# data[].attributes.body
Abbey Church of Saint-Denis
France
1140-1144

# data[].attributes.body
Cathedral of St. James, Santiago de Compostela
Galicia, Spain
1078-1122

# data[].attributes.body
Church of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople
532-537

# data[].attributes.body
Church of Santa Costanza, Rome
350

# data[].attributes.body
In the great superpower Rome, the main traditions were based on Greek myths, until Emperor Constantine issued a change. In the year 313, Constantine created the Edict of Milan  which, according to the authors Stokstad and Cothren, gave “the Roman Empire freedom to worship whatever god they wished” (225). Freedom of religion meant a rise in Christianity and new architecture was needed to fit the needs of this community. Stokstad and Cothren describe that events like “ initiation of new members, private devotion, and burials” had to be performed in new churches that were built for Christianity (225). The ruling class made sure that they had churches that were grand and represented their power.

# data[].attributes.body
One specific Christian church honored Constantine and his family. The video Imperial Christian Art explains that the church Santa Costanza in Rome is the burial site for Constantina, Constantine’s daughter. As was common with most mausoleums, it was built using a centrally planned layout. According to the Imperial Christian Art, central plans were ideal for burial sites because they created a vertical axis that connected the deceased with a pathway to heaven. The altar is placed directly in the center of the ambulatory, giving it a direct connection to heaven and God.

# data[].attributes.body
Respect and adoration for the ruling family are visible in this beautiful church. Authors Stokstad and Cothren describe how Constantina was buried in a grand sarcophagus that sits at the edge of the ambulatory, across from the entrance (229). Motifs line the outside of the sarcophagus that bring Constantina peace and honor in death. Stokstad and Cothren state that some of the motifs are “peacocks (that) symbolize eternal life in paradise, while a lone sheep could represent a member of Jesus’s flock, presumably Constantina herself” (229). The admiration of Constantina continues on the walls. There are beautiful mosaics that line the edge of the church. One example is a portrait of Constantina. In the mosaic, she is surrounded by grapevines and putti. Stokstad and Cothren describe that the grapevines and their relation to wine are symbolic of the Eucharist, death, and resurrection (228). Making a mosaic is tedious, time-consuming work that takes years to master. The impressive expertise adds to the grandeur of the mausoleum, making it fit for the ruling class. Santa Costanza’s interior is an opulent space. In the video, Imperial Christian Art, it is shown that elegant columns made of expensive marble surround the altar. The columns create separation in the space and further emphasize the sacred nature of the altar.

# data[].attributes.body
Church of Santa Sabina, Rome
422-432

# data[].attributes.body
The church of Santa Sabina is another example of Christian architecture. Unlike Santa Costanza’s centrally planned layout, Santa Sabina is made using a longitudinal planned layout. It creates a horizontal axis instead of a vertical axis; instead of being connected straight to heaven, visitors went through a journey to get to the altar. According to Stokstad and Cothren, this was ideal for congregational churches (225). The long walkway was perfect for ceremonies. And the video Imperial Christian Art, explains how a pope could walk down the nave chanting and burning incense. It created a very sacred space.

# data[].attributes.body
After the fall of the city of Rome, the Byzantine era took place around the city of Constantinople, or “New Rome” as it was called. During the mid 500’s it was ruled by Emperor Justinian I. It was a powerful empire and Stokstad and Cothren state, “imperial forces held northern Africa, Sicily, much of Italy, and part of Spain” (238). However, Stokstad and Cothren explain that this power was shaken by the Nika Revolt of 532 which greatly impacted the city of Constantinople (239). Emperor Justinian's foes rebelled against him, setting the original church of Hagia Sophia on fire. The revolt was a bloody, brutal battle that, according to Stokstad and Cothren, had 30,000 casualties of Justinian’s own people (239). Afterward, people needed a time of healing and reassertion of power. The rebuilding of Hagia Sophia was the perfect solution.

# data[].attributes.body
The goal was for Hagia Sophia to be an innovative representation of divinity. The size was the main feature the church wanted to highlight. A giant dome towers over the church’s square base with conches on its sides. Its massive size represents power, along with the fact Justinian had enough resources in his possession that, according to Stokstad and Cothren, it only took five years to build (239). Inside Hagia Sophia is just as impressive as the outside. The engineering feats become apparent when one looks inside and sees the massive pendentives supporting the dome. It is emphasized by the centrally planned space that puts focus on the round dome. As Stokstad and Cothren say, “the dome seems to float over a void” (241). Similar to centrally planned Christian buildings, like Santa Costanza, there is a vertical axis between the ground and the sky. The giant ceiling feels like it becomes part of the sky and connects the visitors to heaven as worship to God.

# data[].attributes.body
The decorations add just as much to the magnificence of Hagia Sophia as the size does. There are grand mosaics that cover the walls, pendentives, and dome. In Hagia Sophia, none of the mosaics feature icons or people. As stated in the video Icons, it was previously common to include front-facing portraits of holy figures as a way to connect visitors to God so visitors could stare directly into the face of divinity. However, during this time period, iconoclasm was rising. The video Iconoclasm describes this as being the belief that it was blasphemous to recreate icons and holy figures. Since Hagia Sophia’s could not include mosaics with icons, the mosaics instead focus on shapes and patterns. The time-consuming mosaics are made with rich, rare materials, such as gold. The gold reflects light throughout the church, making the building feel opulent and bathing visitors in divinity. There are also lots of windows that puncture the dome’s base which contributes to the feeling of bathing in light. Even without the use of icons, this church feels sacred. Light and height are this church’s connection to the holy.

# data[].attributes.body
The year 1000 brought new revelations in architecture. The video The Age of Cathedrals describes how after people realized the world wouldn’t end after the year 999, as they had previously thought, the celebrations were grand. According to The Age of Cathedrals, as a “thank-you” to God, giant cathedrals were built to honor him. New building techniques were developed to bring these visions to life. Previously, wood was a common building material. However, this material would not work for the visions of the Church. The Age of Cathedrals shows that they wanted something long-lasting and representative of enduring faith. Stone became the new material for cathedrals. The permanence it brought was ideal and The Age of Cathedrals describes that it created an acoustic atmosphere perfect for echoing choirs. However, there were issues that arose with the use of stone. Stone is much heavier than wood, so making giant cathedrals that reached up to heaven was a challenge. This had to be combatted with new construction techniques. Instead of having flat ceilings that do not distribute weight well, arches were implemented. Arches are stronger than flat ceilings because they disperse the weight of heavy stones well and are therefore more durable. In the video, Details of Romanesque Engineering, it showed that often strip buttresses were used for extra reinforcement to counteract the thrust of the arches and make the walls even stronger. Similar to arches, barrel vault ceilings were used for the main ceiling of the building. These are rounded ceilings that function the same way as arches and are stronger than flat ceilings. These new architectural advancements influenced the way buildings were made.

# data[].attributes.body
An example of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral of St. James Santiago de Compostela. It is an impressive example of a building built for the needs of the time. Dedicated to St. James, as it holds his body, this cathedral was built for pilgrimages. The course information, Pilgrimage and Relics, showed how these worshippers traveled far distances to find relics and see their holiness. St. James is full of holy relics. Surrounding the edges of the building are lots of mini apses that each act as a small chapel, as described in the Reading Guide for St. James. Every apse holds a relic, making it a holy, sacred place. To accommodate travelers, the cathedral had multiple entrances, one of which was dedicated to pilgrims. This entrance was always open so people could worship at any time, regardless of traveling arrangements.

# data[].attributes.body
The layout of the building also has sacred connotations to it. It is longitudinally planned and oriented west to east, and the Reading Guide for St. James explains that the altar is on the eastern end to mimic the rising of the sun. It was important to have light surround this area of the cathedral with divinity. Similar to Christian architecture like Santa Sabina, the nave was a sacred place excellent for ceremonies. Another unique aspect of St. James is that the layout is shaped like a cross. Anytime visitors see this church, whether from the outside or inside, they will know it is a holy place.

# data[].attributes.body
In France, around Paris, power began growing in the 1140s. This led to a period of growth. As Paris’ power increased, the video Recording #28 explains that urban centers began expanding and rural areas became less common as they got replaced with new cities. Also, people wanted to expand not only their cities but also their education. Stokstad and Cothren state that universities were built in “Bologna, Padua, Paris, Cambridge, and Oxford” (508). New advanced ways of thinking and analyzing emerged from these schools, as well as interests in sculpture and painting, according to Stokstad and Cothren (508). Due to these modern ideas, a new type of architecture was needed to accommodate Paris’ contemporary environment. Building off of previous Romanesque architecture, the trend of cathedrals continued into the Gothic era. However, cathedrals were updated to fit modern society’s needs.

# data[].attributes.body
The first example of a Gothic cathedral is the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, located right outside of Paris. Saint-Denis was well-regarded by the ruling class. The video Abbot Suger & Saint-Denis explains that it was the “burial site for most kings” and owns regalia for the French crown and relics of St. Denis. Since the church was so important to French royalty, it was important that power was reflected in the design. The original design was not fit for the ruling class, so eventually, the church was redesigned in the 1130s to have a more fitting image. Saint-Denis was run by Abbot Suger, who was also in charge of redesigning the church.

# data[].attributes.body
Suger’s vision for the church was about creating “divine luminosity” to represent the divine right of kings as stated in the video Abbot Suger & Saint-Denis. The main feature of the church was the stained glass windows that let in rainbow-colored light throughout the building. Also, walls became thinner than they were during the Romanesque period to continue to add a light and airy feeling to the space. Stokstad and Cothren provide a quote that Suger said that Saint-Denis is “a circular string of chapels by virtue of which the whole would shine with the wonderful and uninterrupted light of most luminous windows, pervading the interior beauty” (510). Suger demonstrated this by making the apse of Saint-Denis surrounded by large windows and eliminating heavy walls by instead opting to use thin columns.

# data[].attributes.body
Saint-Denis also built off of architectural developments of the Romanesque period. Since using stone for cathedrals continued on into the Gothic era, arches were needed to support the weight. However, pointed arches were implemented instead of round arches. Pointed arches were able to distribute the weight of heavy stones even better than round arches could. Gothic cathedrals also utilized groin vaults instead of barrel vaults. This again made for stronger ceilings while also providing beautiful ornamentation.