles utilizing rare-earth magnets for optimal use with a topographic map, a land navigation technique known as terrain association. Many marine compasses designed for use on boats with constantly shifting angles use dampening fluids such as isopar M or isopar L to limit the rapid fluctuation and direction of the needle.

The military forces of a few nations, notably the United States Army, continue to issue field compasses with magnetized compass dials or cards instead of needles. A magnetic card compass is usually equipped with an optical, lensatic, or prismatic sight, which allows the user to read the bearing or azimuth off the compass card while simultaneously aligning the compass with the objective (see photo). Magnetic card compass designs normally require a separate protractor tool in order to take bearings directly from a map.

The U.S. M-1950 military lensatic compass does not use a liquid-filled capsule as a damping mechanism, but rather electromagnetic induction to control oscillation of its magnetized card. A "deep-well" design is used to allow the compass to be used globally with a card tilt of up to 8 degrees without impairing accuracy. As induction forces provide less damping than fluid-filled designs, a needle lock is fitted to the compass to reduce wear, operated by the folding action of the rear sight/lens holder. The use of air-filled induction compasses has declined over the years, as they may become inoperative or inaccurate in freezing temperatures or extremely humid environments due to condensation or water ingress.

Some military compasses, like the U.S. M-1950 ( Cammenga 3H) military lensatic compass, the Silva 4b Militaire, and the Suunto M-5N(T) contain the radioactive material tritium () and a combination of phosphors. The U.S. M-1950 equipped with self-luminous lighting contains 120 mCi (millicuries) of tritium. The purpose of the tritium and phosphors is to provide illumination for the compass, via radioluminescent tritium illumination, which does not require the compass to be "recharged" by sunlight or artificial light. However, tritium has a half-life of only about 12 years, so a compass that contains 120 mCi of tritium when new will contain only 60 when it is 12 years old, 30 when it is 24 years old, and so on. Consequently, the illumination of the display will fade.

Mariners' compasses can have two or more magnets permanently attached to a compass card, which moves freely on a pivot. A lubber line, which can be a marking on the compass bowl or a small fixed needle, indicates the ship's heading on the compass card. Traditionally the card is divided into thirty-two points (known as rhumbs), although modern compasses are marked in degrees rather than cardinal points. The glass-covered box (or bowl) contains a suspended gimbal within a binnacle. This preserves the horizontal position.

Thumb compass

A thumb compass is a type of compass commonly used in orienteering, a sport in which map reading and terrain association are paramount. Consequently, most thumb compasses have minimal or no degree markings at all, and are normally used only to orient the map to magnetic north. An oversized rectangular needle or north indicator aids visibility. Thumb compasses are also often transparent so that an orienteer can hold a map in the hand with the compass and see the map through the compass. The best models use rare-earth magnets to reduce needle settling time to 1 second or less.

Solid state compasses

Small compasses found in clocks, mobile phones, and other electronic devices are solid-state microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) compasses, usually built out of two or three magnetic field sensors that provide data for a microprocessor. Often, the device is a discrete component which outputs either a digital or analog signal proportional to its orientation. This signal is interpreted by a controller or microprocessor and either used internally, or sent to a display unit. The sensor uses highly calibrated internal electronics to measure the response of the device to the Earth's magnetic field.

Specialty compasses

Apart from navigational compasses, other specialty compasses have also been designed to accommodate specific uses. These include:

Qibla compass, which is used by Muslims to show the direction to Mecca for prayers.

Optical or prismatic compass, most often used by surveyors, but also by cave explorers, foresters, and geologists. These compasses generally use a liquid-damped capsule and magnetized floating compass dial with an integral optical sight, often fitted with built-in photoluminescent or battery-powered illumination. Using the optical sight, such compasses can be read with extreme accuracy when taking bearings to an object, often to fractions of a degree. Most of these compasses are designed for heavy-duty use, with high-quality needles and jeweled bearings, and many are fitted for tripod mounting for additional accuracy.

Trough compasses, mounted in a rectangular box whose length was often several times its width, date back several centuries. They were used for land surveying, particularly with plane tables.

Limitations of the magnetic compass

The magnetic compass is very reliable at moderate latitudes, but in geographic regions near the Earth's magnetic poles it becomes unusable. As the compass is moved closer to one of the magnetic poles, the magnetic declination, the difference between the direction to geographical north and magnetic north, becomes greater and greater. At some point close to the magnetic pole the compass will not indicate any particular direction but will begin to drift. Also, the needle starts to point up or down when getting closer to the poles, because of the so-called magnetic inclination. Cheap compasses with bad bearings may get stuck because of this and therefore indicate a wrong direction.

Magnetic compasses are influenced by any fields other than Earth's. Local environments may contain magnetic mineral deposits and artificial sources such as MRIs, large iron or steel bodies, electrical engines or strong permanent magnets. Any electrically conductive body produces its own magnetic field when it is carrying an electric current. Magnetic compasses are prone to errors in the neighborhood of such bodies. Some compasses include magnets which can be adjusted to compensate for external magnetic fields, making the compass more reliable and accurate.

A compass is also subject to errors when the compass is accelerated or decelerated in an airplane or automobile. Depending on which of the Earth's hemispheres the compass is located and if the force is acceleration or deceleration the compass will increase or decrease the indicated heading. Compasses that include compensating magnets are especially prone to these errors, since accelerations tilt the needle, bringing it closer or further from the magnets.

Another error of the mechanical compass is turning error. When one turns from a heading of east or west the compass will lag behind the turn or lead ahead of the turn. Magnetometers, and substitutes such as gyrocompasses, are more stable in such situations.

Construction of a magnetic compass

Magnetic needle

A magnetic rod is required when constructing a compass. This can be created by aligning an iron or steel rod with Earth's magnetic field and then tempering or striking it. However, this method produces only a weak magnet so other methods are preferred. For example, a magnetised rod can be created by repeatedly rubbing an iron rod with a magnetic lodestone. This magnetised rod (or magnetic needle) is then placed on a low friction surface to allow it to freely pivot to align itself with the magnetic field. It is then labeled so the user can distinguish the north-pointing from the south-pointing end; in modern convention the north end is typically marked in some way.

Needle-and-bowl device

If a needle is rubbed on a lodestone or other magnet, the needle becomes magnetized. When it is inserted in a cork or piece of wood, and placed in a bowl of water it becomes a compass. Such devices were universally used as compass until the invention of the box-like compass with a 'dry' pivoting needle sometime around 1300.

Points of the compass

Originally, many compasses were marked only as to the direction of magnetic north, or to the four cardinal points (north, south, east, west). Later, these were divided, in China into 24, and in Europe into 32 equally spaced points around the compass card. For a table of the thirty-two points, see compass points.

In the modern era, the 360-degree system took hold. This system is still in use today for civilian navigators. The degree system spaces 360 equidistant points located clockwise around the compass dial. In the 19th century some European nations adopted the " grad" (also called grade or gon) system instead, where a right angle is 100 grads to give a circle of 400 grads. Dividing grads into tenths to give a circle of 4000 decigrades has also been used in armies.

Most military forces have adopted the French " millieme" system. This is an approximation of a milli-radian (6283 per circle), in which the compass dial is spaced into 6400 units or "mils" for additional precision when measuring angles, laying artillery, etc. The value to the military is that one angular mil subtends approximately one metre at a distance of one kilometer. Imperial Russia used a system derived by dividing the circumference of a circle into chords of the same length as the radius. Each of these was divided into 100 spaces, giving a circle of 600. The Soviet Union divided these into tenths to give a circle of 6000 units, usually translated as "mils". This system was adopted by the former Warsaw Pact countries (e.g. Soviet Union, East Germany), often counterclockwise (see picture of wrist compass). This is still in use in Russia.

Compass balancing (magnetic dip)

Because the Earth's magnetic field's inclination and intensity vary at different latitudes, compasses are often balanced during manufacture so that the dial or needle will be level, eliminating needle drag which can give inaccurate readings. Most manufacturers balance their compass needles for one of five zones, ranging from zone 1, covering most of the Northern Hemisphere, to zone 5 covering Australia and the southern oceans. This individual zone balancing prevents excessive dipping of one end of the needle which can cause the compass card to stick and give false readings.

Some compasses feature a special needle balancing system that will accurately indicate magnetic north regardless of the particular magnetic zone. Other magnetic compasses have a small sliding counterweight installed on the needle itself. This sliding counterweight, called a 'rider', can be used for counterbalancing the needle against the dip caused by inclination if the compass is taken to a zone with a higher or lower dip.

Compass correction

Like any magnetic device, compasses are affected by nearby ferrous materials, as well as by strong local electromagnetic forces. Compasses used for wilderness land navigation should not be used in proximity to ferrous metal objects or electromagnetic fields (car electrical systems, automobile engines, steel pitons, etc.) as that can affect their accuracy. Compasses are particularly difficult to use accurately in or near trucks, cars or other mechanized vehicles even when corrected for deviation by the use of built-in magnets or other devices. Large amounts of ferrous metal combined with the on-and-off electrical fields caused by the vehicle's ignition and charging systems generally result in significant compass errors.

At sea, a ship's compass must also be corrected for errors, called deviation, caused by iron and steel in its structure and equipment. The ship is swung, that is rotated about a fixed point while its heading is noted by alignment with fixed points on the shore. A compass deviation card is prepared so that the navigator can convert between compass and magnetic headings. The compass can be corrected in three ways. First the lubber line can be adjusted so that it is aligned with the direction in which the ship travels, then the effects of permanent magnets can be corrected for by small magnets fitted within the case of the compass. The effect of ferromagnetic materials in the compass's environment can be corrected by two iron balls mounted on either side of the compass binnacle in concert with permanent magnets and a Flinders bar.[32] The coefficient represents the error in the lubber line, while the ferromagnetic effects and the non-ferromagnetic component.[33]

A similar process is used to calibrate the compass in light general aviation aircraft, with the compass deviation card often mounted permanently just above or below the magnetic compass on the instrument panel. Fluxgate electronic compasses can be calibrated automatically, and can also be programmed with the correct local compass variation so as to indicate the true heading.

Using a magnetic compass

A magnetic compass points to magnetic north pole, which is approximately 1,000 miles from the true geographic North Pole. A magnetic compass's user can determine true North by finding the magnetic north and then correcting for variation and deviation. Variation is defined as the angle between the direction of true (geographic) north and the direction of the meridian between the magnetic poles. Variation values for most of the oceans had been calculated and published by 1914. Deviation refers to the response of the compass to local magnetic fields caused by the presence of iron and electric currents; one can partly compensate for these by careful location of the compass and the placement of compensating magnets under the compass itself. Mariners have long known that these measures do not completely cancel deviation; hence, they performed an additional step by measuring the compass bearing of a landmark with a known magnetic bearing. They then pointed their ship to the next compass point and measured again, graphing their results. In this way, correction tables could be created, which would be consulted when compasses were used when traveling in those locations.

Mariners are concerned about very accurate measurements; however, casual users need not be concerned with differences between magnetic and true North. Except in areas of extreme magnetic declination variance (20 degrees or more), this is enough to protect from walking in a substantially different direction than expected over short distances, provided the terrain is fairly flat and visibility is not impaired. By carefully recording distances (time or paces) and magnetic bearings traveled, one can plot a course and return to one's starting point using the compass alone.

Compass navigation in conjunction with a map ( terrain association) requires a different method. To take a map bearing or true bearing (a bearing taken in reference to true, not magnetic north) to a destination with a protractor compass, the edge of the compass is placed on the map so that it connects the current location with the desired destination (some sources recommend physically drawing a line). The orienting lines in the base of the compass dial are then rotated to align with actual or true north by aligning them with a marked line of longitude (or the vertical margin of the map), ignoring the compass needle entirely. The resulting true bearing or map bearing may then be read at the degree indicator or direction-of-travel (DOT) line, which may be followed as an (course) to the destination. If a magnetic north bearing or compass bearing is desired, the compass must be adjusted by the amount of magnetic declination before using the bearing so that both map and compass are in agreement. In the given example, the large mountain in the second photo was selected as the target destination on the map. Some compasses allow the scale to be adjusted to compensate for the local magnetic declination; if adjusted correctly, the compass will give the true bearing instead of the magnetic bearing.

The modern hand-held protractor compass always has an additional direction-of-travel (DOT) arrow or indicator inscribed on the baseplate. To check one's progress along a course or azimuth, or to ensure that the object in view is indeed the destination, a new compass reading may be taken to the target if visible (here, the large mountain). After pointing the DOT arrow on the baseplate at the target, the compass is oriented so that the needle is superimposed over the orienting arrow in the capsule. The resulting bearing indicated is the magnetic bearing to the target. Again, if one is using "true" or map bearings, and the compass does not have preset, pre-adjusted declination, one must additionally add or subtract magnetic declination to convert the magnetic bearing into a true bearing. The exact value of the magnetic declination is place-dependent and varies over time, though declination is frequently given on the map itself or obtainable on-line from various sites. If the hiker has been following the correct path, the compass' corrected (true) indicated bearing should closely correspond to the true bearing previously obtained from the map.

A compass should be laid down on a level surface so that the needle only rests or hangs on the bearing fused to the compass casing - if used at a tilt, the needle might touch the casing on the compass and not move freely, hence not pointing to the magnetic north accurately, giving a faulty reading. To see if the needle is well leveled, look closely at the needle, and tilt it slightly to see if the needle is swaying side to side freely and the needle is not contacting the casing of the compass. If the needle tilts to one direction, tilt the compass slightly and gently to the opposing direction until the compass needle is horizontal, lengthwise. Items to avoid around compasses are magnets of any kind and any electronics. Magnetic fields from electronics can easily disrupt the needle, preventing it from aligning with the Earth's magnetic fields, causing inaccurate readings. The Earth's natural magnetic forces are considerably weak, measuring at 0.5 gauss and magnetic fields from household electronics can easily exceed it, overpowering the compass needle. Exposure to strong magnets, or magnetic interference can sometimes cause the magnetic poles of the compass needle to differ or even reverse. Avoid iron rich deposits when using a compass, for example, certain rocks which contain magnetic minerals, like Magnetite. This is often indicated by a rock with a surface which is dark and has a metallic luster, not all magnetic mineral bearing rocks have this indication. To see if a rock or an area is causing interference on a compass, get out of the area, and see if the needle on the compass moves. If it does, it means that the area or rock the compass was previously at is causing interference and should be avoided.

Cited sources

Further reading

Admiralty, Great Britain (1915) Admiralty manual of navigation, 1914, Chapter XXV: "The Magnetic Compass (continued): the analysis and correction of the deviation", London : HMSO, 525 p.

Aczel, Amir D. (2001) The Riddle of the Compass: The Invention that Changed the World, 1st Ed., New York : Harcourt, ISBN 0-15-600753-3

Carlson, John B (1975). "Multidisciplinary analysis of an Olmec hematite artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico". Science. 189 (4205): 753-760. Bibcode:1975Sci...189..753C. doi:10.1126/science.189.4205.753. PMID 17777565. S2CID 33186517.

Gies, Frances and Gies, Joseph (1994) Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Age, New York : HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-016590-1

Gubbins, David, Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, Springer Press (2007), ISBN 1-4020-3992-1, 978-1-4020-3992-8

King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". . 74 (4): 531-555. doi:10.1086/353360. S2CID 144315162.

Taylor, E.G.R. (1951). "The South-Pointing Needle". Imago Mundi. 8: 1-7. doi:10.1080/03085695108591973.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A compass is a device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. It commonly consists of a magnetized needle or other element, such as a compass card or compass rose, which can pivot to align itself with magnetic north. Other methods may be used, including gyroscopes, magnetometers, and GPS receivers.

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Siva, Britannica-Pythagorean theorem(Feb 3 2023)

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Siva, Britannica-Pythagorean theorem(Feb 3 2023)

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ruler because without it we would be able to make many things like buildings planes and more, for example, a helicopter has to be symmetric or else it would not work proprerly

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Tea: It is a delicacy and it taste nice, without it, there would not be many variety of hot drinks.
paper: Without it, we cannot do many things.
chopstick: We use chopsticks a lot.

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https://www.southogdensmiles.com/blog/2017/10/30/the-history-of-the-toothbrush-187091#:~:text=The%20first%20toothbrush%20was%20made,hairs%20of%20a%20Siberian%20hog -toothbrush(October 30, 2017)

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History of the Toothbrush - South Ogden, UT Oral Hygiene Development

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The history of the toothbrush goes back thousands of years. The team at South Ogden Smiles considers the development of this essential oral hygiene tool.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruler

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In the history of measurement many distance units have been used which were based on human body parts such as the cubit, hand and foot and these units varied in length by era and location. In the late 18th century the metric system came into use and has been adopted to varying degrees in almost all countries in the world.

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1. https://www.wondriumdaily.com/indo-european-languages-and-their-nonexistent-common-source/#:~:text=There%20are%20languages%20no%20longer,the%20ancestor%20of%20Modern%20Greek.

2. https://medium.com/@maheedhar1998/greatness-and-importance-of-sanskrit-19611fe0284f#:~:text=Sanskrit%20is%20the%20most%20ancient,earliest%20literature%20in%20the%20world.

3.https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/sanskrit-is-the-mother-of-all-indian-languages-bhyrappa/article66350430.ece

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January 07, 2023 08:40 pm | Updated 08:40 pm IST - HAVERI

A day after president of the 86th Akhila Bharata Kannada Sahitya Sammelana Doddarange Gowda took exception to the huge difference in release of grants to Sanskrit and Kannada, Saraswati Samman awardee S.L. Bhyrappa, in a short letter to the organisers, emphasised that Sanskrit was the "mother of all Indian languages".

Dr. Bhyrappa, who was to attend a session titled 'Bharata Jannaniya Tanujate Jaya he Karnataka Mate', in which books on Saraswati Samman awardees was to be released, did not come owing to illness.

In a letter sent to the organising committee, which was read out by writer Pradhan Gurudatt, at the session, Dr. Bhyrappa presented some of his views.

He said: "... In the beginning, Sanskrit stood as mother of all languages and encouraged all languages and was the reason for their growth and prosperity. One may note that most of the works in Sanskrit have been translated into other Indian languages."

He further said that the "word treasure" of all Indian languages has roots mostly in Sanskrit. "For the same reason, when I went to Vallabh University as philosophy teacher, I was able to understand Gujarati language and also communicate in Gujarati at a very short period.... If we take the four main South Indian languages, linguists have opined that 65% of the Kannada words have their roots in Sanskrit. In Telugu and Malayalam languages it is around 70% to 75%. In Tamil, it is comparatively less with 15% to 20%."

Daughter's turn

Dr. Bhyrappa said in the letter that while Sanskrit was responsible for prosperity of Indian languages in the first phase, in the second phase, the translations of Indian languages were contributing to the growth of Sanskrit, which in itself was a special phenomenon .

"My seven novels, including 'Parva', have been translated into Sanskrit, and scholars of other languages have conveyed to me that they have understood the achievements of Kannada through the Sanskrit translation. So while at one point of time daughters (Indian languages) prospered drawing support from Sanskrit, now it is a pleasure to see daughters taking care of the elder goddess of Sanskrit... I hope this mother-daughter relationship will continue happily," he said.

Absentees

Meanwhile, some nine other invitees stayed away from the sammelana. Former Chief Minister M. Veerappa Moily, scholar Viranna Rajur, writer Chandrashekhar Vastrad, IAS officer Nandini, and journalism teacher Omkar Kakade were prominent among them.

It may be recalled that poets H.R. Sujatha, Chand Pasha, and Ramesh Aroli had announced earlier that they would not participate in the sammelana, taking exception to exclusion of some from the literary event.

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sanskrit is the mother of all indian languages: bhyrappa

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Sanskrit is the mother of all Indian languages: Bhyrappa

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January 07, 2023 08:40 pm | Updated 08:40 pm IST - HAVERI A day after president of the 86th Akhila Bharata Kannada Sahitya Sammelana Doddarange Gowda took exception to the huge difference in release of grants to Sanskrit and Kannada, Saraswati Samman awardee S.L.

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https://neradatea.com.au/pages/the-history-of-tea - tea production (??/??/2023)

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Tea consumption spreads like wildfire throughout Chinese culture. In 800 AD, Lu Yu writes the first definitive book on tea, variously known as The Classic of Tea or The Ch'a Ching. He codifies the various methods of tea cultivation and preparation in ancient China. It's this form of tea service that Zen Buddhist missionaries later introduce to imperial Japan.

By 1720, tea is an accepted staple of trade between the colony (America) and the mother country (England). Tea trade is centred in Boston, New York and Philadelphia, future centres of American rebellion.

In June 1767, the tea tax is passed by government and this was to become the watershed moment of America's desire for freedom. The colonists rebel and openly purchase imported tea, largely Dutch in origin. Throughout the colonies, people pledge not to drink English tea until their free rights are restored.

Events in America continue to deteriorate and the men of Boston throw hundreds of pounds of tea into the harbour in a political protest now known as The Boston Tea Party. In retaliation, the port of Boston closes and the city is occupied by royal troops, and revolution is declared.

In 1904, a tea plantation owner in America plans to give away free samples of hot tea to fair visitors. But when a heatwave hits, no-one is interested. So he dumps a load of ice into the brewed tea and serves the first "iced tea".

Four years later, Thomas Sullivan of New York develops the concept of "bagged tea". As a tea merchant, he carefully wraps each sample delivered to restaurants for their consideration. He recognises a natural marketing opportunity when he realises the restaurants are brewing the samples "in the bags" to avoid the mess of tea leaves.

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The First Brew The story of tea begins in ancient China more than 5,000 years ago. According to legend, an early emperor demands all drinking water be boiled as a hygienic precaution. One day, leaves from a nearby bush fall into the boiling water and they infuse the liquid.

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Eiliyah , Britannica- Sanskrit language. (Dec 15, 2022)

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Eiliyah , Britannica- Sanskrit language. (Dec 15, 2022)

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language

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Sanskrit language, (from Sanskrit saṃskṛta, "adorned, cultivated, purified"), an Old Indo-Aryan language in which the most ancient documents are the Vedas, composed in what is called Vedic Sanskrit. Although Vedic documents represent the dialects then found in the northern midlands of the Indian subcontinent and areas immediately east thereof, the very earliest texts-including the Rigveda ("The Veda Composed in Verses"), which scholars generally ascribe to approximately 1500 bce-stem from the northwestern part of the subcontinent, the area of the ancient seven rivers ( sapta sindhavaḥ).

Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery of Art

What is generally called Classical Sanskrit-but is actually a language close to late Vedic as then used in the northwest of the subcontinent-was elegantly described in one of the finest grammars ever produced, the Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Eight Chapters") composed by Pāṇini ( c. 6th-5th century bce). The Aṣṭādhyāyī in turn was the object of a rich commentatorial literature, documents of which are known from the time of Kātyāyana (4th-3rd century bce) onward. In the same Pāṇinian tradition there was a long history of work on semantics and the philosophy of language, the pinnacle of which is represented by the Vākyapadīya ("Treatise on Sentence and Word") of Bhartṛhari (late 6th-7th century ce).

Over its long history, Sanskrit has been written both in Devanāgarī script and in various regional scripts, such as Śāradā from the north ( Kashmir), Bāṅglā (Bengali) in the east, Gujarātī in the west, and various southern scripts, including the Grantha alphabet, which was especially devised for Sanskrit texts. Sanskrit texts continue to be published in regional scripts, although in fairly recent times Devanāgarī has become more generally used.

There is a large corpus of literature in Sanskrit covering a wide range of subjects. The earliest compositions are the Vedic texts. There are also major works of drama and poetry, although the exact dates of many of these works and their creators have not been definitively established. Important authors and works include Bhāsa (for example, his Svapnavāsvavadatta ["Vāsavadatta in a Dream"]), who is assigned widely varying dates but definitely worked prior to Kālidāsa, who mentions him; Kālidāsa, dated anywhere from the 1st century bce to the 4th century ce, whose works include Śakuntalā (more fully, Abhijñānaśākuntala; "Śakuntalā Recalled Through Recognition" or "The Recognition of Śakuntalā"), Vikramorvaśīya ("Urvaśī Won Through Valour"), Kumārasambhava ("The Birth of Kumāra"), and Raghuvaṃśa ("The Lineage of Raghu"); Śūdraka and his Mṛcchakatika ("Little Clay Cart"), possibly dating to the 3rd century ce; Bhāravi and his Kirātārjunīya ("Arjuna and the Kirāta"), from approximately the 7th century; Māgha, whose Śiśupālavadha ("The Slaying of Śiśupāla") dates to the late 7th century; and from about the early 8th century Bhavabhūti, who wrote Mahāvīracarita ("Deeds of the Great Hero"), Mālatīmādhava ("Mālatī and Mādhava"), and Uttararāmacarita ("The Last Deed of Rāma"). The two epics Rāmāyaṇa ("Life of Rāma") and Mahābhārata ("Great Tale of the Bhāratas") were also composed in Sanskrit, and the former is esteemed as the first poetic work ( ādikāvya) of India. The Pañcatantra ("Treatise in Five Chapters") and Hitopadeśa ("Beneficial Instruction") are major representatives of didactic literature. Sanskrit was also used as the medium for composing treatises of various philosophical schools, as well as works on logic, astronomy, and mathematics.

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Sanskrit is not restricted to Hindu compositions. It has also been used by Jaina and Buddhist scholars, the latter primarily Mahāyāna Buddhists. Further, Sanskrit is recognized in the constitution of India as both a classical language and an official language and continues to be used in scholarly, literary, and technical media, as well as in periodicals, radio, television, and film.

In its grammatical structure, Sanskrit is similar to other early Indo-European languages such as Greek and Latin. It is an inflected language. For instance, the Sanskrit nominal system-including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives-has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), and seven syntactic cases (nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative), in addition to a vocative. However, a full set of distinct forms occurs only in the singular of masculine -a- stems of the type deva- 'god': nominative devas ( devaḥ before a pause), accusative devam, instrumental devena, dative devāya, ablative devāt, genitive devasya, locative deve, and vocative deva.

Adjectives are inflected to agree with nouns, and there are distinct pronominal forms for certain cases: e.g., tasmai, tasmāt, tasmin (masculine-neuter dative, ablative, and locative singular, respectively) 'that one.'

Verbs inflect for tense, mode, voice, number, and person. These may be illustrated by third-person active forms of pac 'cook, bake' (used if cooking is done for someone other than the agent), including the present indicative pacati 'cooks, is cooking'; the proximate future pakṣyati 'will cook,' referring to an act that will take place at some time in the future, possibly including the day on which one is speaking; the non-proximate future paktā 'will cook,' referring to an act that will take place at some time in the future, excluding the day on which one is speaking; the aorist apākṣīt 'cooked, has cooked,' referring to an act completed in the general past, possibly including the day on which one speaks; the imperfect past apacat 'cooked,' referring to an act in the past, excluding the day on which one speaks; the perfect reportative papāca 'cooked,' referring to an act performed in the past, excluding the day of speaking, and which the speaker did not directly witness or is not personally aware; the imperative pacatu 'should, must cook,' expressing a command, request, or invitation to perform the act; the optative pacet, used in the same sense as the imperative; the precative pacyāt 'may cook,' expressing a wish; and the contrafactual conditional apakṣyat 'if (he) cooked, if (he) had cooked, if (he) would cook, if (he) would have cooked.' There are also middle forms ('cook for oneself') corresponding to the forms just cited: pacate 'cooks, is cooking,' pakṣyate 'will cook,' paktā 'will cook,' apakta 'cooked, has cooked,' apacata 'cooked,' pece 'cooked,' pacatām 'should, must cook,' pakṣīṣṭa 'may cook,' apakṣyata 'if (I) cooked, if (I) had cooked, if (I) would cook, if (I) would have cooked.' There is also a passive, as with the third singular present indicative pacyate '...is being cooked.' Early Vedic preserves remnants of an earlier aspectual contrast between perfective and imperfective.

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Sanskrit language | Origin, History, & Facts

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Sanskrit language, (from Sanskrit saṃskṛta, "adorned, cultivated, purified"), an Old Indo-Aryan language in which the most ancient documents are the Vedas, composed in what is called Vedic Sanskrit.

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Naing, Aietes, Hao Ming- (Indian Plastic Surgery) National Library Of Medicine(8 June 2017)

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Naing, Aietes, Hao Ming- (Indian Plastic Surgery) National Library Of Medicine(8 June 2017)

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The definition of an ideal surgeon according to the great surgeon Sushrutaa is "A person who possesses courage and presence of mind, a hand free from perspiration, tremor less grip of sharp and good instruments and who carries his operations to the success and advantage of his patient who has entrusted his life to the surgeon. The surgeon should respect this absolute surrender and treat his patient as his own son."

Surgery forms a major role in general medical training. The ancient surgical science was known as Shalya Tantra. Shalya means broken arrow or a sharp part of a weapon and Tantra means maneuver. Shalya Tantra embraces all processes, aiming at the removal of factors responsible for producing pain or misery to the body or mind. Since warfare was common then, the injuries sustained led to the development of surgery as refined scientific skill.

All the four Vedas are in the form of Shlokas (hymns), verses, incantations, and rites in Sanskrit language. This treatise contains detailed descriptions of teachings and practice of the great ancient surgeon Sushruta and has considerable surgical knowledge of relevance even today.

The Rigveda - the earliest account of ancient Indian civilization - mentions that Ashwini Kumaras known as Dev Vaidya were the chief surgeons of Vedic periods, who had performed rare legendary surgical operations which included the first plastic surgery to re-join the head and trunk of saint Chyavana when Dakshya cut his head. Their other classic work included an eye operation of Reejashva, the implantation of teeth of Phushna in the toothless mouth, and the transplant of head of elephant on Ganesh whose head was cut by Lord Shiva. They transplanted an iron leg on Bispala - the wife of King Khela who lost her leg in war. Ashwini Kumaras had performed both homo- and hetro-transplantation during the very the ancient time of Rigveda which is estimated about 5000 years ago; such miraculous magical surgical skill of the Rigvedic period may seem mere legends or mystery to modern medical sciences. The surgical skill has traversed through the ages ranging from the Ashwini Kumaras, Chavana, Dhanvantari through Atereya Agnivesh and Shushruta. Craniotomy and brain surgery were also practiced in a more sophisticated way.

They do reflect some special surgical skills which laid down the foundation of Ayurveda - the fifth Indian Veda, the classical medical system of India. However, the realistic and systematic earliest compendium of medical science of India was compiled by Charak in Charak Samhita. It describes the work of ancient medical practitioners such as Acharya Atreya and Acharya Agnivesh of 800 BC and contains the Principle of Ayurveda. It remained the standard textbook of Ayurveda for almost for 2000 years. They were followed by Sushruta, a specialist in cosmetic, plastic, and dental surgery (Sandhan Karma around 600BC).

There are many Granthas and Samhitas dealing with Ayurveda; among them, Charak Samhita, Sushrutaa Samhita, and Ashtanga Sangraha are the three main pillars of Ayurveda. Charak Samhita and Ashtanga Samhita mainly deal with medicine knowledge while Sushrutaa Samhita deals mainly with surgical knowledge. Complicated surgeries such as cesarean, cataract, artificial limb, fractures, urinary stones plastic surgery, and procedures including per- and post-operative treatment along with complications written in Sushrutaa Samhita, which is considered to be a part of Atharva Veda, are surprisingly applicable even in the present time.[ 1]

Sushruta is an adjective which means renowned. Sushruta is reverentially held in Hindu tradition to be a descendent of Dhanvantari, the mythological god of medicine or as one who received the knowledge from a discourse from Dhanvantari in Varanasi.[ 2] Sushruta lived 2000 years ago in the ancient city of Kashi, now known as Varanasi or Banaras in the northern part of India. Varanasi, on the bank of Ganga, is one of the holiest places in India and is also the home of Buddhism. Ayurveda is one of the oldest medical disciplines. The Sushrutaa Samhita is among the most important ancient medical treatises and is one of the fundamental texts of the medical tradition in India along with the Charak Samhita.

Sushruta is the father of surgery. If the history of science is traced back to its origin, it probably starts from an unmarked era of ancient time. Although the science of medicine and surgery has advanced by leaps and bounds today, many techniques practiced today have still been derived from the practices of the ancient Indian scholars.

Sushruta has described surgery under eight heads: Chedya (excision), Lekhya (scarification), Vedhya (puncturing), Esya (exploration), Ahrya (extraction), Vsraya (evacuation), and Sivya (suturing).

All the basic principles of surgery such as planning precision, hemostasis, and perfection find important places in Sushruta's writings on the subject. He has described various reconstructive procedures for different types of defects.

His works are compiled as Sushrutaa Samhita. He describes 60 types of upkarma for treatment of wound, 120 surgical instruments and 300 surgical procedures, and classification of human surgeries in eight categories.

To Sushruta, health was not only a state of physical well-being but also mental, brought about and preserved by the maintenance of balanced humors, good nutrition, proper elimination of wastes, and a pleasant contented state of body and mind.

For successful surgery, Sushruta induced anesthesia using intoxicants such as wine and henbane (Cannabis indica).

He treated numerous cases of Nasa Sandhan (rhinoplasty), Oshtha Sandhan (lobuloplasty), Karna Sandhan (otoplasty). Even today, rhinoplasty described by Shushruta in 600 BC is referred to as the Indian flap and he is known as the originator of plastic surgery.

He described six varieties of accidental injuries encompassing all parts of the body. They are described below:

Chinna - Complete severance of a part or whole of a limb

Bhinna - Deep injury to some hollow region by a long piercing object

Viddha Prana - Puncturing a structure without a hollow

Kshata - Uneven injuries with signs of both Chinna and Bhinna, i.e., laceration

Pichchita - Crushed injury due to a fall or blow

Ghrsta - Superficial abrasion of the skin.

Besides trauma involving general surgery, Sushruta gives an in-depth account and a description of the treatment of 12 varieties of fracture and six types of dislocation. This continues to spellbind orthopedic surgeons even today. He mentions the principles of traction, manipulation, apposition, stabilization, and postoperative physiotherapy.

He also prescribed measures to induce growth of lost hair and removal of unwanted hair. He implored surgeons to achieve perfect healing which is characterized by the absence of any elevation, induration, swelling mass, and the return of normal coloring.

Plastic surgery and dental surgery were practiced in India even in ancient times. Students were properly trained on models. New students were expected to study for at least 6 years before starting their training. Before beginning the training, the students were required to take a solemn oath. He taught his surgical skills to his students on various experimental models. Incision on vegetables such as watermelon and cucumber, probing on worm-eaten woods, preceding present-day workshop by more than 2000 years are some instances of his experimental teachings. He was one of the first people in human history to suggest that a student of surgery should learn about human body and its organ by dissecting a dead body.

Sushrutaa Samhita remained preserved for many centuries exclusively in the Sanskrit language. In the eight century AD, Sushrutaa Samhita was translated into Arabic as "Kitab Shah Shun al -Hindi" and "Kitab - I - Susurud." The first European translation of Sushrutaa Samhita was published by Hessler in Latin and in German by Muller in the early 19 th century; the complete English literature was done by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna in the three volumes in 1907 at Calcutta.

Sushruta was also known as a medical authority in Tibetan literature.

Sushruta considered surgery the first and foremost branch of medicine and stated that surgery has the superior advantage of producing instantaneous effects by means of surgical instruments and appliances and hence is the highest in value of all the medical tantras. It is the eternal source of infinite piety, imports fame, and opens the gates of heaven to its votaries. It prolongs the duration of human existence on earth and helps human in successfully completing their missions and wearing a decent competence in life.

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The definition of an ideal surgeon according to the great surgeon Sushrutaa is "A person who possesses courage and presence of mind, a hand free from perspiration, tremor less grip of sharp and good instruments and who carries his operations to the success and advantage of his patient who has entrusted his life to the surgeon.

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https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/acupuncture#:~:text=What%20is%20acupuncture%3F,practice%20of%20Traditional%20Chinese%20medicine.

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India: Plastic surgery
reason: Because we want to know how plastic surgery started in india. Lord Shiva attached a elephant head on his son's head successfully.
China: paper money
Reason: We want to find out why paper money was made and what type of paper it was used

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https://www.livescience.com/42153-ayurveda.html

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july20 2022
https://www.verywellhealth.com/cupping-therapy-5216701

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gunpowder, any of several low-explosive mixtures used as propelling charges in guns and as blasting agents in mining.

The first such explosive was black powder, which consists of a mixture of saltpetre (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal. When prepared in roughly the correct proportions (75 percent saltpetre, 15 percent charcoal, and 10 percent sulfur), it burns rapidly when ignited and produces approximately 40 percent gaseous and 60 percent solid products, the latter mostly appearing as whitish smoke. In a confined space such as the breech of a gun, the pent-up gas can be used for propelling a missile such as a bullet or artillery shell. Black powder is relatively insensitive to shock and friction and must be ignited by flame or heat. Though it has largely been supplanted by smokeless powder as a propellant for ammunition in guns, black powder is still widely used for ignition charges, primers, fuses, and blank-fire charges in military ammunition. With varied proportions of ingredients, it is also used in fireworks, time fuses, signals, squibs, and spatting charges for practice bombs.

Black powder is thought to have originated in China, where it was being used in fireworks and signals by the 10th century. Between the 10th and 12th centuries, the Chinese developed the huo qiang ("fire lance"), a short-range proto- gun that channeled the explosive power of gunpowder through a cylinder-initially, a bamboo tube. Upon ignition, projectiles such as arrows or bits of metal would be forcefully ejected, along with an impressive gout of flame. By the late 13th century the Chinese were employing true guns, made of cast brass or iron. Guns began to appear in the West by 1304, when the Arabs produced a bamboo tube reinforced with iron that used a charge of black powder to shoot an arrow. Black powder was adopted for use in firearms in Europe from the 14th century but was not employed for peaceful purposes, such as mining and road building, until the late 17th century. It remained a useful explosive for breaking up coal and rock deposits until the early 20th century, when it was gradually replaced by dynamite for most mining purposes.

The preparation of black powder from solid ingredients requires uniform mixing and blending of the saltpetre, charcoal, and sulfur. The earliest manufacturing processes used hand methods; the ingredients were simply ground together into a powder using a mortar and pestle. Beginning in the 15th century, water-driven crushing devices of wood, called wooden stamps, came into use to grind the ingredients, and power-driven metallic crushing devices replaced the wooden stamp mills in the 19th century.

Because the burning of black powder is a surface phenomenon, a fine granulation burns faster than a coarse one. A fast burning rate is effective ballistically but tends to create excessive pressures in the gun barrel. Thus, black powder in its powdered form burned too rapidly to be a safe propellant in firearms. To remedy this, Europeans in the 15th and 16th centuries began manufacturing powder in large grains of uniform size. The speed of burning could be varied by using a different size of granule. In the 19th century, as elongated projectiles replaced round balls and the rifling of gun tubes was adopted to rotate and stabilize the projectile, black powders were manufactured to burn even more slowly. In the 1850s Thomas J. Rodman of the U.S. Army developed black powder grains so shaped that they provided a progressively greater burning surface as the combustion progressed, with a resulting maximum energy release after the projectile had already begun to travel down the bore of the gun.

Beginning in the 1860s, black powder was gradually supplanted for use in firearms by guncotton and other, more stable forms of nitrocellulose. Unlike black powder, which burns by the chemical reactions of its constituent ingredients, nitrocellulose is an inherently unstable compound that burns by decomposing rapidly, forming hot gases. In contrast to black powder, it produces almost all gas upon combustion, earning itself the appellation smokeless powder. Also unlike black powder, nitrocellulose burns progressively, generating more gas pressure as combustion proceeds. This results in higher muzzle velocities (for the projectile) and less strain exerted on the firearm.

Nitrocellulose is manufactured by nitrating cellulose fibres such as cotton or wood pulp with nitric and sulfuric acids. Early manufacturing techniques often failed to remove all traces of residual acids from the nitrocellulose, which then tended to undergo an unpredictable spontaneous decomposition resulting in explosion. In the 1880s European chemists began adding special stabilizers to neutralize the residual acids and other decomposition agents in nitrocellulose. The resulting stable and reliable product, known as smokeless powder, was widely adopted in all types of guns in the following decades and supplanted black powder as the propellant charge in artillery and small arms ammunition. (Black powder is still used to ignite the main [smokeless] propellant charge in large-bore artillery pieces, however.)

Nitrocellulose propellants produce much less smoke and flash than black powder and deliver much more mechanical work per unit of weight. The other advantages of smokeless powder are its improved stability in storage, its reduced erosive effects on gun bores, and the improved control obtainable over its rate of burning.

Most forms of gunpowder produced today are either single-base (i.e., consisting of nitrocellulose alone) or double-base (consisting of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin). Both types are prepared by plasticizing nitrocellulose with suitable solvents, rolling it into thin sheets, and cutting the sheets into small squares called granules or grains, which are then dried. Control of the burning rate is achieved by varying the composition, size, and geometric shape of the propellant grains and sometimes by surface treatment or coating of the grains. Generally, the goal is to produce a propellant that is slowly converted to gas in the initial stages of burning and more rapidly converted as burning progresses.

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Gunpowder | Facts, History, & Definition

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Gunpowder, any of several low-explosive mixtures used as propelling charges in guns and as blasting agents. The first such explosive was black powder-a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal-which is thought to have originated in China, where it was being used in fireworks by the 10th century.

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https://www.mountelizabeth.com.sg/health-plus/article/indian-spices-good-health

https://www.quora.com/Why-are-spices-and-herbs-important-in-Indian-cookery

https://www.quora.com/What-is-special-about-Indian-spices

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Source: Shutterstock

Did you know that Indian spices have anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties, and are often high in antioxidants?

In celebration of Deepavali, we dive into the properties of common Indian spices that form the base of popular Indian cuisine, and consider their potential health benefits.

It's good to note, though, that some of these benefits draw references from the olden Ayurveda times, and scientific research done on herbs and spices is still limited.

Cardamom

Ground cardamom is often used to give tea, curries and rice a flavour boost. A small amount is often used, as too much of it will overpower milder flavours in the dish.

Antioxidant and cancer fighting properties

This flavourful spice is packed with health benefits and has been used in traditional medicine for centuries. Some evidence shows that this herb has antioxidant properties and has the ability to produce compounds that may help fight cancer cells.

Anti-inflammatory effects

The antioxidants that are found abundantly in cardamom protect cells from damage and stop inflammation from occurring.

Treats bad breath and prevents cavities

Cardamom has long been used to freshen breath and improve oral health. This is related to its ability to fight common mouth bacteria.

It is used in karanji (a small pastry pocket stuffed with poppy seeds, grated coconut, sugar, nuts and cardamom) and mithai (an assortment of Indian sweets).

Cinnamon

The oily component of this aromatic spice is very high in cinnamaldehyde, a compound scientists believe is responsible for most of cinnamon's powerful effects on health and metabolism.

Helps to reduce cholesterol levels

A study comparing 26 spices placed cinnamon at the top for its high amount of antioxidants, surpassing garlic and oregano. Its anti-inflammatory properties may prevent the formation of free radicals that damage your cells and nervous system, and also help to reduce cholesterol levels.

High in antioxidants

Cinnamon contains high levels of antioxidants, such as polyphenols that can protect the body from oxidative damage caused by free radicals. These antioxidants have potent anti-inflammatory properties, which may help your body fight infections and repair tissue damage.

Helps to reduce risk of heart disease

Cinnamon has been shown to reduce levels of total cholesterol, bad cholesterol (LDL) and triglycerides, while maintaining levels of good cholesterol (HDL). The special compounds in cinnamon may help reduce the risk of heart disease.

It is often used in keema (an Indian spiced lamb), chicken dhansak (an Indian curry) and namkeens (Indian savoury snacks).

Coriander

The plant's seeds and leaves are often featured in Indian cooking as both spice and garnish, and is a key element in garam masala (a blend of ground spices).

Anti-microbial and anti-fungal properties

This superfood claims to have anti-microbial and anti-fungal properties, and is known to help lower blood pressure, blood sugar levels and cholesterol levels.

Helps lower blood sugar

Coriander seeds, extract, and oils may all help lower blood sugar levels by increasing insulin release from the beta cells of the pancreas. People with low blood sugar or those taking diabetes medication should use it with caution.

You are likely to taste coriander in aloo tikki (the Indian version of croquette or hash brown) or samosa (a fried or baked triangular puff filled with potatoes, onions, peas or lentils).

Cumin

Cumin has long been used in traditional medicine and is a rich source of iron.

Aids in digestion and reduce food-borne infections

It is rich in antioxidants, and has been shown to exhibit anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory properties. Some studies have demonstrated that cumin can also aid in digestion and help in reducing food-borne infections. Some research also suggests that cumin powder, when added to a low-calorie diet, can help with weight loss.

Helps manage blood sugar levels

Cumin might lower blood sugar levels in some people with diabetes. However, other human studies have shown mixed results and therefore more research is necessary to confirm the benefits of cumin seeds for those with diabetes.

It is used in a popular Indian snack called murukku (deep fried coils of rice flour and spices). This snack should be enjoyed in moderation, though, as it is high in fat and may lead to weight gain.

Ginger

Research shows that ginger contains hundreds of compounds and metabolites, some of which may contribute to health and healing.

Reduces nausea and inflammation

It has long been associated with reducing nausea, pain and inflammation, and is known to enhance digestion of food.

Reduces nausea and inflammation

Ginger has long been associated with reducing nausea, pain and inflammation. It is especially effective when it comes to pregnancy-related nausea such as morning sickness. Additionally, it has also been found to be equally effective as drugs against menstrual pain. Much of ginger's beneficial properties are attributed to gingerol, which has powerful anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects.

Helps with osteoarthritis

People who used ginger to treat their osteoarthritis saw significant reductions in pain and stiffness, especially in osteoarthritis of the knee. Some people, however, may not enjoy the taste of ginger and may experience stomach upset.

Lower blood sugars and improve heart health

Recent studies have found that ginger may have anti-diabetic properties. A study found that ginger dramatically improved HbA1c levels as well as other biochemical markers that are indicative of risk factors of heart disease. However, more studies maybe needed in humans to validate this claim.

Ginger is an essential ingredient in Indian cuisine, and can be found in dishes like chickpea stew, aloo gobi (a dish of potatoes and cauliflower), matar paneer (cheese and peas in tomato sauce), dal makhani (lentils cooked with butter) and more.

Turmeric

This bright yellow spice gives many Indian dishes their characteristic colour. Turmeric, a relative of the ginger root, is known for its anti-inflammatory properties, and for being a flavour and colour additive in curries.

Medicinal properties that may prevent heart attacks

It has been used in India for thousands of years as a spice and medicinal herb. Research has shown that it contains compounds with medicinal properties, the most important of which is curcumin, the main active ingredient in turmeric. Preliminary studies found that curcuminoids from turmeric may reduce the number of heart attacks patients have after bypass surgery.

Boosts brain function

Curcumin in turmeric has beneficial effect on levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF), which has been associated to delay or even reverse many brain diseases and age-related decreases in brain function.

Shows benefits against depression

A small study has shown that curcumin can help with patients suffering from depression. This could also be linked to its effects in boosting BDNF levels, which is implicated in depression. There is also some evidence that curcumin can boost brain neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine.

Turmeric is also used as a dietary supplement to treat inflammatory arthritis, as well as stomach, skin, liver and gall bladder problems.

Remember: While there are health benefits in the spices added to popular Indian cuisine, these foods, especially festive snacks, may also be high in sugar or fat content. So, be mindful and always consume everything in moderation!

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Source: Shutterstock Did you know that Indian spices have anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties, and are often high in antioxidants? In celebration of Deepavali, we dive into the properties of common Indian spices that form the base of popular Indian cuisine, and consider their potential health benefits.

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Odele, LiveScience-Gunpowder (April 6, 2008)

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Odele, LiveScience-Gunpowder (April 6, 2008)

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The quest for immortality ironically led to gunpowder’s invention.

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https://www.oneworldayurveda.com/facts-about-ayurveda/#:~:text=Ayurveda%20advocates%20that%20living%20in,on%20preventive%20and%20curative%20aspects.

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https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/156488

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/chopsticks
Last Updated: Apr 15, 2023

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https://www.peets.com/blogs/peets/a-history-of-tea#:~:text=LEGENDS%20FROM%20CHINA%20AND%20INDIA,tree%20drifted%20into%20his%20pot.

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Tea's origin story is infused with a blend of myth and fact and colored by ancient concepts of spirituality and philosophy. Here's our rundown of the history of tea:

LEGENDS FROM CHINA AND INDIA

According to Chinese legend, the history of tea began in 2737 B.C.E. when the Emperor Shen Nong, a skilled ruler and scientist, accidentally discovered tea. While boiling water in the garden, a leaf from an overhanging wild tea tree drifted into his pot. The Emperor enjoyed drinking the infused water so much that he was compelled to research the plant further. Legend has it that the Emperor discovered tea's medicinal properties during his research.

Indian history of tea attributes its discovery to Prince Bodhi-Dharma, an Indian saint who founded the Zen school of Buddhism. In the year 520, he left India to preach Buddhism in China. To prove some Zen principles, he vowed to meditate for nine years without sleep. It is said that towards the end of his meditation, he fell asleep. Upon awaking, he was so distraught that he cut off his eyelids, and threw them to the ground. Legend has it that a tea plant sprung up on the spot to sanctify his sacrifice.

POPULARIZATION IN THE FAR EAST

Whatever the legend, tracing tea's original roots proves difficult. It is probable that the tea plant originated in regions around southwest China, Tibet, and Northern India. Chinese traders may have traveled throughout these regions often and encountered people chewing tea leaves for medicinal purposes.

It was not until the Tang dynasty (618-907), often referred to as the classic age of tea, did consumption become widespread. A government-imposed tea tax further evidences the beverage's growing popularity, and it was at this time that tea was recognized as China's national drink.

During the Tang dynasty, a Buddhist monk, Lu Yu (733-804) composed the Ch'a Ching or Classic of Tea treatise. He described types of tea, its uses, as well as the preparation and benefits of drinking it. More importantly, he imbued the writings with a spiritual aesthetic that reflected Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucian religious thoughts of the time. These teachings were centered around a traditional tea ceremony, which served as a metaphor for expressing the harmony and simplicity that not only ordered, but also streamed throughout the entire universe.

The centuries that followed became known as the romantic age of tea. Led by the Sung dynasty (960-1280 AD.), poetry and artistic references to tea abounded. During this period, Chinese culture significantly influenced and impacted art, politics, and religion in the Far East.

Kwangtung province, China, 1867

TEA ENTERS JAPAN

Japan's history of tea begins around the early 9th century, a Japanese Buddhist monk, Saichō, is credited with introducing tea to the country. While studying in China, Saichō discovered tea and brought back seeds to grow at his monastery. Over time, other monks followed suit, and soon small tea plantations sprouted up at secluded monasteries. However, due to the isolation of these plantations, tea's popularity in Japan did not blossom until the thirteenth century.

The most popular method of preparing tea involved grinding the delicate green tea leaves into a fine powder using a stone mill. This powder, called Matcha in Japan, was a precursor to the traditional Japanese tea ceremony ("Chanoyu"), and it was popularized by the Zen monk Eisai. Matcha is prepared with bamboo whisks ("chasen") and served in hand-crafted bowls ("chawan").

A MODERN TEA CUSTOM EMERGES

It was not until the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) that tea was prepared by steeping the whole leaves in water, like it is today. Instead of compressing tea leaves into bricks, or grinding them in a stone mill, the tea leaves were dried, rolled, and then heated in iron woks to stop the oxidation process. The brewing process simply involved steeping the tea leaves in hot water, without the need for a whisk.

A Chinese monk brought this new rolled tea with him during his travels to Japan in the 17th century. Shortly thereafter, a tea merchant in Kyoto by the name of Soen Nagatani invented a new Japanese method of steaming, drying, and rolling green tea during the 18th century. This process, and type of tea became known as Sencha, and is now a mainstay in Japanese tea culture.

DISCOVERY OF TEA IN THE WEST

Traders, missionaries, and explorers traveling back and forth between Europe and the Orient became exposed to the budding tea traditions in China and Japan. Around the 9th century, references in Arab trade documents refer to the process of boiling bitter tea leaves. Later, Marco Polo (1254-1324) alludes to his discovery of tea in his travel writings about the East.

An English Family at Tea, Joseph van Aken, 1720

However, tea didn't make a lasting appearance in the West until the 17th century. A Portuguese missionary is attributed with bringing tea to Europe while caravanning back and forth between Portugal and China, but it was not seriously traded until Dutch merchants entered the picture in 1610. That year, the first shipments of Japanese and Chinese tea arrived in Europe via ships charted by the Dutch East India Company. Tea also flowed into Russia early on via camel trains that came from China on part of the famous Silk Road. The popularity of tea rapidly spread to cities including Amsterdam, Paris, and London, although its high price limited consumption to royal and aristocratic classes. Tea drinking, a novelty at the time, allowed the wealthy to partake in a bit of Eastern adventure during the age of exploration and discovery.

THE BIRTH OF AN ENGLISH LOVE AFFAIR

The English did not gravitate towards tea immediately. Coffee remained the preferred drink in coffee houses frequented mainly by men. The tea fad caught on slowly with women who perceived it as a genteel drink. In 1657, the first shop to sell tea in England opened, run by Thomas Garraway. The shop sold tea imported by the Dutch and contributed to the rise in its popularity in London's cafes and coffee houses.

The drink gained further legitimacy when Charles II married Catherine of Braganza, a Portuguese royal, who adored tea and introduced the concept of tea time to the court. Soon thereafter, a key competitor to the Dutch, the British East India Trade Company, established their first foothold in the East by securing a tea factory in Macao.

THE HISTORY OF TEA MONOPOLY - THE BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY

By the early 1700s, the British East India Company ("The Company") established itself as the dominant trading power and would go on to monopolize the tea trade with China. Trading stations sprung up in India, including hubs in Bombay, Bengal, and Madras. The Company, acting as an imperial arm of England, would exercise significant political power in helping to create a wealthy and powerful British Empire. This included not only trading tea, but also the right to annex land, direct troops, and dictate British laws.

The British would exploit the tea trade for profit and political power over the next century. However, geo-political change involving new American colonies abroad and the French and Indian Wars in 1763 began to threaten The Company's privileged position. In addition, the Company would struggle due to financial mismanagement, corruption, and growing tea smuggling operations.

TEA SPREADS TO INDIA: INTRODUCING DARJEELING AND ASSAM TEA

Despite the Company's dominance, China remained the primary source of tea for Western demand up until the mid-1800s. Looking to discover tea growing secrets and to end their reliance on Chinese tea, the British Tea Committee sent Robert Fortune, an English botanist, on an undercover mission to China. Disguised as a Chinese merchant he traveled around the country learning about farming and processing techniques. Most importantly, he sent back tea samples and brought back Chinese tea experts who played an important role in enabling British tea planting and experimentation in India.

Around 1823, a British Army Major Robert Bruce stumbled upon indigenous tea bushes growing in the Northeast region of Assam, India. With this discovery of tea, the British East India Company seized the opportunity to experiment with growing tea in not only Assam but also in Darjeeling, a region in Northeastern India at the foot of the Himalayas. A Company employee, Dr. Campbell, first planted Darjeeling tea seeds in his garden at Beechwood, Darjeeling. The planting proved so successful that in 1847 the British government began developing a large number of tea estates in the area. This marked the beginning of a new, flourishing tea industry in India and an end to reliance on Chinese grown tea.

THE BOSTON TEA PARTY & THE DEMISE OF THE BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY

Like Europe, tea initially came to America in the mid-1600s by way of the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam. The colony was captured by England in 1664 and renamed New York, where the tea trade flourished amongst colonial women and wealthy colonists.

At the same time, the British East India Company had persuaded the English Parliament to implement heavy taxes on tea by way of the Tea Act, to bolster up their failing financial position. This allowed them to ship tea duty-free directly to the colonists and profit by excluding the colonial merchants.

This created a tense political environment in America, resulting in dissent and the popularization of the notion of "no taxation without representation" amongst the colonies. Political tensions came to a climax with the Boston Tea Party, as colonists protested England's high taxes by dressing as Native Americans and dumping tea into the water off The Company's trading ships.

The American Revolution that followed in 1776 may have set The Company back, but it still managed to survive due to its immense size. However, Richard Twining and thousands of independent tea merchants organized a campaign to reveal the Company's corrupt practices and pressured the English government to end their monopoly. This caused The Company to eventually crumble in 1874.

CLIPPER SHIPS AND THE HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN TEA TRADE

American clipper ships began importing tea directly from China in the 1850s in the wake of The Company's downfall. After the repeal of the Navigation Acts, which dictated that all tea must be shipped directly from England, clipper ships quickly became the preferred method for transporting tea. These graceful and sleek vessels with three masts easily outdated trading ships. Built for speed, the British and Americans raced clippers back and forth between China and England bringing the best teas for auction.

THE HISTORY OF TEA INNOVATIONS IN AMERICA: ICED TEA & COMMERCIAL TEA BAGS

During the 19th century, tea drinking played an important role in social life, and new tea traditions began to develop in America as the beverage's popularity grew.

Iced tea originated at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, Missouri. A tea merchant from abroad had intended to provide visitors with free hot tea samples. However, due to the unusually hot weather, it was not a big hit. To promote sales, he asked a nearby ice cream vendor for some ice, which he dumped into the brewed tea. Thus, the American iced tea tradition was born. Today, iced tea makes up around 80% of the entire U.S. tea market sales.

The original tea bags were handmade, hand stitched muslin or silk bags, much like Mighty Leaf's handcrafted, artisan tea pouches. Patents for tea bags existed as early as 1903. However, Thomas Sullivan, a tea merchant from New York, is often credited with creating the first commercial tea bag concept.

TEA TODAY

Today, tea is the world's most popular beverage after water. At Mighty Leaf Tea, we proudly carry on centuries-old tea traditions by packing our artisan, hand-crafted tea bags with unique, one-of-a-kind whole leaf tea blends, herbs, and spices from around the world.

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A HISTORY OF TEA - FROM MYTH TO MODERN DAY

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Tea's origin story is infused with a blend of myth and fact and colored by ancient concepts of spirituality and philosophy. Here's our rundown of the history of tea: LEGENDS FROM CHINA AND INDIA According to Chinese legend, the history of tea began in 2737 B.C.E.

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https://www.ayurcentre.sg/ayurveda-wellness/10-reasons-ayurveda-best-medical-system-overall-health

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella#History:~:text=The%20earliest%20known,carried%20in%20procession

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An umbrella or parasol is a folding canopy supported by wooden or metal ribs that is usually mounted on a wooden, metal, or plastic pole. It is designed to protect a person against rain or sunlight. The term umbrella is traditionally used when protecting oneself from rain, with parasol used when protecting oneself from sunlight, though the terms continue to be used interchangeably. Often the difference is the material used for the canopy; some parasols are not waterproof, and some umbrellas are transparent. Umbrella canopies may be made of fabric or flexible plastic. There are also combinations of parasol and umbrella that are called en-tout-cas (French for "in any case").

Umbrellas and parasols are primarily hand-held portable devices sized for personal use. The largest hand-portable umbrellas are golf umbrellas. Umbrellas can be divided into two categories: fully collapsible umbrellas, in which the metal pole supporting the canopy retracts, making the umbrella small enough to fit in a handbag, and non-collapsible umbrellas, in which the support pole cannot retract and only the canopy can be collapsed. Another distinction can be made between manually operated umbrellas and spring-loaded automatic umbrellas, which spring open at the press of a button.

Hand-held umbrellas have a type of handle which can be made from wood, a plastic cylinder or a bent "crook" handle (like the handle of a cane). Umbrellas are available in a range of price and quality points, ranging from inexpensive, modest quality models sold at discount stores to expensive, finely made, designer-labeled models. Larger parasols capable of blocking the sun for several people are often used as fixed or semi-fixed devices, used with patio tables or other outdoor furniture, or as points of shade on a sunny beach.

Parasol may also be called sunshade, or beach umbrella ( US English). An umbrella may also be called a brolly ( UK slang), parapluie ( nineteenth century, French origin), rainshade, gamp ( British, informal, dated), or bumbershoot ( rare, facetious American slang). When used for snow, it is called a paraneige.

The word parasol (originally from French) is a combination of para, meaning 'to shield from' derived from the Latin parare, and sol, meaning 'sun'. Parapluie (French) similarly consists of para combined with pluie, which means 'rain' (which in turn derives from pluvia, the Latin word for rain). Hence, a parasol shields from sunlight while a parapluie shields from rain.

The word umbrella evolved from the Latin umbra, meaning 'shaded' or 'shadow'. The Oxford English Dictionary records this as happening in the 17th century, with the first recorded usage in 1610.

In Britain, umbrellas were sometimes referred to as "gamps" after the character Mrs. Gamp in the Charles Dickens novel Martin Chuzzlewit as the character was well known for carrying an umbrella, although this usage is now dated or obsolete.

Brolly is a slang word for umbrella, used often in Australia, Ireland, Kenya, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.

Bumbershoot is a rare and fanciful Americanism from the late 19th century.

The earliest known parasols in Ancient Egyptian art date back to the Fifth Dynasty, around 2450 BC. The parasol is found in various shapes. Typically it is depicted as a flabellum, a fan of palm-leaves or coloured feathers fixed on a long handle, resembling those now carried behind the Pope in processions. Gardiner Wilkinson, in his work on Egypt, has an engraving of an Ethiopian princess travelling through Upper Egypt in a chariot; a kind of umbrella fastened to a stout pole rises in the centre, bearing a close affinity to what are now termed chaise umbrellas. According to Wilkinson's account, the umbrella was generally used throughout Egypt, partly as a mark of distinction, but more on account of its useful than its ornamental qualities. In some paintings on a temple wall, a parasol is held over the figure of a god carried in procession.

The exact date when the Ashanti began using umbrellas is uncertain. However, in the 1800s, the Amanhene (senior chiefs) were using large multicolored umbrellas. Umbrellas were used during festivals as streets of Kumasi were paraded with them. Like the Asantehene's umbrella bearer, the others also spin their umbrellas in tune with the music produced by drummers while accompanying their "Ohene". Umbrellas were also used to provide coolness as well as highlight the importance of the various leaders.

The At district of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan was reported to have used an umbrella made from feathers and gold as its pantli, an identifying marker that is the equivalent of a modern flag. The pantli was carried by the army general.

The oldest extant example of-apparent collapsible- parasols appears in the archaeological record around 2310 BC, showing Sargon of Akkad. In the sculptures at Nineveh, the parasol appears frequently. Austen Henry Layard gives a picture of a bas-relief representing a king in his chariot, with an attendant holding a parasol over his head. It has a curtain hanging down behind, but is otherwise exactly like those in use today. It is reserved exclusively for the monarch (who was bald), and is never carried over any other person.

In Persia, the parasol is repeatedly found in the carved work of Persepolis, and Sir John Malcolm has an article on the subject in his 1815 "History of Persia." In some sculptures, the figure of a king appears attended by a servant, who carries over his head an umbrella, complete with stretchers and runner. In other sculptures on the rock at Taghe-Bostan, supposed to be not less than twelve centuries old, a deer-hunt is represented, at which a king looks on, seated on a horse, and having an umbrella borne over his head by an attendant.

In China, the umbrella is referred as san ( Chinese: 傘; pinyin: , a pictograph resembling the modern umbrella in design). The umbrella in China has about 4000 years of history since the emergence of its prototype with a Chinese umbrella design being relatively complete about 2000 years ago.

The creation of the umbrella is attributed to the wife of Lu Ban, who invented it during the Warring State Period. Some investigators have supposed that its invention was first created by tying large leaves to bough-like ribs (the branching out parts of an umbrella). Others assert that the idea was probably derived from the tent, which remains in an unaltered form to the present day. However, the tradition existing in China is that it originated in standards and banners waving in the air, hence the use of the umbrella was often linked to high-ranking (though not necessarily royalty) in China. The use of umbrella as a social marker indicating and classifying the identities and social class of its users started by the post- Wei period and continued up to the Ming dynasty. On at least one occasion, twenty-four umbrellas were carried before the Emperor when he went out hunting. The umbrella served in this case as a defence against rain rather than sun. The Chinese and Japanese traditional parasol, often used near temples, remains similar to the original ancient Chinese design.

The ancient book of Chinese ceremonies, called Zhou Li ( The Rites of Zhou), dating some 2,400 years ago, directs that a dais should be placed upon the imperial cars. The figure of this dais contained in Zhou Li, and the description of it given in the explanatory commentary of Lin-hi-ye, both identify it with an umbrella. The latter describes the dais to be composed of 28 arcs, which are equivalent to the ribs of the modern instrument, and the staff supporting the covering to consist of two parts, the upper being a rod 3/18 of a Chinese foot in circumference, and the lower a tube 6/10 in circumference, into which the upper half is capable of sliding and closing.

The contains a reference to a collapsible umbrella, mentioning its usage in the year 21 AD when Wang Mang (r. 9-23) had one designed for a ceremonial four-wheeled carriage. The 2nd-century commentator Fu Qian added that this collapsible umbrella of Wang Mang's carriage had bendable joints which enabled them to be extended or retracted. A 1st century collapsible umbrella has since been recovered from the tomb of Wang Guang at Lelang Commandery in the Korean Peninsula. The Chinese collapsible umbrella may predate Wang's tomb, however. Zhou dynasty bronze castings of complex bronze socketed hinges with locking slides and bolts-which could have been used for parasols and umbrellas-were found in an archeological site of Luoyang, dated to the 6th century BC.

A late Song dynasty Chinese divination book, Book of Physiognomical, Astrological and Ornithomantic Divination according to the Three Schools (演禽斗數三世相書) by Yuan Tianwang (袁天網), that was printed in about 1270 AD features a picture of a collapsible umbrella that is exactly like the modern umbrella of today's China.

The oil-paper umbrella also originated in China and was spread among the common people after the Eastern Han dynasty. It started to be introduced in other countries in the Tang dynasty and eventually spread across several East, South and Southeast Asian countries such as Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Laos, where it has been further developed with different characteristics. ys

The Sanskrit epic Mahabharata relates the following legend: Jamadagni was a skilled bow shooter, and his devoted wife Renuka would always recover each of his arrows immediately. One time however, it took her a whole day to fetch the arrow, and she later blamed the heat of the sun for the delay. The angry Jamadagni shot an arrow at the sun. The sun begged for mercy and offered Renuka an umbrella.

Jean Baptiste Tavernier, in his 17th century book "Voyage to the East", says that on each side of the Mogul's throne were two umbrellas, and also describes the hall of the King of Ava was decorated with an umbrella. The chháta of the Indian and Burmese princes is large and heavy, and requires a special attendant, who has a regular position in the royal household. In Ava it seems to have been part of the king's title, that he was "King of the white elephant, and Lord of the twenty-four umbrellas."

Simon de la Loubère, who was Envoy Extraordinary from the French King to the King of Siam in 1687 and 1688, wrote an account entitled a "New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam", which was translated in 1693 into English. According to his account, the use of the umbrella was granted to only some of the subjects by the king. An umbrella with several circles, as if two or three umbrellas were fastened on the same stick, was permitted to the king alone; the nobles carried a single umbrella with painted cloths hanging from it. The Talapoins (who seem to have been a sort of Siamese monks) had umbrellas made of a palm-leaf cut and folded, so that the stem formed a handle.

In 1855 the King of Burma directed a letter to the Marquis of Dalhousie in which he styles himself "His great, glorious, and most excellent Majesty, who reigns over the kingdoms of Thunaparanta, Tampadipa, and all the great umbrella-wearing chiefs of the Eastern countries".

The Royal Nine-Tiered Umbrella is one of the royal regalia of Thailand.

Parasols are first attested on pottery shards from the late Mycenaean period ( c. 1320-1190 BC). Ancient umbrellas could be opened and shut, but rigid examples may have also existed. The earliest archaeological evidence for a collapsible umbrella was unearthed in Samos in a context from about 700 BC and follows closely the shape of a slightly older Phrygian specimen excavated at Gordion. The sliding mechanism of the two pieces is remarkably similar to those in use today.

In Classical Greece, the parasol ( skiadeion, σκιάδειον), was an indispensable adjunct to a lady of fashion in the late 5th century BC. Aristophanes mentions it among the common articles of female use; they could apparently open and close. Pausanias describes a tomb near Triteia in Achaia decorated with a 4th-century BC painting ascribed to Nikias; it depicted the figure of a woman, "and by her stood a female slave, bearing a parasol". For a man to carry one was considered a mark of effeminacy. In Aristophanes' Birds, Prometheus uses one as a comical disguise.

Cultural changes among the Aristoi of Greece eventually led to a brief period - between 505 and 470BC - where men used parasols. Vase iconography bears witness to a transition from men carrying swords, then spears, then staffs, then parasols, to eventually nothing. The parasol, at that time of its fashion, displayed the luxury of the user's lifestyle. During the period of their usage, Greek style was inspired by the Persian and Lydian nobility's way of dressing: loose robes, long decorated hair, gold, jewellery, and perfume.

It also had religious significance. In the Scirophoria, the feast of Athene Sciras, a white parasol was borne by the priestesses of the goddess from the Acropolis to the Phalerus. In the feasts of Dionysos, the umbrella was used, and in an old bas-relief, the same god is represented as descending ad inferos with a small umbrella in his hand. In the Panathenæa, the daughters of the Metics, or foreign residents, carried parasols over the heads of Athenian women as a mark of inferiority.

During the Panathenaea, daughters of Metics carried the parasols of the Athenian maidens and this service was called sciadephoria (σκιαδηφορία).

From Greece it is probable that the use of the parasol passed to Rome, where it seems to have been usually used by women, while it was the custom even for effeminate men to defend themselves from the heat by means of the Umbraculum, formed of skin or leather, and capable of being lowered at will. There are frequent references to the umbrella in the Roman Classics, and it appears that it was, not unlikely, a post of honour among maid-servants to bear it over their mistresses. Allusions to it are tolerably frequent in the poets. ( Ovid Fast. lib. ii., 1. 31 I.; Martial, lib. xi., ch. 73.; lib. xiv, ch. 28, 130; Ovid Ars. Am., ii., 209). From such mentions the umbrella seems to have been employed as a defence from sun, but references to its use as a protection against rain, while rare, also exist ( Juvenal, ix., 50.).

According to Gorius, the umbrella came to Rome from the Etruscans who came to Rome for protection, and certainly it appears not infrequently on Etruscan vases and pottery, as also on later gems and rubies. One gem, figured by Pacudius, shows an umbrella with a bent handle, sloping backwards. Strabo describes a sort of screen or umbrella worn by Spanish women, but this is not like a modern umbrella.

The lack of references to umbrellas in the Middle Ages suggests they were not in common use during the period.[citation needed ]

One of the earliest depictions is in a painting by Girolamo dai Libri from 1530 titled Madonna dell Ombrello (Madonna of the Umbrella) in which the Virgin Mary is sheltered by a cherub carrying a large, red umbrella.

Thomas Wright, in his Domestic Manners of the English, gives a drawing from the Harleian MS., No. 604, which represents an Anglo-Saxon gentleman walking out attended by his servant, the servant carrying an umbrella with a handle that slopes backwards, so as to bring the umbrella over the head of the person in front. It probably could not be closed, but otherwise it looks like an ordinary umbrella, and the ribs are represented distinctly.

The use of the parasol and umbrella in France and England was adopted, probably from China, about the middle of the seventeenth century. At that period, pictorial representations of it are frequently found, some of which exhibit the peculiar broad and deep canopy belonging to the large parasol of the Chinese Government officials, borne by native attendants.

John Evelyn, in his for 22 June 1664, mentions a collection of rarities shown to him by "Thompson", a Roman Catholic priest, sent by the Jesuits of Japan and China to France. Among the curiosities were "fans like those our ladies use, but much larger, and with long handles, strangely carved and filled with Chinese characters", which is evidently a description of the parasol.

In Thomas Coryat's , published in 1611, about a century and a half prior to the general introduction of the umbrella into England, is a reference to a custom of riders in Italy using umbrellas:

And many of them doe carry other fine things of a far greater price, that will cost at the least a duckat, which they commonly call in the Italian tongue umbrellas, that is, things which minister shadowve to them for shelter against the scorching heate of the sunne. These are made of leather, something answerable to the forme of a little cannopy, & hooped in the inside with divers little wooden hoopes that extend the umbrella in a pretty large compasse. They are used especially by horsemen, who carry them in their hands when they ride, fastening the end of the handle upon one of their thighs, and they impart so large a shadow unto them, that it keepeth the heate of the sunne from the upper parts of their bodies.

In John Florio's "A WORLD of Words" (1598), the Italian word Ombrella is translated

a fan, a canopie. also a testern or cloth of state for a prince. also a kind of round fan or shadowing that they vse to ride with in sommer in Italy, a little shade. Also a bonegrace for a woman. Also the husk or cod of any seede or corne. also a broad spreding bunch, as of fenell, nill, or elder bloomes.

In Randle Cotgrave's Dictionary of the French and English Tongues (1614), the French Ombrelle is translated

An umbrello; a (fashion of) round and broad fanne, wherewith the Indians (and from them our great ones) preserve themselves from the heat of a scorching sunne; and hence any little shadow, fanne, or thing, wherewith women hide their faces from the sunne.

In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary (1617) is a similar allusion to the habit of carrying umbrellas in hot countries "to auoide the beames of the Sunne". Their employment, says the author, is dangerous, "because they gather the heate into a pyramidall point, and thence cast it down perpendicularly upon the head, except they know how to carry them for auoyding that danger".

During Streynsham Master's 1676 visit to the East India Company's factory in Masulipatnam he noted that only the governor of the town and the next three officials in seniority were allowed to have "a roundell [i.e. umbrella] carried over them."

In France, the umbrella ( parapluie) began to appear in the 1660s, when the fabric of parasols carried for protection against the sun was coated with wax. The inventory of the French royal court in 1763 mentioned "eleven parasols of taffeta in different colours" as well as "three parasols of waxed toile, decorated around the edges with lace of gold and silver". They were rare, and the word parapluie ("against the rain") did not enter the dictionary of the Académie française until 1718.

Kersey's Dictionary (1708) describes an umbrella as a "screen commonly used by women to keep off rain".

The first lightweight folding umbrella in Europe was introduced in 1710 by a Paris merchant named Jean Marius, whose shop was located near the barrier of Saint-Honoré. It could be opened and closed in the same way as modern umbrellas, and weighed less than one kilogram. Marius received from the King the exclusive right to produce folding umbrellas for five years. A model was purchased by the Princess Palatine in 1712, and she enthused about it to her aristocratic friends, making it an essential fashion item for Parisiennes. In 1759, a French scientist named Navarre presented a new design to the French Academy of Sciences for an umbrella combined with a cane. Pressing a small button on the side of the cane opened the umbrella.

Their use became widespread in Paris. In 1768, a Paris magazine reported:

"The common usage for quite some time now is not to go out without an umbrella, and to have the inconvenience of carrying it under your arm for six months in order to use it perhaps six times. Those who do not want to be mistaken for vulgar people much prefer to take the risk of being soaked, rather than to be regarded as someone who goes on foot; an umbrella is a sure sign of someone who doesn't have his own carriage."

In 1769, the Maison Antoine, a store at the Magasin d'Italie on rue Saint-Denis, was the first to offer umbrellas for rent to those caught in downpours, and it became a common practice. The Lieutenant General of Police of Paris issued regulations for the rental umbrellas; they were made of oiled green silk, and carried a number so they could be found and reclaimed if someone walked off with one.

By 1808 there were seven shops making and selling umbrellas in Paris; one shop, Sagnier on rue des Vielles-Haudriettes, received the first patent given for an invention in France for a new model of umbrella. By 1813 there were 42 shops; by 1848 there were three hundred seventy-seven small shops making umbrellas in Paris, employing 1400 workers. One of the well-known makers was Boutique Bétaille, which was located at rue Royale 20 from 1880 to 1939. Another was Revel, based in Lyon. By the end of the century, however, cheaper manufacturers in the Auvergne replaced Paris as the centre of umbrella manufacturing, and the town of Aurillac became the umbrella capital of France. The town still produces about half the umbrellas made in France; the umbrella factories there employ about one hundred workers.

In Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, Crusoe constructs his own umbrella in imitation of those that he had seen used in Brazil. "I covered it with skins", he says, "the hair outwards, so that it cast off the rain like a pent-house, and kept off the sun so effectually, that I could walk out in the hottest of the weather with greater advantage than I could before in the coolest." From this description the original heavy umbrella came to be called "Robinson" which they retained for many years in England.

Captain James Cook, in one of his voyages in the late 18th century, reported seeing some of the natives of the South Pacific Islands with umbrellas made of palm leaves. In the highlands of Mindanao in the Philippines, the large fronds of Dipteris conjugata are used as an umbrella.

The use of the umbrella or parasol (though not unknown) was uncommon in England during the earlier half of the eighteenth century, as is evident from the comment made by General (then Lieut.-Colonel) James Wolfe, when writing from Paris in 1752; he speaks of the use of umbrellas for protection from the sun and rain, and wonders why a similar practice did not occur in England. About the same time, umbrellas came into general use as people found their value, and got over the shyness natural to its introduction. Jonas Hanway, the founder of the Magdalen Hospital, has the credit of being the first man who ventured to dare public reproach and ridicule by carrying one habitually in London. As he died in 1786, and he is said to have carried an umbrella for thirty years, the date of its first use by him may be set down at about 1750. John Macdonald relates that in 1770, he used to be addressed as, "Frenchman, Frenchman! why don't you call a coach?" whenever he went out with his umbrella. By 1788 however they seem to have been accepted: a London newspaper advertises the sale of "improved and pocket Umbrellas, on steel frames, with every other kind of common Umbrella."

Since then, the umbrella has come into general use, in consequence of numerous improvements. In China people learned how to waterproof their paper umbrellas with wax and lacquer. The transition to the present portable form is due, partly, to the substitution of silk and gingham for the heavy and troublesome oiled silk, which admitted of the ribs and frames being made much lighter, and also to many ingenious mechanical improvements in the framework. Victorian era umbrellas had frames of wood or baleen, but these devices were expensive and hard to fold when wet. Samuel Fox invented the steel-ribbed umbrella in 1852; however, the Encyclopédie Méthodique mentions metal ribs at the end of the eighteenth century, and they were also on sale in London during the 1780s. Modern designs usually employ a telescoping steel trunk; new materials such as cotton, plastic film and nylon often replace the original silk.

National Umbrella Day is held on 10 February each year around the world.

The pocket (foldable) umbrella was invented in Uraiújfalu ( Hungary) by the Balogh brothers, whose patent request was admitted in 1923 by the Royal Notary Public of Szombathely. Later on their patent was also approved in Austria, Germany, Belgium, France, Poland, Great Britain and the United States.

In 1928, Hans Haupt's pocket umbrellas appeared. In Vienna in 1928, Slawa Horowitz, a student studying sculpture at the Akademie der Bildenden Kunste Wien (Academy of Fine Arts), developed a prototype for an improved compact foldable umbrella for which she received a patent on 19 September 1929. The umbrella was called "Flirt" and manufactured by the Austrian company " Brüder Wüster" and their German associates " Kortenbach & Rauh". In Germany, the small foldable umbrellas were produced by the company "Knirps", which became a synonym in the German language for small foldable umbrellas in general. In 1969, Bradford E Phillips, the owner of Totes Incorporated of Loveland, Ohio, obtained a patent for his "working folding umbrella".

Umbrellas have also been fashioned into hats as early as 1880 and at least as recently as 1987.

Golf umbrellas, one of the largest sizes in common use, are typically around 62 inches (157 cm) across, but can range anywhere from 60 to 70 inches (150 to 180 cm).

Umbrellas are now a consumer product with a large global market. As of 2008, most umbrellas worldwide are made in China, mostly in the Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang provinces. The city of Shangyu alone had more than a thousand umbrella factories. In the US alone, about 33 million umbrellas, worth $348 million, are sold each year.

Umbrellas continue to be actively developed. In the US, so many umbrella-related patents are being filed that the U.S. Patent Office employs four full-time examiners to assess them. As of 2008, the office registered 3000 active patents on umbrella-related inventions. Nonetheless, Totes, the largest American umbrella producer, has stopped accepting unsolicited proposals. Its director of umbrella development was reported as saying that while umbrellas are so ordinary that everyone thinks about them, "it's difficult to come up with an umbrella idea that hasn't already been done."

While the predominant canopy shape of an umbrella is round, canopy shapes have been streamlined to improve aerodynamic response to wind. Examples include the stealth-shaped canopy of Rizotti (1996), scoop-shaped canopy of Lisciandro (2004), and teardrop-shaped canopies of Hollinger (2004).

In 2005 Gerwin Hoogendoorn, a Dutch industrial design student of the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands, invented an aerodynamically streamlined storm umbrella (with a similar shape as a stealth plane) which can withstand wind force 10 (winds of up to 100 km/h or 70 mp/h) and won't turn inside-out like a regular umbrella as well as being equipped with so-called 'eyesavers' which protect others from being accidentally wounded by the tips. Hoogendoorn's storm umbrella was nominated for and won several design awards and was featured on Good Morning America. The umbrella is sold in Europe as the Senz umbrella and is sold under license by Totes in the United States.

Alan Kaufman's "Nubrella" and Greg Brebner's "Blunt" are other contemporary designs.

The umbrella is used in weather forecasting as an icon for rain. Two variations, a plain umbrella (☂, U+2602) and an umbrella with raindrops overhead (☔, U+2614), are encoded in the Miscellaneous Symbols block of Unicode.

As a canopy of state, umbrellas were generally used in southern and eastern Europe, and then passed from the imperial court into church ceremony. They are found in the ceremonies of the Byzantine Rite, were borne over the Host in procession, and form part of the Pontifical regalia.

An umbrella, the ombrellino (Italian) or umbraculum (Latin) is an historic piece of the papal regalia. Although the popes no longer use it personally, it is displayed on the coat of arms of a sede vacante (the papal arms used between the death of a pope and the election of his successor). This umbraculum is normally made of alternating red and gold fabric, and is usually displayed in a partially unfolded manner. The popes have traditionally bestowed the use of the umbraculum as a mark of honor upon specific persons and places. The use of an umbraculum is one of the honorary symbols of a basilica and may be used in the basilica's coat of arms, and carried in processions by the basilica's canons.

A large umbrella is displayed in each of the Basilicas of Rome, and a cardinal bishop who receives his title from one of those churches has the privilege of having an umbrella carried over his head in solemn processions. It is possible that the galero (wide-brimmed cardinal's hat) may derive from this umbrella.[citation needed ] Beatiano, an Italian herald, says that "a vermilion umbrella in a field argent symbolises dominion".

Roman Catholic liturgy also uses an umbrella, known as the umbraculum or ombrellino. It is held over the Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist and its carrier by a server in short processions taking place indoors, or until the priest is met at the sanctuary entrance by the bearers of the processional canopy or baldacchino. It is regularly white or golden (the colours reserved for the Holy Sacrament) and made of silk.

In several Oriental Orthodox Churches, such as the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, umbrellas are used liturgically to show honor to a person (such as a bishop) or a holy object. In the ceremonies of Timkat (Epiphany), priests will carry a model of the Tablets of Stone, called a Tabot, on their heads in procession to a body of water, which will then be blessed. Brightly colored embroidered and fringed liturgical parasols are carried above the Tabota during this procession. Such processions also take place on other major feast days.

A decorated parasol is ushered over relics and statues of Buddha, scriptures of the Buddhist doctrine and Bhikkhus, as a sign of respect.

Umbrellas with a reflective inside are used by photographers as a diffusion device when employing artificial lighting, and as a glare shield and shade, most often in portrait situations. Some umbrellas are shoot-through umbrellas, meaning the light goes through the umbrella and is diffused, rather than reflecting off the inside of the umbrella.

In 1835, the Baron Charles Random de Berenger instructed readers of his book How to Protect Life and Property in several methods of using an umbrella as an improvised weapon against highwaymen.

In 1897, journalist J. F. Sullivan proposed the umbrella as a misunderstood weapon in a tongue-in-cheek article for the Ludgate Monthly.

Between 1899 and 1902, both umbrellas and walking sticks as self defence weapons were incorporated into the repertoire of Bartitsu.

In January 1902, an article in The Daily Mirror instructed women on how they could defend themselves from ruffians with an umbrella or parasol.[citation needed ]

During the 2014 Hong Kong protests, sometimes referred to as the "Umbrella Revolution", protesters used umbrellas as shields against the pepper spray and tear gas used by riot police.

In 1978, Bulgarian dissident writer Georgi Markov was killed in London by a dose of ricin injected via a modified umbrella. The KGB is widely believed to have developed a modified umbrella that could deliver a deadly pellet.

In 2005, in a well-known case in South Africa, Brian Hahn, associate professor of mathematics and applied mathematics at the University of Cape Town, was beaten to death with an umbrella by ex-doctoral student Maleafisha Steve Tladi.

In 2007, a 23-year-old woman in Rome was killed by another woman in the subway by stabbing through the eye using an umbrella.

In 2019, a priest in Berlin was killed by stabbing. An umbrella was rammed through his open mouth and the brain was pierced.

The magical nanny Mary Poppins arrives at the Banks home in Cherry Tree Lane, London with her open umbrella.

John Steed, in the 1960s television series The Avengers, used an umbrella which was part yardstick.

In the DC Comics, the Penguin, an enemy of Batman, sports umbrellas as weapons with machine guns, rocket launchers, flamethrowers, swords, switchblades, acid guns, ray guns, and gas guns.

A high-tech bullet-resistant umbrella is used extensively as a weapon in the film Kingsman: The Secret Service (2015), by characters Harry Hart (Colin Firth) and Eggsy Unwin (Taron Egerton).

In the video game series, one of Kirby's Copy Abilities, called Parasol, has Kirby using a parasol as a weapon. It is also used to slow Kirby's descent when in the air.

Players use victory reward umbrellas to glide into the battle arena in the video game Fortnite: Battle Royale.

In the 1950s Frei Otto transformed the universally used individual umbrella into an item of lightweight architecture. He developed a new umbrella form, based on the minimum surface principle. The tension loaded membrane of the funnel-shaped umbrella is now stretched under the compression-loaded bars. This construction type made it technically and structurally possible to build very large convertible umbrellas. The first umbrellas of this kind (Federal Garden Exhibition, Kassel, 1955) were fixed, Frei Otto constructed the first convertible large umbrellas for the Federal Garden Exhibition in Cologne 1971. In 1978 he built a group of ten convertible umbrellas for British rock group Pink Floyd's American tour. The great beauty of these lightweight structures inspired many subsequent projects built all over the world. The largest convertible umbrellas built until now were designed by Mahmoud Bodo Rasch and his team at SL-Rasch to provide shelter from sun and rain for the great mosques in Saudi Arabia.

Later works by the architect Le Corbusier such as Centre Le Corbusier and Villa Shodhan involve a parasol, which served as a roof structure and provided cover from the sun and wind.

1. (Subscription or . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. participating institution membership required.)

2. ^ "WorldWideWords - Origin of the word "Bumbershoot"". Worldwidewords.org. 13 October 2002. Archived from the original on 16 April 2018.

3. White Muscarella, Oscar (1999): "Parasols in the Ancient Near East", "Source: Notes in the History of Art", Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 1-7 (1)

4. ^ Sangster, William, 1808-1888. Umbrellas and Their History. London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin [1871]. Available online as Gutenberg etext 6674, retrieved March 2005.

5. Obeng, J.Pashington (1996). Asante Catholicism; Religious and Cultural Reproduction among the Akan of Ghana. Vol. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-10631-4.

6. Simpson, Elizabeth (2014): "A Parasol from Tumulus P at Gordion", in: Engin, Atilla; Helwing, Barbara; Uysal, Bora (eds.): "Armizzi. Engin Özgen'e Armağan / Studies in Honor of Engin Özgen", Ankara, pp. 237-246 (239), ^ ISBN 978-605-5487-59-1

7. ^ Advances in Ergonomics in Design : Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, July 24-28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA. Francisco Rebelo, Marcelo Marcio Soares. Cham. 2020. ISBN 978-3-030-20227-9. OCLC 1104083491.

8. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 70.

9. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 70-71.

10. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 71.

11. ^ Joost Crouwel: A Note on Two Mycenaean Parasol Kraters, The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 71 (1976), pp. 55-56

12. William Smith: ^ A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875: Umbraculum; Charles Victor Daremberg, Edmond Saglio: Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines: Umbella

13. Simpson, Elizabeth (2014): "A Parasol from Tumulus P at Gordion", in: Engin, Atilla; Helwing, Barbara; Uysal, Bora (eds.): "Armizzi. Engin Özgen'e Armağan / Studies in Honor of Engin Özgen", Ankara, pp. 237-246 (240), ^ ISBN 978-605-5487-59-1

14. M. C. Miller, "The Parasol: An Oriental Status-Symbol in Late Archaic and Classical Athens", ^ JHS 112 (1992), p. 91 [91-105].

15. Jon Ploug Jørgensen, ^ The taming of the aristoi - an ancient Greek civilizing process? History of the Human Sciences: July 2014 vol. 27 no. 3

16. ^ van Wees, H. (1998). "Greeks Bearing Arms: The State, the Leisure Class and the Display of Weapons in Archaic Greece". In Fisher, N.; van Wees, H. (eds.). Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence. London: Classical Press of Wales. pp. 361-62.

17. ^ Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Sciadephoria

18. ^ Sangster, William (2005) [Published in 1871]. Umbrellas and their history. Elibron Classics. pp. 35-37. ISBN 978-1-4021-6168-1.

19. ^ Bowrey, Thomas (1895). Temple, Richard Carnac (ed.). A Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of Bengal, 1669 to 1679. Printed for the Hakluyt Society. p. 86.

20. Fierro, Alfred, ^ Histoire et Dictionnaire de Paris, (1996), Robert Laffont, ISBN 2-221-07862-4

21. "The Times". 13 February 1788: 3.

22. ^ Tudta-e, hogy magyar találmány az összecsukható esernyő? (Did you know that the foldable pocket umbrella is a Hungarian invention?)

23. ^ "1987 U.S. Patent Patent number: 4760610, Patent by Bing T. Wu for Umbrella Hat".

24. ^ "What is a golf umbrella? Conjecture Corporation, 2013". Wisegeek.com. 2013. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013.

25. Orlean, Susan (11 February 2008). "Thinking in the Rain: An artist takes on the umbrella". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 29 April 2010.

26. ^ "United States Patent: 5642747 - Hand-held aerodynamic umbrella". Archived from the original on 30 April 2017.

27. ^ Dutch Designs at 100% Tokyo Design Expo on YouTube Archived 20 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Asia Brief, New Tang Dynasty Television, 5 November 2008 (featuring Gerwin Hoogendoorn)

28. ^ Dossier SENZ umbrella, Delft University of Technology (WebCite mirror)

29. Senz umbrella tested by the hosts of Good Morning America Archived 5 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 7 March 2007

30. An umbrella to defeat the wind, The Times;;, 5 March 2007

31. "nationalgeographic.com: Contemporary parasol designs". Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 29 July 2013.

32. (in Dutch) ^ Opnieuw designprijs voor Delftse stormparaplu Archived 26 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, NRC Handelsblad, 21 July 2008

33. ^ Senz development Archived 26 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Delft University of Technology, spring 2008 (WebCite mirror)

34. ^ "Omicidio in metro a Roma: Matei ottiene affidamento a servizi sociali". 28 January 2017.

35. ^ "Killer rammed umbrella into priest's mouth piercing brain in horrific attack". Daily Mirror. 12 April 2019.

36. Nerdinger, Winfried: ^ Frei Otto. Das Gesamtwerk: Leicht Bauen Natürlich Gestalten, 2005, ISBN 3-7643-7233-8

37. ^ "SL-RASCH - Special and Lightweight Structures". Institute for Scientific Architecture.

38. ^ Molloy, Jonathan (24 January 2013). "AD Classics: Centre Le Corbusier (Heidi Weber Museum) / Le Corbusier". archdaily.com. Archived from the original on 25 December 2015.

Fierro, Alfred (1996). Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris. Robert Laffont. ISBN 2-221--07862-4.

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An umbrella or parasol is a folding canopy supported by wooden or metal ribs that is usually mounted on a wooden, metal, or plastic pole. It is designed to protect a person against rain or sunlight. The term umbrella is traditionally used when protecting oneself from rain, with parasol used when protecting oneself from sunlight, though the terms continue to be used interchangeably.

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The compass is a magnetometer used for navigation and orientation that shows direction in regards to the geographic cardinal points. The structure of a compass consists of the compass rose, which displays the four main directions on it: East (E), South (S), West (W) and North (N). The angle increases in the clockwise position. North corresponds to 0°, so east is 90°, south is 180° and west is 270°.

The history of the compass started more than 2000 years ago during the Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD). The first compasses were made of lodestone, a naturally magnetized stone of iron, in Han dynasty China. It was called the "South Pointing Fish" and was used for land navigation by the mid-11th century during the Song dynasty (960-1279 AD). Shen Kuo provided the first explicit description of a magnetized needle in 1088 and Zhu Yu mentioned its use in maritime navigation in the text Pingzhou Table Talks, dated 1111-1117. Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone. Magnetized needles and compasses were first described in medieval Europe by the English theologian Alexander Neckam (1157-1217 AD). The first usage of a compass in Western Europe was recorded in around 1190 and in the Islamic world 1232. Dry compasses begin appearing around 1269 in Medieval Europe and 1300 in the Medieval Islamic world. This was replaced in the early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.

Before the introduction of the compass, geographical position and direction at sea were primarily determined by the sighting of landmarks, supplemented with the observation of the position of celestial bodies. Other techniques included sampling mud from the seafloor (China), analyzing the flight path of birds, and observing wind, sea debris, and sea state (Polynesia and elsewhere). Objects that have been understood as having been used for navigation by measuring the angles between celestial objects, were discovered in the Indus Valley site of Lothal. The Norse are believed to have used a type of sun compass to locate true north. On cloudy days, the Vikings may have used cordierite or some other birefringent crystal to determine the sun's direction and elevation from the polarization of daylight; their astronomical knowledge was sufficient to let them use this information to determine their proper heading. The invention of the compass made it possible to determine a heading when the sky was overcast or foggy, and when landmarks were not in sight. This enabled mariners to navigate safely far from land, increasing sea trade, and contributing to the Age of Discovery.

The compass was invented in China during the Han dynasty between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD where it was called the "south-governor"( sīnán ) or "South Pointing Fish" (). The magnetic compass was not, at first, used for navigation, but for geomancy and fortune-telling by the Chinese. The earliest Chinese magnetic compasses were possibly used to order and harmonize buildings by the geomantic principles of . These early compasses were made with lodestone, a form of the mineral magnetite that is a naturally occurring magnet and aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field. People in ancient China discovered that if a lodestone was suspended so it could turn freely, it would always point toward the magnetic poles. Early compasses were used to choose areas suitable for building houses, growing crops, and to search for rare gems. Compasses were later adapted for navigation during the Song dynasty in the 11th century.

Based on Krotser and Coe's discovery of an Olmec hematite artifact in Mesoamerica, radiocarbon dated to 1400-1000 BC, astronomer John Carlson has hypothesized that the Olmec might have used the geomagnetic lodestone earlier than 1000 BC for geomancy, a method of divination, which if proven true, predates the Chinese use of magnetism for feng shui by a millennium. Carlson speculates that the Olmecs used similar artifacts as a directional device for astronomical or geomantic purposes but does not suggest navigational usage. The artifact is part of a polished hematite bar with a groove at one end, possibly used for sighting. Carlson's claims have been disputed by other scientific researchers, who have suggested that the artifact is actually a constituent piece of a decorative ornament and not a purposely built compass. Several other hematite or magnetite artifacts have been found at pre-Columbian archaeological sites in Mexico and Guatemala.

A number of early cultures used lodestone so they could turn, as magnetic compasses for navigation. Early mechanical compasses are referenced in written records of the Chinese, who began using it for navigation sometime between the 9th and 11th century, "some time before 1050, possibly as early as 850." At present, according to Kreutz, scholarly consensus is that the Chinese invention used in navigation pre-dates the first European mention of a compass by 150 years. The first recorded appearance of the use of the compass in Europe (1190) is earlier than in the Muslim world (1232), as a description of a magnetized needle and its use among sailors occurs in Alexander Neckam's De naturis rerum (On the Natures of Things), written in 1190.

However, there are questions over diffusion. Some historians suggest that the Arabs introduced the compass from China to Europe. Some suggested the compass was transmitted from China to Europe and the Islamic world via the Indian Ocean, or was brought by the crusaders to Europe from China. However, some scholars proposed an independent European invention of the compass.

These are noteworthy Chinese literary references in evidence for its antiquity:

The magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han dynasty and Tang dynasty (since about 206 BC). The compass was used in Song dynasty China by the military for navigational orienteering by 1040-44, and was used for maritime navigation by 1111 to 1117.

The earliest Chinese literature reference to magnetism lies in the 4th century BC writings of Wang Xu (鬼谷子): "The lodestone attracts iron." The book also notes that the people of the state of Zheng always knew their position using a "south-pointer"; some authors suggest that this refers to early use of the compass.

The first mention of a spoon, speculated to be a lodestone, observed "pointing in a cardinal direction" is a Chinese work composed between 70 and 80 AD (), which records that "But when the south-pointing spoon is thrown upon the ground, it comes to rest pointing at the south." Within the text, the author Wang Chong describes the spoon as a phenomenon that he has personally observed. Although the passage does not explicitly mention magnetism, according to Chen-Cheng Yih, the "device described by Wang Chong has been widely considered to be the earliest form of the magnetic compass."

The first clear account of magnetic declination occurs in the Kuan Shih Ti Li Chih Meng ("Mr. Kuan's Geomantic Instructor"), dating to 880. Another text, the Chiu Thien Hsuan Nu Chhing Nang Hai Chio Ching ("Blue Bag Sea Angle Manual") from around the same period, also has an implicit description of magnetic declination. It has been argued that this knowledge of declination requires the use of the compass.

A reference to a magnetized needle as a "mysterious needle" appears in 923-926 in the Chung Hua Ku Chin Chu text written by Ma Kao. The same passage is also attributed to the 4th-century AD writer Tshui Pao, although it is postulated that the former text is more authentic. The shape of the needle is compared to that of a tadpole, and may indicate the transition between "lodestone spoons" and "iron needles."

The earliest reference to a specific magnetic "direction finder" device for land navigation is recorded in a Song dynasty book dated to 1040-44. There is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night." The Wujing Zongyao (武經總要, "Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques") stated: "When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights, and the directions of space could not be distinguished...they made use of the [mechanical] south-pointing carriage, or the south-pointing fish." This was achieved by heating of metal (especially if steel), known today as thermoremanence, and would have been capable of producing a weak state of magnetization. While the Chinese achieved magnetic remanence and induction by this time, in both Europe and Asia the phenomenon was attributed to the supernatural and occult, until about 1600 when William Gilbert published his .

The first incontestable reference to a "magnetized needle" in Chinese literature appears in 1088. The Dream Pool Essays, written by the Song dynasty polymath scientist Shen Kuo, contained a detailed description of how geomancers magnetized a needle by rubbing its tip with lodestone and hung the magnetic needle with one single strain of silk with a bit of wax attached to the center of the needle. Shen Kuo pointed out that a needle prepared this way sometimes pointed south, sometimes north.

The earliest explicit recorded use of a magnetic compass for maritime navigation is found in Zhu Yu's book Pingchow Table Talks (萍洲可談; Pingzhou Ketan) and dates from 1111 to 1117: The ship's pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts; at night they steer by the stars, and in the daytime by the sun. In dark weather they look at the south-pointing needle.

Thus, the use of a magnetic compass by the military for land navigation occurred sometime before 1044, but incontestable evidence for the use of the compass as a maritime navigational device did not appear until 1117.

The typical Chinese navigational compass was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water. According to Needham, the Chinese in the Song dynasty and continuing Yuan dynasty did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass. Evidence of this is found in the Shilin Guang Ji ("Guide Through the Forest of Affairs"), published in 1325 by Chen Yuanjing, although its compilation had taken place between 1100 and 1250. The dry compass in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction. Although the European compass-card in a box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by Japanese pirates in the 16th century (who had, in turn, learned of it from Europeans), the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century. However, according to Kreutz there is only a single Chinese reference to a dry-mounted needle (built into a pivoted wooden tortoise) which is dated to between 1150 and 1250 and claims that there is no clear indication that Chinese mariners ever used anything but the floating needle in a bowl until the 16th century.

The first recorded use of a 48 position mariner's compass on sea navigation was noted in The Customs of Cambodia by Yuan dynasty diplomat Zhou Daguan, he described his 1296 voyage from Wenzhou to Angkor Thom in detail; when his ship set sail from Wenzhou, the mariner took a needle direction of "ding Wei" position, which is equivalent to 22.5 degree SW. After they arrived at Baria, the mariner took "Kun Shen needle", or 52.5 degree SW. Zheng He's Navigation Map, also known as the " Mao Kun Map", contains a large amount of detail "needle records" of Zheng He's expeditions.

Alexander Neckam reported the use of a magnetic compass for the region of the English Channel in the texts De utensilibus and De naturis rerum, written between 1187 and 1202, after he returned to England from France and prior to entering the Augustinian abbey at Cirencester. In his 1863 edition of Neckam's De naturis rerum, Thomas Wright provides a translation of the passage in which Neckam mentions sailors being guided by a compass' needle:

The sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy whether they can no longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is wrapped up in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to what point of the compass their ship's course is directed, they touch the magnet with a needle, which (the needle) is whirled round in a circle until, when its motion ceases, its point looks direct to the north.

In 1269 Petrus Peregrinus of Maricourt described a floating compass for astronomical purposes as well as a dry compass for seafaring, in his well-known Epistola de magnete.

In the Mediterranean, the introduction of the compass, at first only known as a magnetized pointer floating in a bowl of water, went hand in hand with improvements in dead reckoning methods, and the development of Portolan charts, leading to more navigation during winter months in the second half of the 13th century. While the practice from ancient times had been to curtail sea travel between October and April, due in part to the lack of dependable clear skies during the Mediterranean winter, the prolongation of the sailing season resulted in a gradual, but sustained increase in shipping movement; by around 1290 the sailing season could start in late January or February, and end in December. The additional few months were of considerable economic importance. For instance, it enabled Venetian convoys to make two round trips a year to the Levant, instead of one.

At the same time, traffic between the Mediterranean and northern Europe also increased, with the first evidence of direct commercial voyages from the Mediterranean into the English Channel coming in the closing decades of the 13th century, and one factor may be that the compass made traversal of the Bay of Biscay safer and easier. However, critics like Kreutz have suggested that it was later in 1410 that anyone really started steering by compass.

The earliest reference to a compass in the Muslim world occurs in a Persian talebook from 1232, Jawami ul-Hikayat, where a compass is used for navigation during a trip in the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. This fish shape was from a typical early Chinese design. The fish-shaped iron leaf described indicates that this early Chinese design has spread outside of China. The earliest Arabic reference to a compass, in the form of magnetic needle in a bowl of water, comes from a work by Baylak al-Qibjāqī, written in 1282 while in Cairo. Al-Qibjāqī described a needle-and-bowl compass used for navigation on a voyage he took from Syria to Alexandria in 1242. Since the author describes having witnessed the use of a compass on a ship trip some forty years earlier, some scholars are inclined to antedate its first appearance in the Arab world accordingly. Al-Qibjāqī also reports that sailors in the Indian Ocean used iron fish instead of needles.

Late in the 13th century, the Yemeni Sultan and astronomer al-Malik al-Ashraf described the use of the compass as a " Qibla indicator" to find the direction to Mecca. In a treatise about astrolabes and sundials, al-Ashraf includes several paragraphs on the construction of a compass bowl (ṭāsa). He then uses the compass to determine the north point, the meridian (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār), and the Qibla. This is the first mention of a compass in a medieval Islamic scientific text and its earliest known use as a Qibla indicator, although al-Ashraf did not claim to be the first to use it for this purpose.

In 1300, an Arabic treatise written by the Egyptian astronomer and muezzin Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass used for determining qibla. Like Peregrinus' compass, however, Ibn Simʿūn's compass did not feature a compass card. In the 14th century, the Syrian astronomer and timekeeper Ibn al-Shatir (1304-1375) invented a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of prayers. Arab navigators also introduced the 32-point compass rose during this time. In 1399, an Egyptian reports two different kinds of magnetic compass. One instrument is a "fish" made of willow wood or pumpkin, into which a magnetic needle is inserted and sealed with tar or wax to prevent the penetration of water. The other instrument is a dry compass.

In the 15th century, the description given by Ibn Majid while aligning the compass with the pole star indicates that he was aware of magnetic declination. An explicit value for the declination is given by ʿIzz al-Dīn al-Wafāʾī (fl. the 1450s in Cairo).

Pre modern Arabic sources refer to the compass using the term ṭāsa (lit. "bowl") for the floating compass, or ālat al-qiblah ("qibla instrument") for a device used for orienting towards Mecca.

Friedrich Hirth suggested that Arab and Persian traders, who learned about the polarity of the magnetic needle from the Chinese, applied the compass for navigation before the Chinese did. However, Needham described this theory as "erroneous" and "it originates because of a mistranslation" of the term chia-ling found in Zhu Yu's book Pingchow Table Talks.

The development of the magnetic compass is highly uncertain. The compass is mentioned in fourth-century AD Tamil nautical books; moreover, its early name of macchayantra (fish machine) suggest a Chinese origin. In its Indian form, the wet compass often consisted of a fish-shaped magnet, float in a bowl filled with oil.

There is evidence that the distribution of the compass from China likely also reached eastern Africa by way of trade through the end of the Silk Road that ended in East African centre of trade in Somalia and the Swahili city-state kingdoms. There is evidence that Swahili maritime merchants and sailors acquired the compass at some point and used it for navigation.

The dry mariner's compass consists of three elements: A freely pivoting needle on a pin enclosed in a little box with a glass cover and a wind rose, whereby "the wind rose or compass card is attached to a magnetized needle in such a manner that when placed on a pivot in a box fastened in line with the keel of the ship the card would turn as the ship changed direction, indicating always what course the ship was on". Later, compasses were often fitted into a gimbal mounting to reduce grounding of the needle or card when used on the pitching and the rolling deck of a ship.

While pivoting needles in glass boxes had already been described by the French scholar Peter Peregrinus in 1269, and by the Egyptian scholar Ibn Simʿūn in 1300, traditionally Flavio Gioja (fl. 1302), an Italian pilot from Amalfi, has been credited with perfecting the sailor's compass by suspending its needle over a compass card, thus giving the compass its familiar appearance. Such a compass with the needle attached to a rotating card is also described in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedy from 1380, while an earlier source refers to a portable compass in a box (1318), supporting the notion that the dry compass was known in Europe by then.

A bearing compass is a magnetic compass mounted in such a way that it allows the taking of bearings of objects by aligning them with the lubber line of the bearing compass. A surveyor's compass is a specialized compass made to accurately measure heading of landmarks and measure horizontal angles to help with map making. These were already in common use by the early 18th century and are described in 1728 Cyclopaedia. The bearing compass was steadily reduced in size and weight to increase portability, resulting in a model that could be carried and operated in one hand. In 1885, a patent was granted for a hand compass fitted with a viewing prism and lens that enabled the user to accurately sight the heading of geographical landmarks, thus creating the prismatic compass. Another sighting method was employing a reflective mirror. First patented in 1902, the Bézard compass consisted of a field compass with a mirror mounted above it. This arrangement enabled the user to align the compass with an objective while simultaneously viewing its bearing in the mirror.

In 1928, Gunnar Tillander, a Swedish unemployed instrument maker and an avid participant in the sport of orienteering, invented a new style of bearing the compass. Dissatisfied with existing field compasses, which required a separate protractor to take bearings from a map, Tillander decided to incorporate both instruments into a single instrument. It combined a compass with a protractor built into the base. His design featured a metal compass capsule containing a magnetic needle with orienting marks mounted into a transparent protractor baseplate with a lubber line (later called a direction of travel indicator). By rotating the capsule to align the needle with the orienting marks, the course bearing could be read at the lubber line. Moreover, by aligning the baseplate with a course drawn on a map - ignoring the needle - the compass could also function as a protractor. Tillander took his design to fellow orienteers Björn, Alvin, and Alvar Kjellström, who were selling basic compasses, and the four men modified Tillander's design. In December 1932, the Silva Company was formed with Tillander and the three Kjellström brothers, and the company began manufacturing and selling its Silva orienteering compass to Swedish orienteers, outdoorsmen, and army officers.

The liquid compass is a design in which the magnetized needle or card is damped by fluid to protect against excessive swing or wobble, improving readability while reducing wear. A rudimentary working model of a liquid compass was introduced by Sir Edmond Halley at a meeting of the Royal Society in 1690. However, as early liquid compasses were fairly cumbersome and heavy and subject to damage, their main advantage was aboard the ship. Protected in a binnacle and normally gimbal-mounted, the liquid inside the compass housing effectively damped shock and vibration, while eliminating excessive swing and grounding of the card caused by the pitch and roll of the vessel. The first liquid mariner's compass believed practicable for limited use was patented by the Englishman Francis Crow in 1813. Liquid-damped marine compasses for ships and small boats were occasionally used by the Royal Navy from the 1830s through 1860, but the standard Admiralty compass remained a dry-mount type. In the latter year, the American physicist and inventor Edward Samuel Ritchie patented a greatly improved liquid marine compass that was adopted in revised form for general use by the United States Navy, and later purchased by the Royal Navy as well.

Despite these advances, the liquid compass was not introduced generally into the Royal Navy until 1908. An early version developed by RN Captain Creek proved to be operational under heavy gunfire and seas but was felt to lack navigational precision compared with the design by Lord Kelvin. However, with ship and gun sizes continuously increasing, the advantages of the liquid compass over the Kelvin compass became unavoidably apparent to the Admiralty, and after widespread adoption by other navies, the liquid compass was generally adopted by the Royal Navy.

Liquid compasses were next adapted for aircraft. In 1909, Captain F.O. Creagh-Osborne, Superintendent of Compasses at the Admiralty, introduced his Creagh-Osborne aircraft compass, which used a mixture of alcohol and distilled water to damp the compass card. After the success of this invention, Capt. Creagh-Osborne adapted his design to a much smaller pocket model for individual use by officers of artillery or infantry, receiving a patent in 1915.

In December 1931, the newly founded Silva Company of Sweden introduced its first baseplate or bearing compass that used a liquid-filled capsule to damp the swing of the magnetized needle. The liquid-damped Silva took only four seconds for its needle to settle in comparison to thirty seconds for the original version.

In 1933 Tuomas Vohlonen, a surveyor by profession, applied for a patent for a unique method of filling and sealing a lightweight celluloid compass housing or capsule with a petroleum distillate to dampen the needle and protect it from shock and wear caused by excessive motion. Introduced in a wrist-mount model in 1936 as the Suunto Oy Model M-311, the new capsule design led directly to the lightweight liquid-filled field compasses of today.

The first gyroscope for scientific use was made by the French physicist Léon Foucault (1819-1868) in 1852, who also named the device while researching in the same line that led him to use the eponymous pendulum, for which he was awarded a Copley Medal by the Royal Society. The gyrocompass was patented in 1885 by Marinus Gerardus van den Bos in The Netherlands after continuous spinning was made possible by small electric motors, which were, in turn, a technological outcome of the discovery of magnetic induction. Yet only in 1906 was the German inventor Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe (1872-1931) able to build the first practical gyrocompass. It had two major advantages over magnetic compasses: it indicated true north and was unaffected by ferromagnetic materials, such as the steel hull of ships. Thus, it was widely used in the warships of World War I and modern aircraft.

Three compasses meant for establishing the meridian was described by Peter Peregrinus in 1269 (referring to experiments made before 1248) Late in the 13th century, al-Malik al-Ashraf of Yemen wrote a treatise on astrolabes, which included instructions and diagrams on using the compass to determine the meridian (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār) and Qibla. In 1300, a treatise written by the Egyptian astronomer and muezzin Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass for use as a "Qibla indicator" to find the direction to Mecca. Ibn Simʿūn's the compass, however, did not feature a compass card nor the familiar glass box. In the 14th century, the Syrian astronomer and timekeeper Ibn al-Shatir (1304-1375) invented a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and the magnetic compass. He invented it to find the times of salat prayers.

Evidence for the orientation of buildings by the means of a magnetic compass can be found in 12th-century Denmark: one fourth of its 570 Romanesque churches are rotated by 5-15 degrees clockwise from true east-west, thus corresponding to the predominant magnetic declination of the time of their construction. Most of these churches were built in the 12th century, indicating a fairly common usage of magnetic compasses in Europe by then.

The use of a compass as a direction finder underground was pioneered in the Tuscan mining town Massa where floating magnetic needles were employed for tunneling, and for defining the claims of the various mining companies, as early as the 13th century. In the second half of the 15th century, the compass became standard equipment for Tyrolian miners. Shortly afterward the first detailed treatise dealing with the underground use of compasses was published by a German miner Rülein von Calw (1463-1525).

A sun compass uses the position of the Sun in the sky to determine the directions of the cardinal points, making allowance for the local latitude and longitude, time of day, equation of time, and so on. At fairly high latitudes, an analog-display watch can be used as a very approximate sun compass. A simple sundial can be used as a much better one. An automatic sun compass developed by Lt. Col. James Allason, a mechanized cavalry officer, was adopted by the British Army in India in 1938 for use in tanks and other armored vehicles where the magnetic field was subject to distortion, affecting the standard-issue prismatic compass. Cloudy skies prohibited its use in European theatres. A copy of the manual is preserved in the Imperial War Museum in London.

1. ^ Lowrie, William (2007). Fundamentals of Geophysics. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-521-67596-3. OL 7751496M. Early in the Han dynasty, between 300 and 200 BC, the Chinese fashioned a rudimentary compass out of lodestone. [...] This compass may have been used in the search for gems and in the selection of sites for houses. [...] Their directive power led to the use of compasses for navigation [...]

2. ^ "Science and Civilisation in China. Volume IV, Physics and Physical Technology. Part 1, Physics. By <italic>Joseph Needham et al.</italic> (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1962. Pp. xxxiv, 434. $15.00.)". The American Historical Review. 1963. doi:10.1086/ahr/68.2.463. ISSN 1937-5239.

3. ^ Kreutz, Barbara M. (1973). "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass". Technology and Culture. 14 (3): 370. doi:10.2307/3102323. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 3102323 - via JSTOR.

4. ^ Schmidl, Petra G. (1996-97). "Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass". Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. 1: 81-132. http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4 Archived 2014-09-02 at the Wayback Machine

5. ^ Kalin, Ibrahim (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 144-147. doi:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8.

6. ^ Guarnieri, M. (2014). "Once Upon a Time, the Compass". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 8 (2): 60-63. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2316044. S2CID 11949042.

7. ^ Gábor Horváth; et al. (2011). "On the trail of Vikings with polarized skylight". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 366 (1565): 772-782. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0194. PMC . PMID 21282181.

8. ^ Merson, John (1990). The Genius That Was China: East and West in the making of the modern world. Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-87951-397-7.

9. ^ Bacon, Francis (1620). Novum Organum Scientiarum. It is well to observe the force and virtue of consequences of discoveries, and there are to be seen nowhere more conspicuously than in those three which were unknown to the ancients, and of which the origins, although recent, are obscure and inglorious; namely printing, gunpowder, and the magnet. For these three have changed the whole state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, insomuch that no empire, no secret, no star seems to have exerted greater power in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries... had done more to transform the modern world and mark it off from antiquity and the middle ages.

10. ^ Needham, Joseph; Lu Gwei-Djen (1985). Trans-Pacific Echoes and Resonances: Listening Once Again. World Scientific. p. 21.

11. ^ Guimarães, A. P. (2004). "Mexico and the early history of magnetism". Revista Mexicana de Fisica. 50: 51-53. Bibcode:2004RMxFE..50...51G.

12. ^ Needham, Joseph. Cambridge University Press. University of California Press. p. 173. Thus the possibility presents itself that... it may have formed part of one of those transmissions from Asia which we find in so many fields of applied science

13. ^ McEachren, Justin W. General Science Quarterly, Volumes 5-6. University of California Press. p. 337. From the Chinese, the Arabs in all probability learned to use the magnetic needle, and in this round-about fashion it was brought to Europe

14. ^ Bentley, Jerry. Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. p. 637.

15. ^ Derek J. de Solla Price, On the Origin of Clockwork, Perpetual Motion Devices, and the Compass

16. ^ Neckam, Alexander (1863). Alexandri Neckam De Naturis Rerum Libri Duoi. Longman, Roberts, and Green. p. xi.

17. T. Wright, (ed.) 'Preface', ^ Alexandri Neckam De Naturis Rerum Libri duo with the poem of the same author, De laudibus divinae sapientiae, (London, 1863), xxxiv. https://archive.org/details/alexandrineckam00neckgoog

18. Needham p. 12-13 "...that the floating fish-shaped iron leaf spread outside China as a technique, we know from the description of Muhammad al' Awfi just two hundred years later"

19. "Early Arabic Sources on the Magnetic Compass" (PDF). Lancaster.ac.uk.

20. ^ Savage-Smith, Emilie (1988). "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine". . 79 (2): 246-266 [263]. doi:10.1086/354701. PMID 3049439. S2CID 33884974.

21. ^ Tibbetts, G. R. (1973). "Comparisons between Arab and Chinese Navigational Techniques". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 36 (1): 97-108 [105-6]. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00098013. S2CID 120284234.

22. ^ Hirth, Friedrich (1908). Ancient history of China to the end of the Chóu dynasty. New York, The Columbia university press. p. 134.

23. Jean-Patrick Donzey. "Bezard 1". Compass Museum.

24. Barnes, Scott, Churchill, James, and Jacobson, Cliff, ^ The Ultimate Guide to Wilderness Navigation, Globe Pequot Press (2002), ISBN 1-58574-490-5, ISBN 978-1-58574-490-9, p. 27

25. ^ Litsky, Frank, Bjorn Kjellstrom, 84, Orienteer and Inventor of Modern Compass, Obituaries, The New York Times, 1 September 1995

26. Gubbins, David, ^ Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, Springer Press (2007), ISBN 1-4020-3992-1, ISBN 978-1-4020-3992-8, p. 67

27. W. H. Creak: "The History of the Liquid Compass", The Geographical Journal, Vol. 56, No. 3 (1920), pp. 238-239

28. Gubbins, p. 67: The use of parallel or multiple needles was by no means a new development; their use in dry-mount marine compasses was pioneered by navigation officers of the ^ Dutch East India Company as early as 1649.

29. The Compass Museum, ^ Article: Though the Creagh-Osborne was offered in a wrist-mount model, it proved too bulky and heavy in this form.

30. Hughes, Henry A., ^ Improvements in prismatic compasses with special reference to the Creagh-Osborne patent compass, Transactions of The Optical Society 16, London: The Optical Society (1915), pp. 17-43: The first liquid-damped compass compact enough for pocket or pouch was the Creagh-Osborne, patented in 1915 in Great Britain.

31. "Suunto Outdoor World - Main". www.suunto.com. Archived from the original on 16 February 2008.

32. see also ^ Admiralty manual of navigation, 1914, Chapter XXVII ('The Gyro-Compass'), online (archive.org)

33. ^ Abrahamsen, N. (1992). "Evidence for Church Orientation by Magnetic Compass in Twelfth-Century Denmark". Archaeometry. 34 (2): 293-303. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1992.tb00499.x. See page 293.

34. ^ Abrahamsen, N. (1992). "Evidence for Church Orientation by Magnetic Compass in Twelfth-Century Denmark". Archaeometry. 34 (2): 293-303. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1992.tb00499.x. See page 303.

Admiralty, Great Britain (1915) Admiralty manual of navigation, 1914, Chapter XXV: "The Magnetic Compass (continued): the analysis and correction of the deviation", London: HMSO, 525 p.

Aczel, Amir D. (2001) The Riddle of the Compass: The Invention that Changed the World, 1st Ed., New York: Harcourt, ISBN 0-15-600753-3

Carlson, John B (1975). "Multidisciplinary analysis of an Olmec hematite artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico". Science. 189 (4205): 753-760. Bibcode:1975Sci...189..753C. doi:10.1126/science.189.4205.753. PMID 17777565. S2CID 33186517.

Gies, Frances and Gies, Joseph (1994) Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Age, New York: HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-016590-1

Gubbins, David, Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, Springer Press (2007), ISBN 1-4020-3992-1, ISBN 978-1-4020-3992-8

King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". . 74 (4): 531-555. doi:10.1086/353360. S2CID 144315162.

Kreutz, Barbara M. (1973) "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass", Technology and Culture, 14 (3: July), p. 367-383 JSTOR 3102323

Lane, Frederic C. (1963) "The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass", The American Historical Review, 68 (3: April), p. 605-617 JSTOR 1847032

Li Shu-hua (1954) "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole", Isis, 45 (2: July), p. 175-196

Taylor, E.G.R. (1951). "The South-Pointing Needle". Imago Mundi. 8: 1-7. doi:10.1080/03085695108591973.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The compass is a magnetometer used for navigation and orientation that shows direction in regards to the geographic cardinal points. The structure of a compass consists of the compass rose, which displays the four main directions on it: East (E), South (S), West (W) and North (N).

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Ancient China is responsible for a rich culture, still evident in modern China. From small farming communities rose dynasties such as the Zhou (1046-256 B.C.E.), Qin (221-206 B.C.E.), and Ming (1368-1644 C.E.). Each had its own contribution to the region.

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Ancient China is responsible for a rich culture, still evident in modern China. From small farming communities rose dynasties such as the Zhou (1046-256 B.C.E.), Qin (221-206 B.C.E.), and Ming (1368-1644 C.E.). Each had its own contribution to the region.

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