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Assessing Student Learning: A Common Sense Guide

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Assessing Student Learning: A Common Sense Guide

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Explains assessment basics, emphasizes the role of assessment in improving learning, and discusses how to write learning outcomes that focus on higher-level knowledge and skills.

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Description

Assessing Student Learning is a standard reference for college faculty and administrators, and the third edition of this highly regarded book continues to offer comprehensive, practical, plainspoken guidance. The third edition adds a stronger emphasis on making assessment useful; greater attention to building a culture in which assessment is used to inform important decisions; an enhanced focus on the many settings of assessment, especially general education and co-curricula; a new emphasis on synthesizing evidence of student learning into an overall picture of an integrated learning experience; new chapters on curriculum design and assessing the hard-to-assess; more thorough information on organizing assessment processes; new frameworks for rubric design and setting standards and targets; and many new resources. Faculty, administrators, new and experienced assessment practitioners, and students in graduate courses on higher education assessment will all find this a valuable addition to their bookshelves.

About the Author

LINDA SUSKIE is an internationally recognized writer, speaker, trainer, and consultant on assessment in higher education. Her previous positions included serving as Vice President at the Middle States Commission on Higher Education, Associate Vice President for Assessment and Institutional Research at Towson University, and Director of the Assessment Forum of the American Association for Higher Education (AAHE).

Table of contents

List of Tables vii

List of Lists ix

List of Figure xiii

List of Exhibits xv

Preface to the Third Edition xix

Introduction 1
Part 1 Understanding Assessment
Chapter 1 What Is Assessment? 7

Chapter 2 The Many Settings for Student Learning and Assessment 15

Chapter 3 What Are Effective Assessment Practices? 23
Part 2 Laying a Foundation for Assessment Success
Chapter 4 Learning Goals: Articulating What You Most Want Students to Learn 39

Chapter 5 Designing Curricula to Help Students Learn What's Important 63

Chapter 6 How Will Your Evidence of Student Learning be Used? 85

Chapter 7 Planning Assessments in Academic Programs 93

Chapter 8 Planning Assessments in General Education, Co-curricula, and Other Settings 105
Part 3 Building a Pervasive, Enduring Culture of Evidence and Betterment
Chapter 9 Guiding and Coordinating Assessment Efforts 117

Chapter 10 Helping Everyone Learn What to Do 127

Chapter 11 Supporting Assessment Efforts 139

Chapter 12 Keeping Assessment Cost-Effective 149

Chapter 13 Collaborating on Assessment 165

Chapter 14 Valuing Assessment and the People Who Contribute 175
Part 4 The Assessment Toolbox
Chapter 15 Designing Rubrics to Plan and Assess Assignments 189

Chapter 16 Creating Effective Assignments 205

Chapter 17 Writing Multiple-Choice and Other Objective Tests 215

Chapter 18 Assembling Evidence of Student Learning into Portfolios 235

Chapter 19 Selecting Published Instruments 245

Chapter 20 Other Assessment Tools 259

Chapter 21 Assessing the Hard-to-Assess 273
Part 5 Understanding and Using Evidence of Student Learning
Chapter 22 Setting Meaningful Standards and Targets 287

Chapter 23 Summarizing and Storing Evidence of Student Learning 305

Chapter 24 Analyzing Evidence of Student Learning 319

Chapter 25 Sharing Evidence of Student Learning 333

Chapter 26 Using Evidence of Student Learning to Inform

Important Decisions 355

References 367

Index 377

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Assessing Student Learning: A Common Sense Guide, 3rd Edition

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Assessing Student Learning is a standard reference for college faculty and administrators, and the third edition of this highly regarded book continues to offer comprehensive, practical, plainspoken guidance.

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Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers

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Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers

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Provides a comprehensive collection of classroom-tested tools and techniques for improving teaching and learning.

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Focuses on evidence-based assessments in clinical education situations, highlighting methods for feedback and monitoring progress.

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It may seem simple enough to use the best research results to determine the best care for an individual patient, however many medical students and physicians may not have the mathematical background or training to critically evaluate published research. This "user's guide" helps the medical professional to become a more discriminating reader of medical literature, and ultimately better equipped to apply evidence-based medicine in practice. The volume will be an ideal introductory text for medical students and health-care professionals.

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Essential Evidence-Based Medicine (Essential Medical Texts for Students and Trainees)

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It may seem simple enough to use the best research results to determine the best care for an individual patient, however many medical students and physicians may not have the mathematical background or training to critically evaluate published research. This "user's guide" helps the medical profe...

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Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing, and Improving Assessment in Higher Education

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Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing, and Improving Assessment in Higher Education

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Covers the framework for developing assessment programs, including developing, implementing, and sustaining assessment in health professions education.

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List of Exhibits and Figures xiii

Foreword xv
Jillian Kinzie

Preface xix

About the Authors xxiii
1. Defining Assessment 1
Some Definitions 1

Pioneering in Assessment 3

Quality Assurance: An International Perspective 7

Assessment Purposes 9

Values and Guiding Principles 11
2. The Essentials of Assessment 15
Planning Effective Assessment 16

Engaging Stakeholders * Establishing Purpose * Designing a Thoughtful Approach to Assessment Planning * Creating a Written Plan * Timing Assessment

Implementing Effective Assessment 22

Providing Leadership * Selecting or Designing Data Collection Approaches * Providing Resources * Educating Faculty and Staff * Assessing Resources and Processes as Well as Outcomes * Sharing Findings

Improving and Sustaining Assessment 31

Obtaining Credible Evidence * Ensuring the Use of Assessment Findings * Reexamining the Assessment Process

Additional Thoughts 36
3. Engaging Faculty and Students in Assessment 39
Involving Faculty in Assessment 41

Faculty Responsibility * Assessment Resources for Faculty * Faculty Rewards * Maximizing the Role of Faculty and Faculty Acceptance * Some Stumbling Blocks in Understanding Assessment * The Nature of Resistance

Involving Students in Assessment 54

Student Responsibility * Resources for Students * Student Rewards * Maximizing Student Acceptance of Assessment

Acting with Integrity 63
4. Setting Expectations and Preparing to Select Measures 65
Intentions for Learning: Goals, Objectives, Outcomes 65

Defining Terms * Learning Taxonomies

Developing Statements of Expectations 69

Statement Content * Curriculum Maps * Using Matrices and Other Tools

Selecting Methods and Approaches 73

Inventories of Existing Activities * Developing Criteria for Choosing Methods * An Overview of Methods * Use of Existing Information * Locally Developed versus Commercial Measures * Comparing Potential Methods to Criteria

Designing Instruments 85

Recognizing the Uniqueness of Designing Instruments for Assessment * Enlisting Help from Campus Experts * Enhancing Instrument Reliability and Validity

Determining Approaches for Implementation 87

Research Strategies * Identifying Eligible Participants * Sampling and Sample Size

Putting Everything Together 91
5. Using Direct Measures 93
Using Classroom Assignments for Outcomes Assessment 93 Performance Assessment 95

Types of Performance Assessment * Using Performance Measures for Outcomes Assessment * Designing Effective Assignments

Rubrics 100

VALUE Rubrics * Some Rubric Issues

Aggregating Assessment Results in and across Courses 104

Using Objective Tests for Outcomes Assessment 105

Advantages and Disadvantages of Objective Tests * Developing Good Tests and Writing Good Items * Implications for Students

Electronic Portfolios 110

Using E-Portfolios for Outcomes Assessment * Choices for E-Portfolios * Student Reflection * Scoring * Resources and Training * Feedback * Impact on Students * Using Results * Developing E-Portfolios * Appeal of Portfolios and Some Cautions
6. Using Indirect Assessment Methods 121
Using Surveys in Assessment 121

Topics for Assessment Surveys * Selecting and Using Various Target Groups * Response Types and Scales * Writing Survey Questions * Questionnaire Administration * National Surveys for Assessment

Using Focus Groups in Assessment 132

Topics, Target Groups, and Participants * The Moderator's Role * Developing Questions and Summarizing Results * Other Considerations

Additional Indirect Methods 136

Interviews * Written Materials * Documents and Records

Qualitative versus Quantitative Approaches 141

Classroom Assessment Techniques 142
7. Assessing Learning in the Major 145
Capstone Experiences and Courses 146

Capstone Experiences * Capstone Courses

Portfolios 150

Experiential Education 152

Internships * Service-Learning * Applied Projects

Group Work and Team-Building Skills 160

Employer Involvement 162

Employers as Assessors * Employers as Advisors * Employer Surveys

Intentional Learning 165
8. Assessing Learning in General Education 167
The Nature of General Education 167

Assessment Choices and Issues 170

Agreeing on Program Purposes and Learning Objectives * Selecting an Assessment Approach for General Education * Generating, Reporting, and Using Results

Using Commercial Instruments and the Voluntary System of Accountability 175

Assessing Specific Aspects of General Education 178

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving * Writing * Information Literacy * Oral Communication * Ethical Reasoning * Values and Attitudes

The Degree Qualifications Profile 189

Assessing General Education Outcomes within the Major 190
9. Assessing Student Learning and Program Effectiveness in Student Affairs 193
Foundations for Assessment in Student Affairs 193

Mission, Goals, and Objectives 197

Goals and Objectives * Mapping Outcomes

Leadership and Preparation for Assessment in Student Affairs 199

Committees, Offices, and Assessment Teams * Resources and Training

Assessment Frameworks, Models, and Diagrams 204

Assessment Plans and Methods 205

Planning Templates and Guides * Methods

Reporting and Sharing Results 208

Reporting Templates * Evaluating Reports * Communicating Results

Ethical Behavior 210

Improving Assessment 212

Rewards for Assessment 212
10. Analyzing, Reporting, and Using Assessment Results 215
Helping Faculty and Staff Use Their Assessment Results 215

Encouraging Reflection and Collaboration * Providing Mentors * Sharing Materials * Communicating about How Assessment Results Have Been Used * Linking Assessment Results to Important Processes

Assessment Reporting by Departments and Programs 221

Outcomes * Methods * Findings * Action Plans * Follow-Up * Closing the Loop * Reflections on the Process

Summarizing Reports 225

Managing Data 226

Assessing Unit Reports 226

Making the Process Transparent 228

Institutional Assessment Reporting 229

Theme Reports * Extracts for Colleges and Departments * Oral Reports * Comprehensive Reports * Institutional Data and Dashboards

Analyzing Assessment Information 234

Descriptive and Comparative Information * Impact of Various Response Scales on Analysis * Qualitative Analysis * Multivariate Analysis * Data Mining and Learning Analytics

Displaying Results 239

Other Considerations 240
11. Assessing Institutional Effectiveness 241
Linking Assessment and Institutional Planning: An Example 242

Organizing to Assess Institutional Effectiveness 245

Assessment Leaders * Assessment Committees * Leadership in Units * Central Offices

Planning and Institutional Improvement at IUPUI 248

Testing Center * Office of Institutional Effectiveness * Office of Institutional Research * Office of Program Review * Office of the Economic Model

Administering an Assessment Plan 252

Planning Levels * Using Assessment Information * Assessing and Facilitating Assessment

Considering Costs 258

Linking Assessment to Other Valued Processes 259
12. Summing Up 263
A Time of Transition 263

Current Practice 265
Purposes * Assessment Approaches * Stakeholder Involvement * Technology

Continuing Challenges 268

Assessment's Effect on Individual Students * Alternative Ways to Credential Students * Sharing Assessment Information and Results * Assessment Costs and Benefits * Finding a Home for Assessment * Creating a Culture of Assessment

References 279

Name Index 311

Subject Index 317

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Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing, and Improving Assessment in Higher Education, 2nd Edition

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A comprehensive expansion to the essential higher education assessment text This second edition of Assessment Essentials updates the bestselling first edition, the go-to resource on outcomes assessment in higher education.

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Rethinking Assessment in Higher Education: Learning for the Longer Term

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Rethinking Assessment in Higher Education: Learning for the Longer Term

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Discusses innovative practices in the assessment of student learning and professional competence in higher education settings, specifically in health professionals' education.

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Contents

Part 1. Setting the scene

Chapter 1.

Assessment for the longer term. 6

David Boud and Nancy Falchikov

Chapter 2.

Reframing assessment as if learning was important. 25

David Boud

Part 2. The context of assessment

Chapter 3

Assessment in higher education: an impossible mission? 47

Ron Barnett

Chapter 4

Learning assessment: students' experiences in post-school qualifications 69

Kathryn Ecclestone

Part 3. Themes

Chapter 5

Contradictions of assessment for learning in institutions of higher learning 95

Steinar Kvale

Chapter 6

Grading, classifying and future learning 118

Peter Knight

Chapter 7

Assessment engineering: breaking down barriers between teaching and learning, and assessment. 143

Filip Dochy, Mien Segers, David Gijbels and Katrien Struyven

Chapter 8

Rethinking feedback and assessment-for-learning 167

Dai Hounsell

Chapter 9

Conceptions of self-assessment: what is needed for long term learning? 188

Kelvin Tan

Chapter 10

The place of peers in assessment 212

Nancy Falchikov

Chapter 11

Assessment and emotion: the impact of being assessed 242

Nancy Falchikov and David Boud

Part 4. The practice of assessment

Chapter 12

Writing about practice for future learning 264

Peter Kandelbinder

Chapter 13

The contribution of sustainable assessment to teachers' continuing professional development 277

Margaret Kirkwood

Chapter 14

Developing assessment for informing judgement 299

David Boud and Nancy Falchikov

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rethinking Assessment in Higher Education: Learning for the Longer Term

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Assessment is a value-laden activity surrounded by debates about academic standards, preparing students for employment, measuring quality and providing incentives. There is substantial evidence that assessment, rather than teaching, has the major influence on students' learning. It directs attention to what is important and acts as an incentive for study.

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A seminal piece in the field of medical education that discusses the framework of competence, performance, and outcomes in the context of assessment.

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The assessment of clinical skills/competence/performance - PubMed

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Focuses on assessment methods in medical education and their impact on student learning, with an emphasis on direct observation tools.

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Constructing Written Test Questions For the Basic and Clinical Sciences

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Constructing Written Test Questions For the Basic and Clinical Sciences

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A comprehensive guide to designing and implementing effective assessments in medical education, with a focus on MCQs and other common formats.

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Provides a critical evaluation of the use of OSCEs (Objective Structured Clinical Examinations) in the assessment of medical education and suggests improvements for their effectiveness.

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Medical education, the art and science behind medical learning and teaching, has progressed remarkably. Teaching and learning have become more scientific and rigorous, curricula are based on sound pedagogical principles, and Problem Based and other forms of active and self directed learning have become the mainstream. Teachers have progressed from the role of problem-identifier to that of the solution-provider.

During the last three decades medical schools have been faced with a variety of challenges from society, patients, doctors and students. They have responded in several ways including the development of new curricula, the introduction of new learning situations, the introduction of the new methods of assessment and a realization of the importance of staff development. Many effective and interesting innovations have been forthcoming.

The effective and efficient delivery of healthcare requires not only knowledge and technical skills but also analytical and communication skills, interdisciplinary care, counseling, evidence- and system-based care. This warrants our assessment systems to be comprehensive, sound and robust enough to assess the requisite attributes along with testing for essential knowledge and skills.

Assessment is entering every phase of professional development. Assessment and evaluation are crucial steps in educational process. Before making a choice of assessment method, some important questions must be asked: what should be assessed?, why assess? For an assessment instrument one must also ask: is it valid? Is it reliable?, is it feasible? What is assessed and which methods are used will play a significant part in what is learnt. A wide range of assessment methods currently available include essay questions, patient management problems, modified essay questions (MEQs) checklists, OSCE, student projects, Constructed Response Questions (CRQs), MCQs, Critical reading papers, rating scales, extended matching items, tutor reports, portfolios, short case assessment and long case assessment, log book, trainer's report, audit, simulated patient surgeries, video assessment, simulators, self assessment, peer assessment and standardized patients.

Assessment has a powerful positive steering effect on learning and the curriculum. It conveys what we value as important and acts as the most cogent motivator of student learning. Assessment is purpose driven. In planning and designing assessments, it is essential to recognize the stakes involved in it. The higher the stake, the greater the implications of the outcome of the assessment. The more sophisticated the assessment strategies, the more appropriate they become for feedback and learning.

Measuring progress in acquiring core knowledge and competencies may be a problem if the exams are designed to measure multiple integrated abilities, such as factual knowledge, problem solving, analysis and synthesis of information. Students may advance in one ability and not in another. Therefore, progress tests that are designed to measure growth from the onset of learning until graduation should measure discrete abilities.

Mastery testing (criterion-reflected tests) requires that 100% of the items are measured correctly to determine whether students have attained a mastery level of achievements. In non-mastery testing attainment of 65% of a tested material is considered sufficient.

Global rating scales are measurement tool for quantifying behaviors. Raters use the scale either by directly observing students or by recalling student performance. Raters judge a global domain of ability for example: clinical skills, problem solving, etc

Self assessment (self regulation) is a vital aspect of the lifelong performance of physicians. Self monitoring requires that individuals are able not only to work independently but also to assess their own performance and progress.

Every form of assessment can be used as a self assessment exercise as long as students are provided with 'gold standard' criteria for comparing their own performance against an external reliable measure. Self assessment approaches include: written exams (MCQs, True/False, Essay, MEQs, modified CRQs), performance exams (checklists, global rating, student logbook, portfolio, video, etc).

Oral examination/Viva has poor content validity, higher inter-rater variability and inconsistency in marking. The instrument is prone to biases and is inherently unreliable.

Long Essay Questions can be used for assessment of complex learning situations that can not be assessed by other means (writing skills, ability to present arguments succinctly).

The Short Answer Question (SAQ) is an open ended, semi-structured question format. A structured predetermined marking scheme improves objectivity. The questions can incorporate clinical scenarios. A similar format is also known as Modified Essay Question (MEQ) or Constructed Response Question (CRQ). Equal or higher test reliabilities can be achieved with fewer SEQs as compared to true/false items. If a large amount of knowledge is required to be tested, MCQs should be used. SAQs have a better content coverage as compared to long essay question.

Extended Matching Item is based on a single theme and has a long option list to avoid cueing. It can be used for the assessment of clinical scenarios with less cueing. It is a practical alternative to MCQ while maintaining objectivity and consistency. It can be used in both basic and clinical sciences.

Key Feature Test is a clinical scenario-based paper and pencil test. A description of the problem is followed by a limited number of questions that focus on critical, challenging actions or decisions. It has higher content validity with proper blueprinting.

Long Case involves use of a non-standardised real patient. Long case may provide a unique opportunity to test the physician's tasks and interaction with a real patient. It has poor content validity, is less reliable and lacks consistency. Reproducibility of the score is 0.39; meaning 39% of the variability of the score is due to actual performance of students (signal) and the remaining 61% of the variability is due to errors in measurement (noise) (Noricine,2002). In high stake summative assessment long case should be avoided.

Short Case involves use of three to four non-standardised real patients with one to two examiners. It provides opportunity for assessment with real patients and allows greater sampling than single long cse.

Objective Structured Clinical examination (OSCE) consists of multiple stations where each candidate is asked to perform a defined task such as taking a focused history or performing a focused clinical examination of a particular system. A standardized marking scheme specific for each case is used. It is an effective alternative to unstructured short cases.

Mini-Clinical Evaluation Exercise (Mini-CEX) is a rating scale developed by American Board of Internal Medicine to assess six core competencies of residents: medical interviewing skills, physical examination skills, humanistic qualities/professionalism, clinical judgment, counseling skills, organization and efficiency.

Direct Observation of Procedural Skills (DOPS) is a structured rating scale for assessing and providing feedback on practical procedures. The competencies that are commonly assessed include general knowledge about the procedure, informed consent, pre-procedure preparation, analgesia, technical ability, aseptic technique, post-proicdure management, and counseling and communication.

Clinical Work Sampling is an in-trainee evaluation method that addresses the issue of system and rater biases by collecting data on observed behaviour at the same time of actual performance and by using multiple observers and occasions.

Checklists are used to capture an observed behaviour or action oof a student. Generally rating is by a five to seven point

360-Degree Evaluation/Multisource Assessment consists of measurement tools completed by multiple individuals in a person's sphere of influence. Assessment by peers, other members of the clinical team, and patients can provide insight into trainees' work habits, capacity for team work, and interpersonal sensitivity

In the Logbook students keep a record of the patients seen or procedures performed either in a book or in a computer. It documents the range of patient care and learning experience of students. Logbook is very useful in focusing students on important objectives that must be fulfilled within a specified period of time (Blake, 2001).

Portfolio refers to a collection of one's professional and personal goals, achievements, and methods of achieving these goals. Portfolios demonstrate a trainees' development and technical capacity.

Skill based assessments are designed to measure the knowledge, skills, and judgment required for competency in a given domain.

Test of clinical competence, which allows decisions to be made about medical qualification and fitness to practice, must be designed with respect to key issues including blueprinting, validity, reliability, and standard setting, as well as clarity about their formative or summative function. MCQs, essays, and oral examinations could be used to test factual recall and applied knowledge, but more sophisticated methods are needed to assess clinical performance, including directly observed long and short cases, objective structure clinical examinations, and the use of standardized patients.

The Objective Structure Clinical examination (OSCE) has been widely adopted as a tool to assess students, or doctor's competences in a range of subjects. It measures outcomes and allows very specific feedback.

Other approaches to skill-based assessment include: traditional (Oral exam/viva, long case); alternative formats (tackle the problems associated with traditional orals and long cases by having examiners observe the candidates complete interaction with the patient, training examiners to a structured assessment process, increasing the number of patient problems. Traditional unstructured orals and long cases have largely been discontinued in North America.

While selecting an assessment instrument it is necessary to know precisely what it is that is to be measured. This should reflect course outcomes as different learning outcomes require the use of different instruments. It is essential to use an instrument that is valid, reliable and feasible (calculating the cost of the assessment, both in terms of resources and time). Full variety of instruments will ensure that the results obtained are a true reflection of the students' performance.

Multiple sampling strategies as the accepted methods used in assessment in clinical competency include OSCE, Short Answer Questions, mini-CEX (Mini Clinical Evaluation Exerciser), Directly Observed Procedural Skills (DOPS), Clinical work sampling (CWS), and 360-degree evaluation.

The assessment is an integral component of overall educational activities. Assessment should be designed prospectively along with learning outcomes. It should be purpose driven. Assessment methods must provide valid and usable data. Methods must yield reliable and generalisable data.

Multiple assessment methods are necessary to capture all or most aspects of clinical competency and any single method is not sufficient to do the job. For knowledge, concepts, application of knowledge ('Knows' and 'Knows How' of Miller's conceptual pyramid for clinical competence) context-based MCQ, extended matching item and short answer questions are appropriate. For 'Shows How" multi-station OSCE is feasible. For performance-based assessment ('does') mini-CEX, DOPS is appropriate. Alternatively clinical work sampling and portfolio or log book may be used.

Standard setting involves judgment, reaching consensus, and expressing that consensus as a single score on a test. Norm Referenced Scores are suitable for admission exercise that requires selection of a predetermined number of candidates. Criterion Referenced Standard (based on predefined test goals and standards in performance during an examination where a certain level of knowledge or skill has been determined as required for passing) is feasible for competency-based examination. Various approaches available include test-centred approach (Agnoff's method and its variations), examinee-centred approach (borderline group method), and several other innovations. Blueprinting r efers to a process emphasizing that test content should be carefully planned against learning objectives.

The purpose of assessment should direct the choice of instruments. Needs assessment is the starting point of good assessment that identifies the current status of the students before the commencement of the actual educational activities. Needs assessment is used to determine the existing knowledge base, future needs, and priority areas that should be addressed.

Student assessment is a comprehensive decision making process with many important implications beyond the measure of students' success. Student assessment is also related to program evaluation. It provides important data to determine the program effectiveness, improves the teaching program, and helps in developing educational concepts.

Good quality assessment not only satisfies the needs of accreditation but also contributes to student's learning. Assessment methods should match the competencies being learnt and the teaching formats being used.

Competence is a habit of lifelong learning, is contextual (e.g. practice setting, the local prevalence of disease, etc) and developmental (habits of mind and behaviour and practical wisdom are gained through deliberate practice.

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Medical education, the art and science behind medical learning and teaching, has progressed remarkably. Teaching and learning have become more scientific and rigorous, curricula are based on sound pedagogical principles, and Problem Based and other forms of active and self directed learning have become the mainstream.

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How Professionalism is Assessed: Insights from the Literature

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How Professionalism is Assessed: Insights from the Literature

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A comprehensive resource that explores how professionalism can be assessed, with discussions on the ideologies, practices, and challenges in measuring professional behavior.

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Qualitative Research for Health Professionals

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Qualitative Research for Health Professionals

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A novice’s guide to qualitative health professions education research - PubMed

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Qualitative research has long been considered the poor cousin to quantitative research. However, recently it has gained more prominence and respect, particularly within health professions education. This article aims to introduce the novice researcher to the fundamental principles of qualitative res …

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Qualittaive, Quantitative and Mixed method designs

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Qualittaive, Quantitative and Mixed method designs