# data[].attributes.body
What do all the countries have in common and is this because they are all in the same region?

# data[].attributes.body
How did your expectations of Africa's government and economy differ then the reality of it?

# data[].attributes.body
In 2007, The union of Democratic Forces for Unity, The Union of the Republican Forces and The Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace joined the C.A.R army after they joined Seleka. Seleka is an alliance.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
1894: Area named Ubangi-Chari and set up as a dependency by the French

1910: Integrated in the Federation of French Equatorial Africa

1958: The territory gains self-government within French Equatorial Africa and Barthélemy Boganda becomes prime minister

1960: David Dacko becomes president of now-independent Central African Republic (CAR)

1962: President makes the country a one-party state. The Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa, Mesan, becomes the only legal party

1965: Army commander Jean-Bédel Bokassa gains power

1976: Bokassa crowns himself emperor in the renamed Central African Empire

1988: Bokassa sentenced to death for embezzlement and murder

1993: Military rule ends with election of President Ange-Félix Patassé

2003: Patassé is ousted by rebel leader François Bozizé who declares himself president

2007: Three rebel groups - the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity, the Union of Republican Forces and the Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace - form an alliance called Seleka. After an accord with the government, they join CAR army

2012: Some rebels take up arms once more and gain control of the north and centre of the country

2013 March: Seleka rebels overrun the capital and seize power. Bozizé flees. Rebel leader Michel Djotodia suspends constitution and dissolves parliament in a coup condemned internationally

2013 August: Djotodia is sworn in as president

2013 October: UN Security Council approves deployment of UN peacekeepers

2013 December: French send new contingents to CAR amid signs of increasing lawlessness and violence
Topics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
1894: Area named Ubangi-Chari and set up as a dependency by the French 1910: Integrated in the Federation of French Equatorial Africa 1958: The territory gains self-government within French Equatorial Africa and Barthélemy Boganda becomes prime minister 1960: David Dacko becomes president of now-independent Central African Republic (CAR) 1962: President makes the country a one-party state.

# data[].attributes.body
In May, 1997, renamed Zaire to what we call it today, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Then Laurent Desire Kabila was elected as president.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A chronology of key events:

1200s - Rise of Kongo empire, centred in modern northern Angola and including extreme western Congo and territories round lakes Kisale and Upemba in central Katanga (now Shaba).

Timeline - the short version

1870s - Belgian King Leopold II sets about colonizing the area as his private holding

1908 - Congo Free State placed under Belgian rule following outrage over treatment of Congolese

1960 - Independence, followed by civil war and temporary fragmentation of country

1965 - Mobutu Sese Seko seizes power

1997 - Rebels oust Mobutu. Laurent Kabila becomes president

1997-2003 - Civil war, drawing in several neighbouring countries (Africa's first world war)

2003 - 2012 - Conflict persists in the east

2006 - Presidential elections

1482 - Portuguese navigator Diogo Cao becomes the first European to visit the Congo; Portuguese set up ties with the king of Kongo.

16th-17th centuries - British, Dutch, Portuguese and French merchants engage in slave trade through Kongo intermediaries.

1870s - Belgian King Leopold II sets up a private venture to colonise Kongo.

1874-77 - British explorer Henry Stanley navigates Congo river to the Atlantic Ocean.

Belgian colonisation

1879-87 - Leopold commissions Stanley to establish the king's authority in the Congo basin.

1884-85 - European powers at the Conference of Berlin recognise Leopold's claim to the Congo basin.

1885 - Leopold announces the establishment of the Congo Free State, headed by himself.

1891-92 - Belgians conquer Katanga.

1892-94 - Eastern Congo wrested from the control of East African Arab and Swahili-speaking traders.

1908 - Belgian state annexes Congo amid protests over killings and atrocities carried out on a mass scale by Leopold's agents. Millions of Congolese are said to have been killed or worked to death during Leopold's control of the territory.

1955 - Belgian Professor Antoin van Bilsen publishes a "30-Year Plan" for granting the Congo increased self-government.

1959 - Belgium begins to lose control over events in the Congo following serious nationalist riots in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa).

Post-independence turmoil

1960 June - Congo becomes independent with Patrice Lumumba as prime minister and Joseph Kasavubu as president.

1960 July - Congolese army mutinies; Moise Tshombe declares Katanga independent; Belgian troops sent in ostensibly to protect Belgian citizens and mining interests; UN Security Council votes to send in troops to help establish order, but the troops are not allowed to intervene in internal affairs.

1960 September - Kasavubu dismisses Lumumba as prime minister.

1960 December - Lumumba arrested.

1961 February - Lumumba murdered, reportedly with US and Belgian complicity.

1961 August - UN troops begin disarming Katangese soldiers.

1963 - Tshombe agrees to end Katanga's secession.

1964 - President Kasavubu appoints Tshombe prime minister.

Mobutu years

1965 - Kasavubu and Tshombe ousted in a coup led by Joseph Mobutu.

1971 - Joseph Mobutu renames the country Zaire and himself Mobutu Sese Seko; also Katanga becomes Shaba and the river Congo becomes the river Zaire.

1973-74 - Mobutu nationalises many foreign-owned firms and forces European investors out of the country.

1977 - Mobutu invites foreign investors back, without much success; French, Belgian and Moroccan troops help repulse attack on Katanga by Angolan-based rebels.

1989 - Zaire defaults on loans from Belgium, resulting in a cancellation of development programmes and increased deterioration of the economy.

1990 - Mobutu agrees to end the ban on multiparty politics and appoints a transitional government, but retains substantial powers.

1991 - Following riots in Kinshasa by unpaid soldiers, Mobutu agrees to a coalition government with opposition leaders, but retains control of the security apparatus and important ministries.

1993 - Rival pro- and anti-Mobutu governments created.

1994 - Mobutu agrees to the appointment of Kengo Wa Dondo, an advocate of austerity and free-market reforms, as prime minister.

1996-97 - Tutsi rebels capture much of eastern Zaire while Mobutu is abroad for medical treatment.

Aftermath of Mobutu

1997 May - Tutsi and other anti-Mobutu rebels, aided principally by Rwanda, capture the capital, Kinshasa; Zaire is renamed the Democratic Republic of Congo; Laurent-Desire Kabila installed as president.

1998 August - Rebels backed by Rwanda and Uganda rise up against Kabila and advance on Kinshasa. Zimbabwe, Namibia send troops to repel them. Angolan troops also side with Kabila. The rebels take control of much of the east of DR Congo.

1999 - Rifts emerge between Congolese Liberation Movement (MLC) rebels supported by Uganda and Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) rebels backed by Rwanda.

Lusaka peace accord signed

1999 July - The six African countries involved in the war sign a ceasefire accord in Lusaka. The following month the MLC and RCD rebel groups sign the accord.

2000 - UN Security Council authorises a 5,500-strong UN force to monitor the ceasefire but fighting continues between rebels and government forces, and between Rwandan and Ugandan forces.

2001 January - President Laurent Kabila is shot dead by a bodyguard. Joseph Kabila succeeds his father.

2001 February - Kabila meets Rwandan President Paul Kagame in Washington. Rwanda, Uganda and the rebels agree to a UN pull-out plan. Uganda, Rwanda begin pulling troops back from the frontline.

2001 May - US refugee agency says the war has killed 2.5 million people, directly or indirectly, since August 1998. Later, a UN panel says the warring parties are deliberately prolonging the conflict to plunder gold, diamonds, timber and coltan, used in the making of mobile phones.

2002 January - Eruption of Mount Nyiragongo devastates much of the city of Goma.

Search for peace

2002 April - Peace talks in South Africa: Kinshasa signs a power-sharing deal with Ugandan-backed rebels, under which the MLC leader would be premier. Rwandan-backed RCD rebels reject the deal.

2002 July - Presidents of DR Congo and Rwanda sign a peace deal under which Rwanda will withdraw troops from the east and DR Congo will disarm and arrest Rwandan Hutu gunmen blamed for the killing of the Tutsi minority in Rwanda's 1994 genocide.

2002 September - Presidents of DR Congo and Uganda sign peace accord under which Ugandan troops will leave DR Congo.

2002 September/October - Uganda, Rwanda say they have withdrawn most of their forces from the east. UN-sponsored power-sharing talks begin in South Africa.

2002 December - Peace deal signed in South Africa between Kinshasa government and main rebel groups. Under the deal rebels and opposition members are to be given portfolios in an interim government.

Interim government

2003 April - President Kabila signs a transitional constitution, under which an interim government will rule pending elections.

2003 May - Last Ugandan troops leave eastern DR Congo.

2003 June - French soldiers arrive in Bunia, spearheading a UN-mandated rapid-reaction force.

President Kabila names a transitional government to lead until elections in two years time. Leaders of main former rebel groups are sworn in as vice-presidents in July.

2003 August - Interim parliament inaugurated.

2004 March - Gunmen attack military bases in Kinshasa in an apparent coup attempt.

2004 June - Reported coup attempt by rebel guards is said to have been neutralised.

2004 December - Fighting in the east between the Congolese army and renegade soldiers from a former pro-Rwanda rebel group. Rwanda denies being behind the mutiny.

2005 March - UN peacekeepers say they have killed more then 50 militia members in an offensive, days after nine Bangladeshi soldiers serving with the UN are killed in the north-east.

New constitution

2005 May - New constitution, with text agreed by former warring factions, is adopted by parliament.

2005 September - Uganda warns that its troops may re-enter DR Congo after a group of Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army rebels enter via Sudan.

2005 November - A first wave of soldiers from the former Zairean army returns after almost eight years of exile in the neighbouring Republic of Congo.

2005 December - Voters back a new constitution, already approved by parliament, paving the way for elections in 2006.

International Court of Justice rules that Uganda must compensate DR Congo for rights abuses and the plundering of resources in the five years up to 2003.

2006 February - New constitution comes into force; new national flag is adopted.

2006 March - Warlord Thomas Lubanga becomes first war crimes suspect to face charges at the International Criminal Court in The Hague. He is accused of forcing children into active combat.

2006 May - Thousands are displaced in the north-east as the army and UN peacekeepers step up their drive to disarm irregular forces ahead of the elections.

Free elections

2006 July - Presidential and parliamentary polls are held - the first free elections in four decades. With no clear winner in the presidential vote, incumbent leader Joseph Kabila and opposition candidate Jean-Pierre Bemba prepare to contest a run-off poll on 29 October. Forces loyal to the two candidates clash in the capital.

2006 November - Joseph Kabila is declared winner of October's run-off presidential election. The poll has the general approval of international monitors.

2006 December - Forces of renegade General Laurent Nkunda and the UN-backed army clash in North Kivu province, prompting some 50,000 people to flee. The UN Security Council expresses concern about the fighting.

2007 March - Government troops and forces loyal to opposition leader Jean-Pierre Bemba clash in Kinshasa.

2007 April - DRCongo, Rwanda and Burundi relaunch the regional economic bloc Great lakes Countries Economic Community, known under its French acronym CEPGL.

2007 April - Jean-Pierre Bemba leaves for Portugal, ending a three-week political stalemate in Kinshasa, during which he sheltered in the South African embassy.

2007 May - The UN investigates allegations of gold and arms trafficking by UN peacekeepers in Ituri region.

2007 June - War could break out again in the east, warns the Archbishop of Bukavu, Monsignor Francois-Xavier Maroy.

2007 June - Radio Okapi broadcaster Serge Maheshe is shot dead in Bukavu, the third journalist killed in the country since 2005.

2007 August - Uganda and DRCongo agree to try defuse a border dispute.

Aid agencies report a big increase in refugees fleeing instability in North Kivu which is blamed on dissident general Nkunda.

2007 September - Major outbreak of the deadly Ebola virus.

2008 January - The government and rebel militia, including renegade Gen Nkunda, sign a peace pact aimed at ending years of conflict in the east.

Renewed clashes

2008 April - Army troops clash with Rwandan Hutu militias with whom they were formerly allied in eastern Congo, leaving thousands of people displaced.

2008 August - Heavy clashes erupt in the east of the country between army troops and fighters loyal to rebel leader Laurent Nkunda.

2008 October - Rebel forces capture major army base of Rumangabo; the Congolese government accuses Rwanda of backing General Nkunda, a claim Rwanda denies.

Thousands of people, including Congolese troops, flee as clashes in eastern DR Congo intensify. Chaos grips the provincial capital Goma as rebel forces advance. UN peacekeepers engage the rebels in an attempt to support Congolese troops.

2008 November - Campaign by Tutsi rebel leader Laurent Nkunda to consolidate control over east prompts new wave of refugees.

UN Security Council approves temporary increase of troops to bolster the strained UN peacekeeping effort.

2008 December - Uganda, South Sudan and DRCongo launch joint assault on Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army bases in north-east DRCongo. Hundreds of civilians are killed in backlash attacks.

2009 January - Launch of joint DRCongo-Rwandan military operation against Tutsi rebels led by Laurent Nkunda. Campaign lasts five weeks.

Nkunda is displaced by Bosco Ntaganda and arrested in Rwanda.

2009 February - Medecins San Frontiers accuses UN peacekeepers of failing to protect civilians from LRA rebels.

2009 April - Hutu militia re-emerge after end of joint DRCongo-Rwanda campaign in east, prompting thousands to flee.

2009 May - Kabila approves law giving amnesty to armed groups as part of deal meant to end fighting in east.

2009 June - International Criminal Court orders ex-vice president Jean-Pierre Bemba to stand trial on charges of war crimes for his troops' actions in Central African Republic between 2002 and 2003.

Series of mutinies by soldiers in the east complaining they haven't been paid.

2009 July - Swiss court rules that frozen assets of ex-president Mobutu Sese Seko be returned to his family.

2009 August - US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visits Goma, promises $17 million aid for victims of sexual violence.

Head of MONUC Alan Doss declares five months of joint army-UN operations against Rwandan rebels - "Kimia 2" - to have been "largely positive".

2009 September - UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay suspects October-November 2008 violence in North Kivu may amount to war crimes committed by both the army and CNDP militia.

2009 November - Germany arrests two alleged FDLR leaders on suspicion of war crimes in eastern DR Congo.

2009 December - UN extends mandate of MONUC for shortened five months, as a step to full withdrawal by mid-2010.

2010 May - Government steps up pressure for UN peacekeepers to quit before elections in 2011. UN's top humanitarian official John Holmes warns against premature departure.

2010 June - Prominent human rights advocate Floribert Chebeya found dead a day after being summoned to meet the chief of police.

Celebrations mark 50 years of independence.

2010 July - $8 billion debt relief deal approved by World Bank and IMF.

New electoral commission launched to prepare for 2011 elections.

2010 July-August - Mass rapes reported in North Kivu province. UN envoy Margot Wallstrom blames both rebels and army.

2010 June-August - Operation Rwenzori against Ugandan ADF-NALU rebels prompts 90,000 to flee in North Kivu province.

2010 October - UN report into killing of Hutus in DR Congo between 1993 and 2003 says they may constitute "crimes of genocide". It implicates Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, Zimbabwe and Angola.

2010 November - UN agencies report widespread rapes during mass expulsion of illigal migrants from Angola to DRCongo.

UN report accuses networks within army of promoting violence in east to profit from mining, smuggling and poaching.

Ex-DRCongo vice-president Jean-Pierre Bemba goes on trial at International Criminal Court accused of letting his troops rape and kill in Central African Republic between 2002 and 2003.

Paris Club of creditor countries scrap half of DRCongo's debt.

2011 January - Constitution changed, which some say boost President Kabila's election chances.

2011 February - Court sentences Lt-Col Kibibi Mutware to 20 years in jail in a mass rape case in eastern Congo. This is the first conviction of a commanding officer for rape in eastern DR Congo.

19 killed in coup bid against president, police say.

2011 May - Rwandan Hutu rebel Ignace Murwanashyaka goes on trial in Germany for alleged crimes against humanity in DR Congo.

2011 July - Col Nyiragire Kulimushi, who is accused of ordering the mass rape of women in eastern DR Congo, surrenders to authorities.

2011 September - Mai Mai militia leader Gideon Kyungu Mutanga escapes during a mass prison break-out by almost 1,000 inmates.

2011 November - Presidential and parliamentary elections. Mr Kabila gains another term. The vote is criticised abroad and the opposition disputes the result.

2012 July - Warlord Thomas Lubanga becomes first person convicted by the International Criminal Court since it was set up 10 years ago. He is sentenced to 14 years in jail for using child soldiers in his rebel army in 2002 and 2003.

2012 October - The UN Security Council announces its intention to impose sanctions against leaders of the M23 rebel movement and violators of the DRC arms embargo. A UN panel says Rwanda and Uganda are supplying M23 with weapons and support, which both countries deny.

2012 November - M23 troops briefly enter Goma, the main city in the resources-rich east, then withdraw on promise government will release some of their supporters.

2013 February - Representatives of 11 African countries sign an accord in Ethiopia pledging to help end the conflict in DR Congo. The M23 rebel group declared a ceasefire ahead of the talks.

2013 March - Warlord and alleged M23 founder Bosco Ntaganda surrenders to US embassy in Rwanda and is transferred to the International Criminal Court in The Hague to face war-crimes charges.

2013 July - 3,000-member UN Intervention Brigade deployed to fight and disarm rebels in the east.

2013 December - M23 rebel group signs peace deal with government after army captures last of strongholds in east.

Army repulses attacks on state TV, international airport and a military base in Kinshasa by supporters of self-proclaimed prophet Paul Joseph Mukungubila.

2014 February - UN accuses rival Mai Mai militias of killing more than 70 civilians in Masisi area of North Kivu, in east of country.

2014 March - International Criminal Court finds FRPI militia leader Germain Katanga guilty of war crimes over 2003 massacre of villagers in Ituri province.

2014 June - Congolese and Rwandan troops clash on the border of their two countries.

London-based oil company SOCO International announces the suspension of exploratory drilling in Virunga National Park, home to 200 endangered mountain gorillas.

2014 May - Two soldiers are convicted of rape in the trial of 39 members of the military accused of war crimes in the east. They were accused of going on the rampage while retreating after losing the city of Goma to rebels in 2012.

DR Congo says almost 60,000 of its citizens have been deported by Congo-Brazzaville in the past month in what is seen as an operation to evict illegal immigrants.

2015 January - Dozens killed in protests against proposed electoral law changes which the opposition said were designed to allow President Kabila to remain in power.

2016 May - Ex-Katanga Governor Moïse Katumbi declares intention to run for president. He subsequently faces arrest, but leaves the country for medical treatment.

2016 November - A political deal signed between President Kabila's ruling coalition and the opposition to delay the presidential election until 2018 sees Prime Minister Augustin Matata Ponyo and his cabinet resign, paving the the way for a new cabinet to include opposition figures.

2017 June - UN says some 2,000 people have been killed in ethnically-inspired violence in recent months in Kasai province, where numerous mass graves have been found.

2017 November - Electoral commission publishes a timetable scheduling elections for December 2018.

2017 December - DR Congo is experiencing a "mega-crisis", with conflict having forced 1.7 million people to flee their homes during the year, aid agencies say. DR Congo is worst-affected by conflict displacement in the world, they say.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
1200s - Rise of Kongo empire, centred in modern northern Angola and including extreme western Congo and territories round lakes Kisale and Upemba in central Katanga (now Shaba).

# data[].attributes.body
In the early 20th century, Chad had a French conquest trying to gain independence. Before this they tried to remove all Northern and Southern Muslims. Due to the over population of Muslims they had poverty and underdeveloped in education and medical care.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
French Equatorial Africa was first formed in 1910 by the federation of three French imperial colonies: Gabon, Middle Congo, and Ubangi-Shari-Chad. Chad was separated from Ubangi-Shari in 1920.

# data[].attributes.body
Democratic Republic of Congo vs. Gabon. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is a semi presidential republic which is when the president has a prime minister and cabinet with latter 2 in charge of the legislature branch while Gabon is a presidential republic. A presidential republic is when the president runs the branches of government instead of them having equal power.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Office of Public Affairs (OPA) is the single point of contact for all inquiries about the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

We read every letter, fax, or e-mail we receive, and we will convey your comments to CIA officials outside OPA as appropriate. However, with limited staff and resources, we simply cannot respond to all who write to us.

Contact Information

Submit questions or comments online

By postal mail:
Central Intelligence Agency
Office of Public Affairs
Washington, D.C. 20505

By phone:
(703) 482-0623
Open during normal business hours.

By fax:
(571) 204-3800
(please include a phone number where we may call you)

Contact the Office of Inspector General

Contact the Employment Verification Office
Before contacting us:

Please check our site map, search feature, or our site navigation on the left to locate the information you seek. We do not routinely respond to questions for which answers are found within this Web site.

Employment: We do not routinely answer questions about employment beyond the information on this Web site, and we do not routinely answer inquiries about the status of job applications. Recruiting will contact applicants within 45 days if their qualifications meet our needs.

Because of safety concerns for the prospective applicant, as well as security and communication issues, the CIA Recruitment Center does not accept resumes, nor can we return phone calls, e-mails or other forms of communication, from US citizens living outside of the US. When you return permanently to the US (not on vacation or leave), please visit the CIA Careers page and apply online for the position of interest.

To verify an employee's employment, please contact the Employment Verification Office.

Solicitations to transfer large sums of money to your bank account: If you receive a solicitation to transfer a large amount of money from an African nation to your bank account in exchange for a payment of millions of dollars, go to the US Secret Service Web site for information about the Nigerian Advance Fee Fraud or "4-1-9" Fraud scheme.

If you have information which you believe might be of interest to the CIA in pursuit of the CIA's foreign intelligence mission, you may use our e-mail form. We will carefully protect all information you provide, including your identity. The CIA, as a foreign intelligence agency, does not engage in US domestic law enforcement.

If you have information relating to Iraq which you believe might be of interest to the US Government, please contact us through the Iraqi Rewards Program -

The United States and its partners continue to face a growing number of global threats and challenges. The CIA's mission includes collecting and analyzing information about high priority national security issues such as international terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, cyber attacks, international organized crime and narcotics trafficking, regional conflicts, counterintelligence threats, and the effects of environmental and natural disasters.

These challenges are international in scope and are priorities for the Central Intelligence Agency. If you have information about these or other national security challenges, please provide it through our secure online form. The information you provide will be protected and confidential. The CIA is particularly interested in information about imminent or planned terrorist attacks. In cases where an imminent threat exists, immediately contact your local law enforcement agencies and provide them with the threat information.
To contact the Central Intelligence Agency click here.

Europe :: ROMANIA

Introduction :: ROMANIA

The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuries under the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured their autonomy in 1856; they were de facto linked in 1859 and formally united in 1862 under the new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of its independence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I and acquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following the conflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers and participated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three years later, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. The post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a communist "people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. The decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in 1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressive and draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown and executed in late 1989. Former communists dominated the government until 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.

Geography :: ROMANIA

Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Ukraine

twice the size of Pennsylvania; slightly smaller than Oregon

border countries (5): Bulgaria 605 km, Hungary 424 km, Moldova 683 km, Serbia 531 km, Ukraine 601 km

exclusive economic zone: 200 nm

continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation

temperate; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow and fog; sunny summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms

central Transylvanian Basin is separated from the Moldavian Plateau on the east by the Eastern Carpathian Mountains and separated from the Walachian Plain on the south by the Transylvanian Alps

elevation extremes: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m

highest point: Moldoveanu 2,544 m

petroleum (reserves declining), timber, natural gas, coal, iron ore, salt, arable land, hydropower

arable land 39.1%; permanent crops 1.9%; permanent pasture 19.7%

urbanization is not particularly high, and a fairly even population distribution can be found throughout most of the country, with urban areas attracting larger and denser populations; Hungarians, the country's largest minority, have a particularly strong presence in eastern Transylvania

earthquakes, most severe in south and southwest; geologic structure and climate promote landslides

soil erosion and degradation; water pollution; air pollution in south from industrial effluents; contamination of Danube delta wetlands

party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands

signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

controls the most easily traversable land route between the Balkans, Moldova, and Ukraine; the Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of the country, while the Danube River forms much of the southern boundary with Serbia and Bulgaria

People and Society :: ROMANIA

21,529,967 (July 2017 est.)

Romanian 83.4%, Hungarian 6.1%, Romani 3.1%, Ukrainian 0.3%, German 0.2%, other 0.7%, unspecified 6.1% (2011 est.)

note: Romani populations are usually underestimated in official statistics and may represent 5-11% of Romania's population

Romanian (official) 85.4%, Hungarian 6.3%, Romani 1.2%, other 1%, unspecified 6.1% (2011 est.)

Eastern Orthodox (including all sub-denominations) 81.9%, Protestant (various denominations including Reformed and Pentecostal) 6.4%, Roman Catholic 4.3%, other (includes Muslim) 0.9%, none or atheist 0.2%, unspecified 6.3% (2011 est.)

0-14 years: 14.35% (male 1,586,976/female 1,502,864)

15-24 years: 10.6% (male 1,170,679/female 1,110,727)

25-54 years: 46.03% (male 5,016,529/female 4,893,792)

55-64 years: 12.61% (male 1,271,281/female 1,443,414)

65 years and over: 16.41% (male 1,428,599/female 2,105,106) (2017 est.)

population pyramid:

total dependency ratio: 48

youth dependency ratio: 22.8

elderly dependency ratio: 25.2

potential support ratio: 4 (2015 est.)

female: 42.6 years (2017 est.)

8.9 births/1,000 population (2017 est.)

12 deaths/1,000 population (2017 est.)

-0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)

urbanization is not particularly high, and a fairly even population distribution can be found throughout most of the country, with urban areas attracting larger and denser populations; Hungarians, the country's largest minority, have a particularly strong presence in eastern Transylvania

urban population: 54% of total population (2018)

rate of urbanization: -0.38% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)

BUCHAREST (capital) 1.821 million (2018)

at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female

0-14 years: 1.06 male(s)/female

15-24 years: 1.05 male(s)/female

25-54 years: 1.02 male(s)/female

55-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female

total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2017 est.)

31 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)

total: 9.4 deaths/1,000 live births

male: 10.7 deaths/1,000 live births

female: 8 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.)

total population: 75.4 years

female: 79 years (2017 est.)

1.35 children born/woman (2017 est.)

2.67 physicians/1,000 population (2013)

6.3 beds/1,000 population (2013)

urban: 100% of population

rural: 100% of population

total: 100% of population

total: 0% of population (2015 est.)

urban: 92.2% of population

rural: 63.3% of population

total: 79.1% of population

urban: 7.8% of population

rural: 36.7% of population

total: 20.9% of population (2015 est.)

definition: age 15 and over can read and write

female: 98.5% (2015 est.)

female: 23.4% (2015 est.)

Government :: ROMANIA

conventional long form: none

conventional short form: Romania

local short form: Romania

etymology: the name derives from the Latin "Romanus" meaning "citizen of Rome" and was used to stress the common ancient heritage of Romania's three main regions - Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia - during their gradual unification between the mid-19th century and early 20th century

semi-presidential republic

geographic coordinates: 44 26 N, 26 06 E

time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last Sunday in October

41 counties (judete, singular - judet) and 1 municipality* (municipiu); Alba, Arad, Arges, Bacau, Bihor, Bistrita-Nasaud, Botosani, Braila, Brasov, Bucuresti (Bucharest)*, Buzau, Calarasi, Caras-Severin, Cluj, Constanta, Covasna, Dambovita, Dolj, Galati, Gorj, Giurgiu, Harghita, Hunedoara, Ialomita, Iasi, Ilfov, Maramures, Mehedinti, Mures, Neamt, Olt, Prahova, Salaj, Satu Mare, Sibiu, Suceava, Teleorman, Timis, Tulcea, Vaslui, Valcea, Vrancea

9 May 1877 (independence proclaimed from the Ottoman Empire; 13 July 1878 independence recognized by the Treaty of Berlin); 26 March 1881 (kingdom proclaimed); 30 December 1947 (republic proclaimed)

Unification Day (unification of Romania and Transylvania), 1 December (1918)

history: several previous; latest adopted 21 November 1991, approved by referendum and effective 8 December 1991

amendments: initiated by the president of Romania through a proposal by the government, by at least one-fourth of deputies or senators in Parliament, or by petition of eligible voters representing at least one-half of Romania's counties; passage requires at least two-thirds majority vote by both chambers or - if mediation is required - by three-fourths majority vote in a joint session, followed by approval in a referendum; articles including those on national sovereignty, form of government, political pluralism, and fundamental rights and freedoms cannot be amended; amended 2003 (2016)

accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; accepts ICCt jurisdiction

citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Romania

dual citizenship recognized: yes

residency requirement for naturalization: 5 years

18 years of age; universal

chief of state: President Klaus Werner IOHANNIS (since 21 December 2014)

head of government: Prime Minister Viorica DANCILA (since 29 January 2018); Deputy Prime Ministers Gratiela GAVRILESCU (since 29 June 2017), Paul STANESCU (17 October 2017), Viorel STEFAN (since 29 January 2018), Ana BIRCHALL (since 29 January 2018); note - DANCILA is Romania's first woman prime minister

cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister

elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 2 November 2014 with a runoff on 16 November 2014 (next to be held in November 2019); prime minister appointed by the president with consent of Parliament

election results: Klaus IOHANNIS elected president in second round; percent of vote - Klaus IOHANNIS (PNL) 54.4%, Victor PONTA (PSD) 45.6%; Viorica DANCILA approved as prime minister 282-136

description: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Senate or Senat (136 seats, 2 reserved for the diaspora; members serve 4-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camera Deputatilor (329 seats, 17 reserved for non-Hungarian national minorities and 4 for the diaspora; members serve 4-year terms); in 2016, the elections returned to a party list vote-proportional representation voting system

elections: Senate - last held on 11 December 2016 (next to be held by December 2020); Chamber of Deputies - last held on 11 December 2016 (next to be held by December 2020)

election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - PSD 45.7%, PNL 20.4%, USR 8.9%, UDMR 6.2%, ALDE 6%, PMP 5.7%, other 7.1%; seats by party - PSD 67, PNL 30, USR 13, UDMR 9, ALDE 9, PMP 8; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - PSD 45.5%, PNL 20%, USR 8.9%, UDMR 6.2%, ALDE 5.6%, PMP 5.4%, other 8.4%; seats by party - PSD 154, PNL 69, USR 30, UDMR 21, ALDE 20, PMP 18, minorities 17

highest court(s): High Court of Cassation and Justice (consists of 111 judges organized into civil, penal, commercial, contentious administrative and fiscal business, and joint sections); Supreme Constitutional Court (consists of 9 members)

judge selection and term of office: High Court of Cassation and Justice judges appointed by the president upon nomination by the Superior Council of Magistracy, a 19-member body of judges, prosecutors, and law specialists; judges appointed for 6-year renewable terms; Constitutional Court members - 6 elected by Parliament and 3 appointed by the president; members serve 9-year, nonrenewable terms

subordinate courts: Courts of Appeal; regional tribunals; first instance courts; military and arbitration courts

Christian-Democratic National Peasants' Party or PNT-CD [Aurelian PAVELESCU]

Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania or UDMR [Hunor KELEMEN]

Civic Hungarian Party [Zsolt BIRO]

Ecologist Party of Romania or PER [Danut POP]

Greater Romania Party or PRM [Adrian POPESCU]

M10 Party [Ioana CONSTANTIN]

National Liberal Party or PNL [Ludovic ORBAN]

New Romania Party or PNR [Sebastian POPESCU]

Our Romania Alliance [Marian MUNTEANU]

Party of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats or ALDE [Calin POPESCU TARICEANU]

Popular Movement Party or PMP [Traian BASESCU]

Romanian Social Party or PSRo [Mircea GEOANA]

Save Romania Union Party or Partidul USR [Dan BARNA]

Social Democratic Party or PSD [Liviu DRAGNEA]

United Romania Party or PRU [Robert BUGA]

Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, CBSS (observer), CD, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECB, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G-9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), LAIA (observer), MIGA, MONUSCO, NATO, NSG, OAS (observer), OIF, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SELEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, ZC

chief of mission: Ambassador George Cristian MAIOR (since 17 September 2015)

chancery: 1607 23rd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008

telephone: [1] (202) 332-4846, 4848, 4851, 4852

consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, New York

chief of mission: Ambassador Hans G. KLEMM (since 21 September 2015)

embassy: 4-6, Dr. Liviu Librescu Blvd., District 1, Bucharest, 015118

mailing address: American Embassy Bucharest, US Department of State, 5260 Bucharest Place, Washington, DC 20521-5260 (pouch)

telephone: [40] (21) 200-3300

three equal vertical bands of cobalt blue (hoist side), chrome yellow, and vermilion red; modeled after the flag of France, the colors are those of the principalities of Walachia (red and yellow) and Moldavia (red and blue), which united in 1862 to form Romania; the national coat of arms that used to be centered in the yellow band has been removed

note: now similar to the flag of Chad, whose blue band is darker; also resembles the flags of Andorra and Moldova

golden eagle; national colors: blue, yellow, red

name: "Desteapta-te romane!" (Wake up, Romanian!)

lyrics/music: Andrei MURESIANU/Anton PANN

note: adopted 1990; the anthem was written during the 1848 Revolution

Economy :: ROMANIA

Romania, which joined the EU on 1 January 2007, began the transition from communism in 1989 with a largely obsolete industrial base and a pattern of output unsuited to the country's needs. Romania's macroeconomic gains have only recently started to spur creation of a middle class and to address Romania's widespread poverty. Corruption and red tape continue to permeate the business environment.

In the aftermath of the global financial crisis, Romania signed a $26 billion emergency assistance package from the IMF, the EU, and other international lenders, but GDP contracted until 2011. In March 2011, Romania and the IMF/EU/World Bank signed a 24-month precautionary standby agreement, worth $6.6 billion, to promote fiscal discipline, encourage progress on structural reforms, and strengthen financial sector stability; no funds were drawn. In September 2013, Romanian authorities and the IMF/EU agreed to a follow-on standby agreement, worth $5.4 billion, to continue with reforms. This agreement expired in September 2015, and no funds were drawn. Progress on structural reforms has been uneven, and the economy still is vulnerable to external shocks.

Economic growth rebounded in the 2013-17 period, driven by strong industrial exports, excellent agricultural harvests, and, more recently, expansionary fiscal policies in 2016-2017 that nearly quadrupled Bucharest's annual fiscal deficit, from +0.8% of GDP in 2015 to -3% of GDP in 2016 and an estimated -3.4% in 2017. Industry outperformed other sectors of the economy in 2017. Exports remained an engine of economic growth, led by trade with the EU, which accounts for roughly 70% of Romania trade. Domestic demand was the major driver, due to tax cuts and large wage increases that began last year and are set to continue in 2018.

An aging population, emigration of skilled labor, significant tax evasion, insufficient health care, and an aggressive loosening of the fiscal package compromise Romania's long-term growth and economic stability and are the economy's top vulnerabilities.

$449.3 billion (2016 est.)

$428.7 billion (2015 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars

$204.9 billion (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars

household consumption: 70.6%

government consumption: 7.9%

investment in fixed capital: 22.4%

investment in inventories: 1.2%

exports of goods and services: 43.9%

imports of goods and services: -46% (2017 est.)

services: 64.4% (2017 est.)

wheat, corn, barley, sugar beets, sunflower seed, potatoes, grapes; eggs, sheep

electric machinery and equipment, auto assembly, textiles and footwear, light machinery, metallurgy, chemicals, food processing, petroleum refining, mining, timber, construction materials

8.951 million (2017 est.)

services: 42.8% (2014 est.)

highest 10%: 7.6% (2014 est.)

expenditures: $65.54 billion (2017 est.)

note: defined by the EU's Maastricht Treaty as consolidated general government gross debt at nominal value, outstanding at the end of the year in the following categories of government liabilities: currency and deposits, securities other than shares excluding financial derivatives, and loans; general government sector comprises the subsectors: central government, state government, local government, and social security funds

1.75% (31 December 2017 est.)

2.75% (31 December 2016 est.)

5.7% (31 December 2017 est.)

5.71% (31 December 2016 est.)

$54.44 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$41.82 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$90.36 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$72.97 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$67.05 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$60.3 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$36.5 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$41.04 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$42.59 billion (31 December 2013 est.)

$-6.131 billion (2017 est.)

$-4.389 billion (2016 est.)

$64.92 billion (2017 est.)

$57.72 billion (2016 est.)

machinery and equipment, other manufactured goods, agricultural products and foodstuffs, metals and metal products, chemicals, minerals and fuels, raw materials

Germany 21.5%, Italy 11.6%, France 7.2%, Hungary 5.2%, UK 4.3% (2016)

$78.12 billion (2017 est.)

$67.94 billion (2016 est.)

machinery and equipment, other manufactured goods, chemicals, agricultural products and foodstuffs, fuels and minerals, metals and metal products, raw materials

Germany 20.5%, Italy 10.3%, Hungary 7.5%, France 5.6%, Poland 5.1%, China 5.1%, Netherlands 4.1% (2016)

$45.07 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$40 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$94.17 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$93.71 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$81.53 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$76.93 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$6.263 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$5.963 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

lei (RON) per US dollar -

Energy :: ROMANIA

electrification - total population: 100% (2016)

62.16 billion kWh (2015 est.)

48.28 billion kWh (2015 est.)

11.22 billion kWh (2015 est.)

4.492 billion kWh (2015 est.)

24.03 million kW (2015 est.)

46.7% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

5.4% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

28% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

18.8% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

77,910 bbl/day (2016 est.)

1,049 bbl/day (2014 est.)

145,500 bbl/day (2014 est.)

600 million bbl (1 January 2017 est.)

228,100 bbl/day (2014 est.)

182,000 bbl/day (2015 est.)

80,400 bbl/day (2014 est.)

40,940 bbl/day (2014 est.)

11.17 billion cu m (2015 est.)

17.33 billion cu m (2015 est.)

1.078 million cu m (2015 est.)

728 million cu m (2015 est.)

105.5 billion cu m (1 January 2017 est.)

76 million Mt (2015 est.)

Communications :: ROMANIA

total subscriptions: 4.11 million

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 19 (July 2016 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 106 (July 2016 est.)

general assessment: the telecommunications sector is being expanded and modernized; domestic and international service improving rapidly, especially mobile-cellular services

domestic: fixed-line teledensity is about 20 telephones per 100 persons; mobile market served by five mobile network operators; mobile-cellular teledensity over 105 telephones per 100 persons

international: country code - 40; the Black Sea Fiber-Optic Cable System provides connectivity to Bulgaria and Turkey; satellite earth stations - 10; digital, international, direct-dial exchanges operate in Bucharest (2016)

a mixture of public and private TV stations; there are 7 public TV stations (2 national, 5 regional) using terrestrial broadcasting and 187 private TV stations (out of which 171 offer local coverage) using terrestrial broadcasting, plus 11 public TV stations using satellite broadcasting and 86 private TV stations using satellite broadcasting; state-owned public radio broadcaster operates 4 national networks and regional and local stations, having in total 20 public radio stations by terrestrial broadcasting plus 4 public radio stations by satellite broadcasting; there are 502 operational private radio stations using terrestrial broadcasting and 26 private radio stations using satellite broadcasting (2014)

percent of population: 59.5% (July 2016 est.)

Transportation :: ROMANIA

number of registered air carriers: 5

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 51

annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 3,636,642

annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 4,691,280 mt-km (2015)

gas 3,726 km; oil 2,451 km (2013)

broad gauge: 60 km 1.524-m gauge

standard gauge: 10,781 km 1.435-m gauge (3,292 km electrified)

narrow gauge: 427 km 0.760-m gauge (2014)

paved: 49,873 km (includes 337 km of expressways)

unpaved: 34,312 km (2012)

1,731 km (includes 1,075 km on the Danube River, 524 km on secondary branches, and 132 km on canals) (2010)

by type: general cargo 13, oil tanker 7, other 94 (2017)

major seaport(s): Constanta, Midia

river port(s): Braila, Galati (Galatz), Mancanului (Giurgiu), Tulcea (Danube River)

Military and Security :: ROMANIA

Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force (2016)

conscription ended 2006; 18 years of age for male and female voluntary service; all military inductees (including women) contract for an initial 5-year term of service, with subsequent successive 3-year terms until age 36 (2015)

Transnational Issues :: ROMANIA

the ICJ ruled largely in favor of Romania in its dispute submitted in 2004 over Ukrainian-administered Zmiyinyy/Serpilor (Snake) Island and Black Sea maritime boundary delimitation; Romania opposes Ukraine's reopening of a navigation canal from the Danube border through Ukraine to the Black Sea

stateless persons: 238 (2017)

major transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin transiting the Balkan route and small amounts of Latin American cocaine bound for Western Europe; although not a significant financial center, role as a narcotics conduit leaves it vulnerable to laundering, which occurs via the banking system, currency exchange houses, and casinos

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Office of Public Affairs (OPA) is the single point of contact for all inquiries about the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). We read every letter, fax, or e-mail we receive, and we will convey your comments to CIA officials outside OPA as appropriate.

# data[].attributes.body
In Equatorial Africa they speak mainly French and Spanish. They are 93% christian and out of that 93%, 87% are Roman Catholic which is a branch of Christianity and the rest is mainly mainline Protestant.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Although African traditional religion has left its vestiges among the indigenous tribes, about 93% of the population are Christian. Within the Christian population, 87% are Roman Catholic and about 5% are mainline Protestant, primarily Baptist and Episcopalian.

# data[].attributes.headline
Post #7: Culture Equatorial Africa Video

# data[].attributes.subject
Post #7: Culture Equatorial Africa Video

# data[].attributes.body
This video is about the "Kuwait of Africa" due to the fact that there are very little people and so much oil. Equatorial Guinea was very poor but since the oil discovery they have improved. Watch the first video titled "Kuwait of Africa".

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Single sign-on users: Please use your district launch point to log into connectED

# data[].attributes.body
The Fang tribe is found mainly around Equatorial Guinea but is also around Cameroon, the Sanaga River, and Gabon. They migrated into a forest from the Savanna Plataea around the 19th century. They divide into 3 main groups: Beti, Yaunde and Bulu

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Fang: Fang, Bantu-speaking peoples occupying the southernmost districts of Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, mainland Equatorial Guinea, and the forests of the northern half of Gabon south to the Ogooué River estuary. They numbered about 3,320,000 in the late 20th century. The Fang speak languages of

# data[].attributes.body
In Equatorial Africa, the population is distributed based on where water is. Since Africa is low on water, more people live next to those very limited water supplies. Countries that hold more water that have the big lakes are usually more densely full of people.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Much of Africa's population is distributed close to water sources. Close to coasts and lakes the population is very dense. Nigeria is particularly densely populated. The north and south of the African continent is far more sparsely populated with countries such as Niger having very few people per square kilometre.

# data[].attributes.body
How does Equatorial Africa compare to the rest of Africa?

# data[].attributes.body
Gabon-The total population is 1,772, 255. Birth rates: 32.4/1,000 population, death rates: 13 deaths/1000 population.
Republic of Congo- The total population is 4,954,674. Birth rates: 34.4/1,000 population, death rates: 9.5/1,000 population.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Office of Public Affairs (OPA) is the single point of contact for all inquiries about the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

We read every letter, fax, or e-mail we receive, and we will convey your comments to CIA officials outside OPA as appropriate. However, with limited staff and resources, we simply cannot respond to all who write to us.

Contact Information

Submit questions or comments online

By postal mail:
Central Intelligence Agency
Office of Public Affairs
Washington, D.C. 20505

By phone:
(703) 482-0623
Open during normal business hours.

By fax:
(571) 204-3800
(please include a phone number where we may call you)

Contact the Office of Inspector General

Contact the Employment Verification Office
Before contacting us:

Please check our site map, search feature, or our site navigation on the left to locate the information you seek. We do not routinely respond to questions for which answers are found within this Web site.

Employment: We do not routinely answer questions about employment beyond the information on this Web site, and we do not routinely answer inquiries about the status of job applications. Recruiting will contact applicants within 45 days if their qualifications meet our needs.

Because of safety concerns for the prospective applicant, as well as security and communication issues, the CIA Recruitment Center does not accept resumes, nor can we return phone calls, e-mails or other forms of communication, from US citizens living outside of the US. When you return permanently to the US (not on vacation or leave), please visit the CIA Careers page and apply online for the position of interest.

To verify an employee's employment, please contact the Employment Verification Office.

Solicitations to transfer large sums of money to your bank account: If you receive a solicitation to transfer a large amount of money from an African nation to your bank account in exchange for a payment of millions of dollars, go to the US Secret Service Web site for information about the Nigerian Advance Fee Fraud or "4-1-9" Fraud scheme.

If you have information which you believe might be of interest to the CIA in pursuit of the CIA's foreign intelligence mission, you may use our e-mail form. We will carefully protect all information you provide, including your identity. The CIA, as a foreign intelligence agency, does not engage in US domestic law enforcement.

If you have information relating to Iraq which you believe might be of interest to the US Government, please contact us through the Iraqi Rewards Program -

The United States and its partners continue to face a growing number of global threats and challenges. The CIA's mission includes collecting and analyzing information about high priority national security issues such as international terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, cyber attacks, international organized crime and narcotics trafficking, regional conflicts, counterintelligence threats, and the effects of environmental and natural disasters.

These challenges are international in scope and are priorities for the Central Intelligence Agency. If you have information about these or other national security challenges, please provide it through our secure online form. The information you provide will be protected and confidential. The CIA is particularly interested in information about imminent or planned terrorist attacks. In cases where an imminent threat exists, immediately contact your local law enforcement agencies and provide them with the threat information.
To contact the Central Intelligence Agency click here.

Africa :: GABON

Introduction :: GABON

Following, independence from France in 1960, El Hadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-ruling heads of state in the world - dominated the country's political scene for four decades (1967-2009). President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty system and a new constitution in the early 1990s. However, allegations of electoral fraud during local elections in December 2002 and the presidential election in 2005 exposed the weaknesses of formal political structures in Gabon. Following President BONGO's death in 2009, a new election brought his son, Ali BONGO Ondimba, to power. Despite constrained political conditions, Gabon's small population, abundant natural resources, and considerable foreign support have helped make it one of the more stable African countries.

President Ali BONGO Ondimba's controversial August 2016 reelection sparked unprecedented opposition protests that resulted in the burning of the parliament building. The election was contested by the opposition after fraudulent results were flagged by international election observers. Gabon's Constitutional Court reviewed the election results but ruled in favor of President BONGO, upholding his win and extending his mandate to 2023.

Geography :: GABON

Central Africa, bordering the Atlantic Ocean at the Equator, between Republic of the Congo and Equatorial Guinea

slightly smaller than Colorado

border countries (3): Cameroon 349 km, Republic of the Congo 2,567 km, Equatorial Guinea 345 km

exclusive economic zone: 200 nm

tropical; always hot, humid

narrow coastal plain; hilly interior; savanna in east and south

elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m

highest point: Mont Iboundji 1,575 m

petroleum, natural gas, diamond, niobium, manganese, uranium, gold, timber, iron ore, hydropower

arable land 1.2%; permanent crops 0.6%; permanent pasture 17.2%

the relatively small population is spread in pockets throughout the country; the largest urban center is the capital of Libreville, located along the Atlantic coast in the northwest

deforestation (the forests that cover three-quarters of the country are threatened by excessive logging); burgeoning population exacerbating disposal of solid waste; oil industry contributing to water pollution; wildlife poaching

party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling

signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

a small population and oil and mineral reserves have helped Gabon become one of Africa's wealthier countries; in general, these circumstances have allowed the country to maintain and conserve its pristine rain forest and rich biodiversity

People and Society :: GABON

note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality, higher death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2017 est.)

noun: Gabonese (singular and plural)

Bantu tribes, including four major tribal groupings (Fang, Bapounou, Nzebi, Obamba); other Africans and Europeans, 154,000, including 10,700 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality

French (official), Fang, Myene, Nzebi, Bapounou/Eschira, Bandjabi

Roman Catholic 42.3%, Protestant 12.3%, other Christian 27.4%, Muslim 9.8%, animist 0.6%, other 0.5%, none/no answer 7.1% (2012 est.)

Gabon's oil revenues have given it one of the highest per capita income levels in sub-Saharan Africa, but the wealth is not evenly distributed and poverty is widespread. Unemployment is especially prevalent among the large youth population; more than 60% of the population is under the age of 25. With a fertility rate still averaging more than 4 children per woman, the youth population will continue to grow and further strain the mismatch between Gabon's supply of jobs and the skills of its labor force.

Gabon has been a magnet to migrants from neighboring countries since the 1960s because of the discovery of oil, as well as the country's political stability and timber, mineral, and natural gas resources. Nonetheless, income inequality and high unemployment have created slums in Libreville full of migrant workers from Senegal, Nigeria, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, and elsewhere in West Africa. In 2011, Gabon declared an end to refugee status for 9,500 remaining Congolese nationals to whom it had granted asylum during the Republic of the Congo's civil war between 1997 and 2003. About 5,400 of these refugees received permits to reside in Gabon.

0-14 years: 41.9% (male 373,307/female 369,237)

15-24 years: 20.46% (male 181,823/female 180,837)

25-54 years: 29.52% (male 262,511/female 260,673)

55-64 years: 4.36% (male 37,178/female 40,014)

65 years and over: 3.76% (male 28,664/female 38,011) (2017 est.)

population pyramid:

total dependency ratio: 67.4

youth dependency ratio: 59.9

elderly dependency ratio: 7.6

potential support ratio: 13.2 (2015 est.)

female: 18.8 years (2017 est.)

34.2 births/1,000 population (2017 est.)

13 deaths/1,000 population (2017 est.)

-2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)

the relatively small population is spread in pockets throughout the country; the largest urban center is the capital of Libreville, located along the Atlantic coast in the northwest

urban population: 89.4% of total population (2018)

rate of urbanization: 2.61% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)

LIBREVILLE (capital) 813,000 (2018)

at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female

0-14 years: 1.01 male(s)/female

15-24 years: 1 male(s)/female

25-54 years: 1 male(s)/female

55-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female

total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2017 est.)

note: median age at first birth among women 25-29 (2012 est.)

291 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)

total: 44.1 deaths/1,000 live births

male: 50.8 deaths/1,000 live births

female: 37.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.)

total population: 52.1 years

female: 52.5 years (2017 est.)

4.39 children born/woman (2017 est.)

0.41 physicians/1,000 population (2016)

6.3 beds/1,000 population (2010)

urban: 97.2% of population

rural: 66.7% of population

total: 93.2% of population

urban: 2.8% of population

rural: 33.3% of population

total: 6.8% of population (2015 est.)

urban: 43.4% of population

rural: 31.5% of population

total: 41.9% of population

urban: 56.6% of population

rural: 68.5% of population

total: 58.1% of population (2015 est.)

degree of risk: very high

food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever

vectorborne disease: malaria and dengue fever

water contact disease: schistosomiasis

animal contact disease: rabies (2016)

definition: age 15 and over can read and write

female: 41.9% (2010 est.)

Government :: GABON

conventional long form: Gabonese Republic

conventional short form: Gabon

local long form: Republique Gabonaise

etymology: name originates from the Portuguese word "gabao" meaning "cloak," which is roughly the shape that the early explorers gave to the estuary of the Komo River by the capital of Libreville

geographic coordinates: 0 23 N, 9 27 E

time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

9 provinces; Estuaire, Haut-Ogooue, Moyen-Ogooue, Ngounie, Nyanga, Ogooue-Ivindo, Ogooue-Lolo, Ogooue-Maritime, Woleu-Ntem

17 August 1960 (from France)

Independence Day, 17 August (1960)

history: previous 1961; latest drafted May 1990, adopted 15 March 1991, promulgated 26 March 1991

amendments: proposed by the president of the republic, by the Council of Ministers, or by one-third of either house of Parliament; passage requires Constitutional Court evaluation, at least two-thirds majority vote of two-thirds of the Parliament membership convened in joint session, and approval in a referendum; constitutional articles on Gabon's democratic form of government cannot be amended; amended several times, last in 2011 (2017)

mixed legal system of French civil law and customary law

has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; accepts ICCt jurisdiction

citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Gabon

dual citizenship recognized: no

residency requirement for naturalization: 10 years

18 years of age; universal

chief of state: President Ali BONGO Ondimba (since 16 October 2009)

head of government: Prime Minister (vacant); note - Prime Minister Emmanuel ISSOZE-NGONDET (since 29 September 2016) resigned on 1 May 2018, after the constitutional court dissolved the National Assembly and ordered his resignation when elections failed to be held by 30 April 2018

cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president

elections/appointments: president directly elected by simple majority popular vote for a 7-year term (no term limits); election last held on 27 August 2016 (next to be held in August 2023); prime minister appointed by the president

election results: Ali BONGO Ondimba reelected president; percent of vote - Ali BONGO Ondimba (PDG) 49.8%, Jean PING (UFC) 48.2%, other 2.0%

description: bicameral Parliament or Parlement consists of the Senate or Senat (number of seats not fixed; members indirectly elected by municipal councils and departmental assemblies by absolute majority vote in 2 rounds; members serve 6-year terms) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (120 seats; members elected in single-seat constituencies by absolute majority vote in 2 rounds if needed; members serve 5-year terms)

elections: Senate - last held on 13 December 2014 (next to be held in January 2020); National Assembly - last held on 17 December 2011 (originally scheduled for 27 December 2016; the election has been delayed twice and was supposed to take place by the end of April 2018; the constitutional court dissolved the National Assembly when National Assembly elections were not held by 30 April 2018; no new election date has been set; the powers of the National Assembly transfer to the Senate until a new election takes place)

election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 81, CLR 7, PSD 2, ADERE-UPG 1, UPG 1, PGCI 1, independent 7; National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 113, RPG 3, other 4

highest court(s): Supreme Court (consists of 4 permanent specialized supreme courts - Supreme Court or Cour de Cassation, Administrative Supreme Court or Conseil d'Etat, Accounting Supreme Court or Cour des Comptes, Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle - and the non-permanent Court of State Security, initiated only for cases of high treason by the president and criminal activity by executive branch officials)

judge selection and term of office: appointment and tenure of Supreme, Administrative, Accounting, and State Security courts NA; Constitutional Court judges appointed - 3 by the national president, 3 by the president of the Senate, and 3 by the president of the National Assembly; judges serve 7-year, single renewable terms

subordinate courts: Courts of Appeal; county courts; military courts

Circle of Liberal Reformers or CLR [General Jean-Boniface ASSELE]

Democratic and Republican Alliance or ADERE [DIDJOB Divungui di Ndinge]

Gabonese Democratic Party or PDG [Ali BONGO Ondimba]

Independent Center Party of Gabon or PGCI [Luccheri GAHILA]

Social Democratic Party or PSD [Pierre Claver MAGANGA-MOUSSAVOU]

Union for the New Republic or UPRN [Louis Gaston MAYILA]

Union of Gabonese People or UPG [Richard MOULOMBA]

Union of Forces for Change or UFC [Jean PING]

ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, NAM, OIC, OIF, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

chief of mission: Ambassador Michael MOUSSA-ADAMO (since September 9, 2011)

chancery: 2034 20th Street NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20009

telephone: [1] (202) 797-1000

chief of mission: Ambassador Joel DANIES (since 22 MARCH 2018); note - also accredited to Sao Tome and Principe

embassy: Boulevard du Bord de Mer, Libreville

mailing address: Centre Ville, B. P. 4000, Libreville; pouch: 2270 Libreville Place, Washington, DC 20521-2270

telephone: [241] 01-45-71-00

three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue; green represents the country's forests and natural resources, gold represents the equator (which transects Gabon) as well as the sun, blue represents the sea

black panther; national colors: green, yellow, blue

name: "La Concorde" (The Concorde)

lyrics/music: Georges Aleka DAMAS

Economy :: GABON

Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most sub-Saharan African nations, but because of high income inequality, a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon relied on timber and manganese exports until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. From 2010 to 2016, oil accounted for approximately 80% of Gabon's exports, 45% of its GDP, and 60% of its state budget revenues.

Gabon faces fluctuating international prices for its oil, timber, and manganese exports. A rebound of oil prices from 2001 to 2013 helped growth, but declining production, as some fields passed their peak production, has hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. GDP grew nearly 6% per year over the 2010-14 period, but slowed significantly from 2014 to just 1% in 2017 as oil prices declined. Low oil prices also weakened government revenue and negatively affected the trade and current account balances. In the wake of lower revenue, Gabon signed a 3-year agreement with the IMF in June 2017.

Despite an abundance of natural wealth, poor fiscal management and over-reliance on oil has stifled the economy. Power cuts and water shortages are frequent. Gabon is reliant on imports and the government heavily subsidizes commodities, including food, but will be hard pressed to tamp down public frustration with unemployment and corruption.

$36.75 billion (2017 est.)

$36.4 billion (2016 est.)

$35.66 billion (2015 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars

$14.47 billion (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars

household consumption: 39.9%

government consumption: 15.5%

investment in fixed capital: 28.3%

investment in inventories: 0.1%

exports of goods and services: 45.2%

imports of goods and services: -28.9% (2017 est.)

services: 51.5% (2017 est.)

cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical softwood); fish

petroleum extraction and refining; manganese, gold; chemicals, ship repair, food and beverages, textiles, lumbering and plywood, cement

services: 24% (2005 est.)

highest 10%: 32.7% (2005 est.)

expenditures: $3.991 billion (2017 est.)

3% (31 December 2010 est.)

4.25% (31 December 2009 est.)

15.5% (31 December 2017 est.)

15.5% (31 December 2016 est.)

$2.17 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$2.053 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$3.372 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$3.207 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$2.915 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$3.097 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$-1.348 billion (2017 est.)

$-1.432 billion (2016 est.)

$5.078 billion (2017 est.)

$4.364 billion (2016 est.)

crude oil, timber, manganese, uranium

US 45.7%, China 14.6%, South Korea 6.6%, Ireland 5.5%, Italy 5.1% (2016)

$3.224 billion (2017 est.)

$3.19 billion (2016 est.)

machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, construction materials

France 24.7%, Belgium 14.7%, China 12.8%, Australia 6.7% (2016)

$834.9 million (31 December 2017 est.)

$804.1 million (31 December 2016 est.)

$5.599 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$5.321 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

Cooperation Financiere en Afrique Centrale francs (XAF) per US dollar -

Energy :: GABON

population without electricity: 200,000

electrification - total population: 89%

electrification - urban areas: 97%

electrification - rural areas: 38% (2013)

2.045 billion kWh (2015 est.)

1.907 billion kWh (2015 est.)

337 million kWh (2015 est.)

50.7% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

0% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

49.3% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

0% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

210,800 bbl/day (2016 est.)

202,000 bbl/day (2014 est.)

2 billion bbl (1 January 2017 est.)

16,810 bbl/day (2014 est.)

22,000 bbl/day (2015 est.)

5,118 bbl/day (2014 est.)

8,851 bbl/day (2014 est.)

378 million cu m (2015 est.)

957 million cu m (2015 est.)

28.32 billion cu m (1 January 2017 est.)

Communications :: GABON

total subscriptions: 18,946

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 1 (July 2016 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 167 (July 2016 est.)

general assessment: adequate system of cable, microwave radio relay, tropospheric scatter, radiotelephone communication stations, and a domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations

domestic: a growing mobile cellular network with multiple providers is making telephone service more widely available with mobile cellular teledensity approaching 150 per 100 persons

international: country code - 241; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2016)

state owns and operates 2 TV stations and 2 radio broadcast stations; a few private radio and TV stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are accessible; satellite service subscriptions are available (2007)

percent of population: 48.1% (July 2016 est.)

Transportation :: GABON

number of registered air carriers: 5

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 7

annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 137,331

annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 0 mt-km (2015)

gas 807 km; oil 1,639 km; water 3 km (2013)

standard gauge: 649 km 1.435-m gauge (2014)

1,600 km (310 km on Ogooue River) (2010)

by type: general cargo 11, oil tanker 1, other 15 (2017)

major seaport(s): Libreville, Owendo, Port-Gentil

oil terminal(s): Gamba, Lucina

Military and Security :: GABON

Gabonese Defense Forces (Forces de Defense Gabonaise): Land Force (Force Terrestre), Gabonese Navy (Marine Gabonaise), Gabonese Air Forces (Forces Aerienne Gabonaises, FAG) (2012)

20 years of age for voluntary military service; no conscription (2012)

Transnational Issues :: GABON

UN urges Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to resolve the sovereignty dispute over Gabon-occupied Mbane Island and lesser islands and to establish a maritime boundary in hydrocarbon-rich Corisco Bay

current situation: Gabon is primarily a destination and transit country for adults and children from West and Central African countries subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking; boys are forced to work as street vendors, mechanics, or in the fishing sector, while girls are subjected to domestic servitude or forced to work in markets or roadside restaurants; West African women are forced into domestic servitude or prostitution; men are reportedly forced to work on cattle farms; some foreign adults end up in forced labor in Gabon after initially seeking the help of human smugglers to help them migrate clandestinely; traffickers operate in loose, ethnic-based criminal networks, with female traffickers recruiting and facilitating the transport of victims from source countries; in some cases, families turn child victims over to traffickers, who promise paid jobs in Gabon

tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - Gabon does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so; Gabon's existing laws do not prohibit all forms of trafficking, and the government failed to pass a legal amendment drafted in 2013 to criminalize the trafficking of adults; anti-trafficking law enforcement decreased in 2014, dropping from 50 investigations to 16, and the only defendant to face prosecution fled the country; government efforts to identify and refer victims to protective services declined from 50 child victims in 2013 to just 3 in 2014, none of whom was referred to a care facility; the government provided support to four centers offering services to orphans and vulnerable children - 14 child victims identified by an NGO received government assistance; no adult victims have been identified since 2009 (2015)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Office of Public Affairs (OPA) is the single point of contact for all inquiries about the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). We read every letter, fax, or e-mail we receive, and we will convey your comments to CIA officials outside OPA as appropriate.

# data[].attributes.body
The GDP of Gabon is 36.75 while the GDP of Equatorial Guinea is 29.38. The resources found in Equatorial Guinea are oil, timber, uranium, cocoa, coffee, and sugar are just some of their resources. In Gabon their resources are cattle, rubber, oil, fish and okoume are some of their resources.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Office of Public Affairs (OPA) is the single point of contact for all inquiries about the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

We read every letter, fax, or e-mail we receive, and we will convey your comments to CIA officials outside OPA as appropriate. However, with limited staff and resources, we simply cannot respond to all who write to us.

Contact Information

Submit questions or comments online

By postal mail:
Central Intelligence Agency
Office of Public Affairs
Washington, D.C. 20505

By phone:
(703) 482-0623
Open during normal business hours.

By fax:
(571) 204-3800
(please include a phone number where we may call you)

Contact the Office of Inspector General

Contact the Employment Verification Office
Before contacting us:

Please check our site map, search feature, or our site navigation on the left to locate the information you seek. We do not routinely respond to questions for which answers are found within this Web site.

Employment: We do not routinely answer questions about employment beyond the information on this Web site, and we do not routinely answer inquiries about the status of job applications. Recruiting will contact applicants within 45 days if their qualifications meet our needs.

Because of safety concerns for the prospective applicant, as well as security and communication issues, the CIA Recruitment Center does not accept resumes, nor can we return phone calls, e-mails or other forms of communication, from US citizens living outside of the US. When you return permanently to the US (not on vacation or leave), please visit the CIA Careers page and apply online for the position of interest.

To verify an employee's employment, please contact the Employment Verification Office.

Solicitations to transfer large sums of money to your bank account: If you receive a solicitation to transfer a large amount of money from an African nation to your bank account in exchange for a payment of millions of dollars, go to the US Secret Service Web site for information about the Nigerian Advance Fee Fraud or "4-1-9" Fraud scheme.

If you have information which you believe might be of interest to the CIA in pursuit of the CIA's foreign intelligence mission, you may use our e-mail form. We will carefully protect all information you provide, including your identity. The CIA, as a foreign intelligence agency, does not engage in US domestic law enforcement.

If you have information relating to Iraq which you believe might be of interest to the US Government, please contact us through the Iraqi Rewards Program -

The United States and its partners continue to face a growing number of global threats and challenges. The CIA's mission includes collecting and analyzing information about high priority national security issues such as international terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, cyber attacks, international organized crime and narcotics trafficking, regional conflicts, counterintelligence threats, and the effects of environmental and natural disasters.

These challenges are international in scope and are priorities for the Central Intelligence Agency. If you have information about these or other national security challenges, please provide it through our secure online form. The information you provide will be protected and confidential. The CIA is particularly interested in information about imminent or planned terrorist attacks. In cases where an imminent threat exists, immediately contact your local law enforcement agencies and provide them with the threat information.
To contact the Central Intelligence Agency click here.

Africa :: GABON

Introduction :: GABON

Following, independence from France in 1960, El Hadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-ruling heads of state in the world - dominated the country's political scene for four decades (1967-2009). President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty system and a new constitution in the early 1990s. However, allegations of electoral fraud during local elections in December 2002 and the presidential election in 2005 exposed the weaknesses of formal political structures in Gabon. Following President BONGO's death in 2009, a new election brought his son, Ali BONGO Ondimba, to power. Despite constrained political conditions, Gabon's small population, abundant natural resources, and considerable foreign support have helped make it one of the more stable African countries.

President Ali BONGO Ondimba's controversial August 2016 reelection sparked unprecedented opposition protests that resulted in the burning of the parliament building. The election was contested by the opposition after fraudulent results were flagged by international election observers. Gabon's Constitutional Court reviewed the election results but ruled in favor of President BONGO, upholding his win and extending his mandate to 2023.

Geography :: GABON

Central Africa, bordering the Atlantic Ocean at the Equator, between Republic of the Congo and Equatorial Guinea

slightly smaller than Colorado

border countries (3): Cameroon 349 km, Republic of the Congo 2,567 km, Equatorial Guinea 345 km

exclusive economic zone: 200 nm

tropical; always hot, humid

narrow coastal plain; hilly interior; savanna in east and south

elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m

highest point: Mont Iboundji 1,575 m

petroleum, natural gas, diamond, niobium, manganese, uranium, gold, timber, iron ore, hydropower

arable land 1.2%; permanent crops 0.6%; permanent pasture 17.2%

the relatively small population is spread in pockets throughout the country; the largest urban center is the capital of Libreville, located along the Atlantic coast in the northwest

deforestation (the forests that cover three-quarters of the country are threatened by excessive logging); burgeoning population exacerbating disposal of solid waste; oil industry contributing to water pollution; wildlife poaching

party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling

signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

a small population and oil and mineral reserves have helped Gabon become one of Africa's wealthier countries; in general, these circumstances have allowed the country to maintain and conserve its pristine rain forest and rich biodiversity

People and Society :: GABON

note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality, higher death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2017 est.)

noun: Gabonese (singular and plural)

Bantu tribes, including four major tribal groupings (Fang, Bapounou, Nzebi, Obamba); other Africans and Europeans, 154,000, including 10,700 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality

French (official), Fang, Myene, Nzebi, Bapounou/Eschira, Bandjabi

Roman Catholic 42.3%, Protestant 12.3%, other Christian 27.4%, Muslim 9.8%, animist 0.6%, other 0.5%, none/no answer 7.1% (2012 est.)

Gabon's oil revenues have given it one of the highest per capita income levels in sub-Saharan Africa, but the wealth is not evenly distributed and poverty is widespread. Unemployment is especially prevalent among the large youth population; more than 60% of the population is under the age of 25. With a fertility rate still averaging more than 4 children per woman, the youth population will continue to grow and further strain the mismatch between Gabon's supply of jobs and the skills of its labor force.

Gabon has been a magnet to migrants from neighboring countries since the 1960s because of the discovery of oil, as well as the country's political stability and timber, mineral, and natural gas resources. Nonetheless, income inequality and high unemployment have created slums in Libreville full of migrant workers from Senegal, Nigeria, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, and elsewhere in West Africa. In 2011, Gabon declared an end to refugee status for 9,500 remaining Congolese nationals to whom it had granted asylum during the Republic of the Congo's civil war between 1997 and 2003. About 5,400 of these refugees received permits to reside in Gabon.

0-14 years: 41.9% (male 373,307/female 369,237)

15-24 years: 20.46% (male 181,823/female 180,837)

25-54 years: 29.52% (male 262,511/female 260,673)

55-64 years: 4.36% (male 37,178/female 40,014)

65 years and over: 3.76% (male 28,664/female 38,011) (2017 est.)

population pyramid:

total dependency ratio: 67.4

youth dependency ratio: 59.9

elderly dependency ratio: 7.6

potential support ratio: 13.2 (2015 est.)

female: 18.8 years (2017 est.)

34.2 births/1,000 population (2017 est.)

13 deaths/1,000 population (2017 est.)

-2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)

the relatively small population is spread in pockets throughout the country; the largest urban center is the capital of Libreville, located along the Atlantic coast in the northwest

urban population: 89.4% of total population (2018)

rate of urbanization: 2.61% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)

LIBREVILLE (capital) 813,000 (2018)

at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female

0-14 years: 1.01 male(s)/female

15-24 years: 1 male(s)/female

25-54 years: 1 male(s)/female

55-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female

total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2017 est.)

note: median age at first birth among women 25-29 (2012 est.)

291 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)

total: 44.1 deaths/1,000 live births

male: 50.8 deaths/1,000 live births

female: 37.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.)

total population: 52.1 years

female: 52.5 years (2017 est.)

4.39 children born/woman (2017 est.)

0.41 physicians/1,000 population (2016)

6.3 beds/1,000 population (2010)

urban: 97.2% of population

rural: 66.7% of population

total: 93.2% of population

urban: 2.8% of population

rural: 33.3% of population

total: 6.8% of population (2015 est.)

urban: 43.4% of population

rural: 31.5% of population

total: 41.9% of population

urban: 56.6% of population

rural: 68.5% of population

total: 58.1% of population (2015 est.)

degree of risk: very high

food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever

vectorborne disease: malaria and dengue fever

water contact disease: schistosomiasis

animal contact disease: rabies (2016)

definition: age 15 and over can read and write

female: 41.9% (2010 est.)

Government :: GABON

conventional long form: Gabonese Republic

conventional short form: Gabon

local long form: Republique Gabonaise

etymology: name originates from the Portuguese word "gabao" meaning "cloak," which is roughly the shape that the early explorers gave to the estuary of the Komo River by the capital of Libreville

geographic coordinates: 0 23 N, 9 27 E

time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

9 provinces; Estuaire, Haut-Ogooue, Moyen-Ogooue, Ngounie, Nyanga, Ogooue-Ivindo, Ogooue-Lolo, Ogooue-Maritime, Woleu-Ntem

17 August 1960 (from France)

Independence Day, 17 August (1960)

history: previous 1961; latest drafted May 1990, adopted 15 March 1991, promulgated 26 March 1991

amendments: proposed by the president of the republic, by the Council of Ministers, or by one-third of either house of Parliament; passage requires Constitutional Court evaluation, at least two-thirds majority vote of two-thirds of the Parliament membership convened in joint session, and approval in a referendum; constitutional articles on Gabon's democratic form of government cannot be amended; amended several times, last in 2011 (2017)

mixed legal system of French civil law and customary law

has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; accepts ICCt jurisdiction

citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Gabon

dual citizenship recognized: no

residency requirement for naturalization: 10 years

18 years of age; universal

chief of state: President Ali BONGO Ondimba (since 16 October 2009)

head of government: Prime Minister (vacant); note - Prime Minister Emmanuel ISSOZE-NGONDET (since 29 September 2016) resigned on 1 May 2018, after the constitutional court dissolved the National Assembly and ordered his resignation when elections failed to be held by 30 April 2018

cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president

elections/appointments: president directly elected by simple majority popular vote for a 7-year term (no term limits); election last held on 27 August 2016 (next to be held in August 2023); prime minister appointed by the president

election results: Ali BONGO Ondimba reelected president; percent of vote - Ali BONGO Ondimba (PDG) 49.8%, Jean PING (UFC) 48.2%, other 2.0%

description: bicameral Parliament or Parlement consists of the Senate or Senat (number of seats not fixed; members indirectly elected by municipal councils and departmental assemblies by absolute majority vote in 2 rounds; members serve 6-year terms) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (120 seats; members elected in single-seat constituencies by absolute majority vote in 2 rounds if needed; members serve 5-year terms)

elections: Senate - last held on 13 December 2014 (next to be held in January 2020); National Assembly - last held on 17 December 2011 (originally scheduled for 27 December 2016; the election has been delayed twice and was supposed to take place by the end of April 2018; the constitutional court dissolved the National Assembly when National Assembly elections were not held by 30 April 2018; no new election date has been set; the powers of the National Assembly transfer to the Senate until a new election takes place)

election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 81, CLR 7, PSD 2, ADERE-UPG 1, UPG 1, PGCI 1, independent 7; National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 113, RPG 3, other 4

highest court(s): Supreme Court (consists of 4 permanent specialized supreme courts - Supreme Court or Cour de Cassation, Administrative Supreme Court or Conseil d'Etat, Accounting Supreme Court or Cour des Comptes, Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle - and the non-permanent Court of State Security, initiated only for cases of high treason by the president and criminal activity by executive branch officials)

judge selection and term of office: appointment and tenure of Supreme, Administrative, Accounting, and State Security courts NA; Constitutional Court judges appointed - 3 by the national president, 3 by the president of the Senate, and 3 by the president of the National Assembly; judges serve 7-year, single renewable terms

subordinate courts: Courts of Appeal; county courts; military courts

Circle of Liberal Reformers or CLR [General Jean-Boniface ASSELE]

Democratic and Republican Alliance or ADERE [DIDJOB Divungui di Ndinge]

Gabonese Democratic Party or PDG [Ali BONGO Ondimba]

Independent Center Party of Gabon or PGCI [Luccheri GAHILA]

Social Democratic Party or PSD [Pierre Claver MAGANGA-MOUSSAVOU]

Union for the New Republic or UPRN [Louis Gaston MAYILA]

Union of Gabonese People or UPG [Richard MOULOMBA]

Union of Forces for Change or UFC [Jean PING]

ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, NAM, OIC, OIF, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

chief of mission: Ambassador Michael MOUSSA-ADAMO (since September 9, 2011)

chancery: 2034 20th Street NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20009

telephone: [1] (202) 797-1000

chief of mission: Ambassador Joel DANIES (since 22 MARCH 2018); note - also accredited to Sao Tome and Principe

embassy: Boulevard du Bord de Mer, Libreville

mailing address: Centre Ville, B. P. 4000, Libreville; pouch: 2270 Libreville Place, Washington, DC 20521-2270

telephone: [241] 01-45-71-00

three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue; green represents the country's forests and natural resources, gold represents the equator (which transects Gabon) as well as the sun, blue represents the sea

black panther; national colors: green, yellow, blue

name: "La Concorde" (The Concorde)

lyrics/music: Georges Aleka DAMAS

Economy :: GABON

Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most sub-Saharan African nations, but because of high income inequality, a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon relied on timber and manganese exports until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. From 2010 to 2016, oil accounted for approximately 80% of Gabon's exports, 45% of its GDP, and 60% of its state budget revenues.

Gabon faces fluctuating international prices for its oil, timber, and manganese exports. A rebound of oil prices from 2001 to 2013 helped growth, but declining production, as some fields passed their peak production, has hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. GDP grew nearly 6% per year over the 2010-14 period, but slowed significantly from 2014 to just 1% in 2017 as oil prices declined. Low oil prices also weakened government revenue and negatively affected the trade and current account balances. In the wake of lower revenue, Gabon signed a 3-year agreement with the IMF in June 2017.

Despite an abundance of natural wealth, poor fiscal management and over-reliance on oil has stifled the economy. Power cuts and water shortages are frequent. Gabon is reliant on imports and the government heavily subsidizes commodities, including food, but will be hard pressed to tamp down public frustration with unemployment and corruption.

$36.75 billion (2017 est.)

$36.4 billion (2016 est.)

$35.66 billion (2015 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars

$14.47 billion (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars

household consumption: 39.9%

government consumption: 15.5%

investment in fixed capital: 28.3%

investment in inventories: 0.1%

exports of goods and services: 45.2%

imports of goods and services: -28.9% (2017 est.)

services: 51.5% (2017 est.)

cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical softwood); fish

petroleum extraction and refining; manganese, gold; chemicals, ship repair, food and beverages, textiles, lumbering and plywood, cement

services: 24% (2005 est.)

highest 10%: 32.7% (2005 est.)

expenditures: $3.991 billion (2017 est.)

3% (31 December 2010 est.)

4.25% (31 December 2009 est.)

15.5% (31 December 2017 est.)

15.5% (31 December 2016 est.)

$2.17 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$2.053 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$3.372 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$3.207 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$2.915 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$3.097 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

$-1.348 billion (2017 est.)

$-1.432 billion (2016 est.)

$5.078 billion (2017 est.)

$4.364 billion (2016 est.)

crude oil, timber, manganese, uranium

US 45.7%, China 14.6%, South Korea 6.6%, Ireland 5.5%, Italy 5.1% (2016)

$3.224 billion (2017 est.)

$3.19 billion (2016 est.)

machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, construction materials

France 24.7%, Belgium 14.7%, China 12.8%, Australia 6.7% (2016)

$834.9 million (31 December 2017 est.)

$804.1 million (31 December 2016 est.)

$5.599 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$5.321 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

Cooperation Financiere en Afrique Centrale francs (XAF) per US dollar -

Energy :: GABON

population without electricity: 200,000

electrification - total population: 89%

electrification - urban areas: 97%

electrification - rural areas: 38% (2013)

2.045 billion kWh (2015 est.)

1.907 billion kWh (2015 est.)

337 million kWh (2015 est.)

50.7% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

0% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

49.3% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

0% of total installed capacity (2015 est.)

210,800 bbl/day (2016 est.)

202,000 bbl/day (2014 est.)

2 billion bbl (1 January 2017 est.)

16,810 bbl/day (2014 est.)

22,000 bbl/day (2015 est.)

5,118 bbl/day (2014 est.)

8,851 bbl/day (2014 est.)

378 million cu m (2015 est.)

957 million cu m (2015 est.)

28.32 billion cu m (1 January 2017 est.)

Communications :: GABON

total subscriptions: 18,946

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 1 (July 2016 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 167 (July 2016 est.)

general assessment: adequate system of cable, microwave radio relay, tropospheric scatter, radiotelephone communication stations, and a domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations

domestic: a growing mobile cellular network with multiple providers is making telephone service more widely available with mobile cellular teledensity approaching 150 per 100 persons

international: country code - 241; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2016)

state owns and operates 2 TV stations and 2 radio broadcast stations; a few private radio and TV stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are accessible; satellite service subscriptions are available (2007)

percent of population: 48.1% (July 2016 est.)

Transportation :: GABON

number of registered air carriers: 5

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 7

annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 137,331

annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 0 mt-km (2015)

gas 807 km; oil 1,639 km; water 3 km (2013)

standard gauge: 649 km 1.435-m gauge (2014)

1,600 km (310 km on Ogooue River) (2010)

by type: general cargo 11, oil tanker 1, other 15 (2017)

major seaport(s): Libreville, Owendo, Port-Gentil

oil terminal(s): Gamba, Lucina

Military and Security :: GABON

Gabonese Defense Forces (Forces de Defense Gabonaise): Land Force (Force Terrestre), Gabonese Navy (Marine Gabonaise), Gabonese Air Forces (Forces Aerienne Gabonaises, FAG) (2012)

20 years of age for voluntary military service; no conscription (2012)

Transnational Issues :: GABON

UN urges Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to resolve the sovereignty dispute over Gabon-occupied Mbane Island and lesser islands and to establish a maritime boundary in hydrocarbon-rich Corisco Bay

current situation: Gabon is primarily a destination and transit country for adults and children from West and Central African countries subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking; boys are forced to work as street vendors, mechanics, or in the fishing sector, while girls are subjected to domestic servitude or forced to work in markets or roadside restaurants; West African women are forced into domestic servitude or prostitution; men are reportedly forced to work on cattle farms; some foreign adults end up in forced labor in Gabon after initially seeking the help of human smugglers to help them migrate clandestinely; traffickers operate in loose, ethnic-based criminal networks, with female traffickers recruiting and facilitating the transport of victims from source countries; in some cases, families turn child victims over to traffickers, who promise paid jobs in Gabon

tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - Gabon does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so; Gabon's existing laws do not prohibit all forms of trafficking, and the government failed to pass a legal amendment drafted in 2013 to criminalize the trafficking of adults; anti-trafficking law enforcement decreased in 2014, dropping from 50 investigations to 16, and the only defendant to face prosecution fled the country; government efforts to identify and refer victims to protective services declined from 50 child victims in 2013 to just 3 in 2014, none of whom was referred to a care facility; the government provided support to four centers offering services to orphans and vulnerable children - 14 child victims identified by an NGO received government assistance; no adult victims have been identified since 2009 (2015)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Office of Public Affairs (OPA) is the single point of contact for all inquiries about the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). We read every letter, fax, or e-mail we receive, and we will convey your comments to CIA officials outside OPA as appropriate.

# data[].attributes.body
There are many environmental issues in Equatorial Africa in the Sub Saharan like deforestation, drought, soil erosion, wetland degradation, and insect invasions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The following article is copyright © African Technology Forum. All rights reserved. This article appeared in Volume 8, Number 1 of ATF. Select this link to see the table of contents for this issue. Select this link to order this issure of ATF .

Akin L. Mabogunje *

Sub-Saharan Africa suffers from some serious environmental problems, including deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, wetland degradation, and insect infestation. Efforts to deal with these problems, however, have been handicapped by a real failure to understand their nature and possible remedies. Conventional wisdom views the people of this region as highly irresponsible toward the environment and looks to the international community to save them from themselves. It tends to blame all of the region's environmental problems on rapid population growth and poverty. Yet, there is no conclusive evidence that Africans have been particularly oblivious to the quality of the environment, nor has the international community shown any genuine concern for it until recently. Clearly, protecting the environment of Sub-Saharan Africa is an issue that needs to be examined more carefully and incorporated into an overall strategy of sustainable economic development.

Formulating such a strategy will not be easy: In the closing years of the 20th century, virtually every country in this region is slipping on almost every index of development. The heady post-independence period of the 1960s and early 1970s, when development was considered simply a matter of following a plan formulated by Western experts, has now been succeeded by a time of fiscal crises and international marginalization. The region now finds itself afflicted the consequences of inappropriate policies, as well as by almost endemic political instability, an inability to manage its economies effectively, and an increasingly hostile external economic milieu. As simple survival has become more problematical, it has become increasingly difficult to avoid overexploiting natural resources and degrading the environment. Analysts are now concerned that this will compromise the prospects for sustainable development in the near future.1

To understand the full dimensions of the problems, it will first be necessary to examine the factors that predispose sub-Saharan Africa to serious environmental degradation. This will permit a detailed investigation of the environmental problems caused by humans in both rural and urban areas, along with a suggestive comparison between those problems and ones caused solely by nature. It will then be possible to look at the question of environmental protection in terms of sustainable development in the region and to suggest the roles that the state and international assistance ought to play. The present situation offers an important opportunity to redirect development strategy in ways that will not only improve the social and economic well-being of people in this region but also enhance the quality of the environment in which they live.

Factors Predisposing to Environmental Degradation

Three factors strongly increase the threat of environmental degradation in sub-Saharan Africa: its demographics, its heavy burden of foreign debt, and the absence of democracy. Throughout the region, the end of the colonial period saw a tremendous expansion of social services, especially in the areas of education and health care. This led to a sharp decline in infant mortality and to a rapid increase n population. During the last 25 years, annual growth rates of 2.5 to 3.5 percent have caused the population of sub-Saharan Africa to double (570 million); at the current rate of increase, it should double again in the next 25 years.

An increase of this magnitude within a relatively short time span implies a rising proportion of children in the population and thus a heavier burden on those who must care for them. This has led to mass migration to the cities (particularly by adult males) and other efforts to supplement family income through non-farm employment. As a result, there has been less time for farm work, and more labor-saving but environmentally harmful shortcuts are being taken. In forested areas, for instance, cleared land is used continuously, even though allowing it to lie fallow from time to time would result in greater productivity and less degradation. In dryland regions, cultivation has been extended into marginal lands that are more easily cleared and cultivated.

Turning to the second factor, countries in sub-Saharan Africa incurred large foreign debts in their efforts to industrialize and to provide their rapidly growing populations with modern social services. Most of these loans have been long-term ones from official sources and on concessional terms; as the need for borrowing has become more urgent, however, countries have turned increasingly to private, short-term loans at market rates. Thus, while in 1970 the region's total official debt (excluding that of South Africa and Namibia) was slightly more than $5 billion (US dollars), by 1990 it had risen to nearly $140 billion. Total private debt, which was zero in 1970, was more than $20 billion in 1990. (With other external loans, the total indebtedness of the region was more than $171 billion by 1990.2

The problem, however, lies not so much in the rising level of debt as in the region's dwindling ability to service it. High dependence on the export of primary products left sub-Saharan African countries vulnerable to the long decline of commodity prices that began in the 1970s. The total value of the region's agricultural exports has fallen dramatically, with the decline averaging 0.8 percent a year from 1975 to 1980, 2.9 percent a year from 1980 to 1985, and 2.5 percent a year from 1986 to 1988. (For some countries the decline has been even more pronounced.3 As a result, the burden of debt has risen markedly for most countries in the region. Between 1980 and 1989, the total external debt rose from 27 percent to 97 percent of gross national product and from 97 percent to 362 percent of exports.4

Not unexpectedly, most countries in sub-Saharan Africa have had to undergo major structural adjustments. This has entailed not only a drastic compression of imports and a sharp devaluation of national currencies but also the retrenchment of a sizable portion of the wage- and salary-earning population. As living conditions deteriorated, more people turned to survival agriculture, both in urban and rural areas. At the same time, sharply rising prices for imported energy products forced many families to fall back on wood and charcoal for their domestic energy needs. Clearly, these developments put acute strain on the environment everywhere in the region.

The performance of most African governments in implementing the reforms necessary to turn their economies around has also been a source of serious concern. The international community spent the years immediately following independence rationalizing (and sometimes applauding) the necessity for authoritarian one-party or military rule. Over time, these regimes have become inordinately corrupt and have managed the countries' economies without due concern for transparency and accountability. In most countries, this has led to a high level of political instability and social alienation that has impaired both development efforts and environmental protection. There is a growing realization that economic reforms cannot be achieved without a much greater degree of decentralization and democratization in the political process.

Much of the debate about sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa has focused on the region's severe poverty. There is no question that poverty has become widespread. The World Bank estimates that between 1985 and 2000, the number of persons living below the poverty line will rise from 180 million to 265 million.5 By 1990, the combination of rapid population growth and an economy in crisis had lowered per capita gross national product to $340, making this region one of the least developed in the world.

For neo-Malthusians, this poverty stems directly from overpopulation; in their view, the two will inevitably lead to an increase in land fragmentation, over-utilization of agricultural and grazing land, more frequent famines, lower life expectancy, and considerable environmental degradation.6 By contrast, the renowned agricultural economist, Ester Boserup, and others argue that population growth need not result in such dire consequences. In their view, population growth can promote more intensive agricultural practices and induce more favorable attitudes toward technological and organizational innovation that will not only increase productivity but improve environmental quality as well.7

Two considerations suggest that the second view is more applicable to the situation prevailing in sub-Saharan Africa. First, over the period 1600 to 1900, this region lost a large part of its population to internecine warfare and the slave trade. As a result, by 1900 the region was more sparsely populated than it had been earlier. Second, at 23 persons per square kilometer, the region's current population density is still low compared to that of Asia or Europe.

This is not to imply that there is no cause for concern about the environment in sub-Saharan Africa. One needs to keep a sense of perspective in addressing the question, however, the proper focus is on the region's poverty per se (as opposed to its population growth) and on the impact this has on the environment in both rural and urban areas (see Boxes I, II, and III).

The Potential For Sustainable Development

Three points stand out clearly from this review of environmental challenges in the rapidly growing but poor countries of sub-Saharan Africa. First, the development strategy pursued in most of these countries has wrought serious havoc on the environment without necessarily improving the average person's standard of living. Second, this has taken place despite the region's relatively ample natural resources. Third, and perhaps most important, knowledge about the region's environment and its degradation remains inadequate.

Nowhere is this last point more true than in the attempt to explain environmental degradation in terms of population growth. This Malthusian argument depends on there being a "carrying capacity" beyond which the environment will inevitably suffer. But as already pointed out, in most of sub-Saharan Africa the population density is relatively low. Furthermore, some prime agricultural lands are clearly "undersettled," while areas less suited to agriculture are densely populated.

A recent study of the relationships among population growth and density, the intensification of agriculture, and the implications for sustainability offers some useful insights on this issue.31 The study focused on 10 areas with relatively dense populations (ranging from 150 to more than 1,000 persons per square kilometer). Five of these were in East Africa (in Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania), while the remaining five were in West Africa, mainly in Nigeria. In all of these areas, the study found that "contrary to much conventional wisdom that portrays the African smallholders as wrecking their physical resources, particularly in the face of land-intensive conditions . . . farmers . . . made considerable investments in resource-based capital, thereby protecting their farms from major environmental deterioration and the negative impacts of intensification and production that usually follow.32

Similar conclusions have been reached regarding other aspects of the population-environment equation in sub-Saharan Africa. Contrary to conventional wisdom, detailed field investigations in Nigeria have found that the rising demand for fuelwood has not led to greater deforestation or desertification. Far from "overcutting their trees," farmers have been maintaining their tree stocks by planting and by protecting spontaneous seedlings. The area studied showed "2.3 percent per annum increase in tree density between 1972 and 1981, in the wake of the disastrous drought of the late 1960s and early 1970s when pressure on woody vegetation from human and natural sources must have been very intense."33 Field investigations in Uganda and Mali drew similar conclusions.34

This is not to imply that there have been no instances of severe environmental degradation. These have only occurred under three special circumstances, however: where the population density was greater than 500 per square kilometer; where the area itself was physically or biologically vulnerable; and where socioeconomic conditions impeded the implementation of conservation measures. Indeed, decreases in well-being (indicated by reduced food availability) are attributable not to rapid population growth but to the persistence of customary land tenure arrangements, misguided macroeconomic policies, and inadequate infrastructure. According to the World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland in 1987, sustainable development is "a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are in harmony (emphasis added) and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations."35 Included in the concept of harmony, of course, is the access of producers to the various factors of production, especially land.

The problem of land tenure, like many of the other problems besetting the development process in sub-Saharan Africa, probably stems from the region's incomplete transition from one mode of production to another. Colonialism attempted to shift the economies of these countries from a precapitalist mode of production (based largely on kinship relations) into a global capitalist mode (based on "commoditized" factors of production whose prices were subject to the forces of supply and demand in a self-regulating market.) Though praiseworthy in many ways, these efforts failed signally in the one major area where they could have made a real difference: the patterns of land ownership in rural areas. By and large, colonial administrators left the traditional patterns intact, thus introducing a major contradiction into the development process.

While capitalism requires well-established individual property rights, most smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa have no such rights, even though they have long-standing rights to the use of communal land. Smallholders thus have no "economic assets" in the conventional sense of the term.36 Second, they have no real collateral against which to borrow and thus no access to the credit they need to invest in improved farm infrastructure, new cultigens, and modern technologies generally. When one considers the heavy investment that went into producing the polders of the Netherlands or the wheatlands of North America, the disability under which African farmers labor becomes readily apparent.

Consequently, much as colonial and post-colonial governments tried to make farmers more market oriented, the fact that one of their major inputs lies outside the market system has always limited the success of this effort. In many cases, farmers have chosen simply to "opt out" of the system, especially now that governments make little attempt to ensure that they receive fair prices for their output.37 The unnecessary liabilities under which farmers labor probably account for a large part of the poverty in sub-Saharan Africa.

Other aspects of the macroeconomic policies pursued by most African governments simply served to deepen the poverty under which the majority of their rural populations labored and exacerbated the negative impact of their activities on the environment. Widening budget deficits eroded the value of national currencies, fueled inflation, undermined peoples' real income, and encouraged excessive exploitation of natural resources to maintain even a subsistence level of existence.

The Roles of the State and International Assistance

It is clear that the environmental challenges in sub-Saharan Africa are more complex than the simple model linking environmental degradation to population growth and inappropriate macroeconomic policies indicates. Because of this complexity, no easy solutions are available. But whatever policies are adopted, to succeed they must increase peoples' interest in protecting the environment by involving them directly in the process; reduce the incidence of poverty to reduce the pressure on natural resources; and show people how a high level of resource use can go hand-in-hand with the maintenance of environmental quality.

The state can play an important role in promoting sustainable development and improving the environment. By setting the correct investment priorities, it can provide needed infrastructure, services, education. In urban areas, it should focus on providing safe water, collecting and disposing solid waste, and improving the physical layout of congested areas; in the rural areas, it should focus on health, education, and basic sanitation.

Regulatory measures, however, may be more important than public investment. In this regard, the state should set environmental standards that are realistic in terms of the country's particular socioeconomic circumstances. For example, setting strict standards for indoor air pollution when most people cannot afford less-polluting energy sources simply makes enforcement impossible. Regulatory measures should also aim to remove those distortions in the economy that tend to penalize producers or promote overconsumption. Important examples include underpricing agricultural commodities and subsidizing public goods and services, both of which favor the urban population. Such distortions, of course, are partly responsible for the economic collapse of many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Although structural adjustment programs now taking place may improve matters, the governments' lack of commitment has left the situation far from satisfactory.

Conservation measures have been important in protecting most natural resources from excessive use or degradation. Through its power of eminent domain, the state has been able to set aside sizable tracts of land to protect watersheds, prevent soil erosion, allow natural regeneration to take place, and preserve habitats, species, and biodiversity. In 1993, there were 663 public reserves or parks in sub-Saharan Africa, totaling 125.2 million hectares.38 This however, is no more than 4.6 percent of the total land area of the region, much less than the 6 percent for the world as a whole. Moreover, the 1992 Caracas Action Plan of the World Parks Congress set a goal of protecting at least 10 percent of each of the world's major biomes; sub-Saharan Africa currently falls far short of this standard.

Simply setting land aside, however, does not mean being able to manage it properly. Many governments in the region lack the staff or financial resources to administer their protected areas, much less invest in new ones. Innovative strategies, such as involving private groups and non governmental organizations, are being considered and may provide another option for conservation management. Such groups are believed to be better able to raise funds to purchase land, to support conservation activities in existing parks and reserves, to incorporate the local population in management decisions, and to negotiate land-use disputes within and between communities.

Important as public investment, regulation, and conservation are, however, it is institutional development that offers the most hope for alleviating poverty and protecting the environment. Three aspects of institutional development are paramount: promoting democracy, expanding individual property rights, and increasing the knowledge base.

Decentralization and democratization must go down to the community level and must entail not only giving people a voice in decisions but also ensuring that they can raise the revenue necessary to translate their desires into reality. This will promote transparency and accountability in government and foster a proprietary interest in the quality of the environment.

The importance of expanding property rights was made clear earlier. Although it is often claimed that land tenure in sub-Saharan Africa is so complex that nothing can be done about it, it is difficult to believe that meaningful reforms cannot be introduced. The most serious mistake that many governments made was to resort to nationalization.39 From a conservation standpoint, nationalization often fails to distinguish between traditional communal property systems (which generally promote sound management of natural resources) and open-access systems (which result in excessive exploitation). When land and water have been nationalized and sound management practices disturbed, the environmental consequences have often been severe.40

Nationalization has also led governments to give short shrift to titling and registration. Yet, until such procedures clearly defined rights to land (on either a freehold or a leasehold basis), much of the region's natural resources are bound to be treated as common property and therefore suffer degradation and "the tragedy of the commons."

The third aspect of institutional development relates to the knowledge available for making decisions on environmental matters. People in sub-Saharan Africa have been adapting to the region's various environments for thousands of years. In the process, they have accumulated valuable information that should be incorporated into a formal analyses of sustainable development.41 Along with such knowledge, of course, must go the collection and analysis of field data by modern techniques. This is necessary to correct the hallowed but mistaken notions of conventional wisdom and to give governments in the region better appreciation of the causes and effects of environmental damage as well as the costs and benefits of different policy options. In this regard, independent commissions provide a useful way for governments to draw on technical expertise both within and outside of their countries; they can also be instrumental in bringing the results of advanced research to bear on local problems.

As mentioned earlier, current knowledge of the ecology of tropical forests and grasslands is still rudimentary. The rich biological resources of these areas—and the ways in which humans relate to them—have yet to receive as much study as they deserve. Given the shortage of funds and trained personnel in most sub-Saharan African countries, this is an area where bilateral and multilateral assistance could make a real difference. The Convention on Biological Diversity, signed by 153 countries at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, is correct in insisting that tropical countries be compensated for protecting biological diversity from which others benefit. If such compensation became the order of the day, some of it should be used to finance further study of tropical ecosystems.

Poor countries in sub-Saharan Africa could also use international assistance in reforming their environmental laws and in selecting optimal strategies for environmental management. Not enough emphasis has been given to the role of law in alleviating poverty and protecting the environment. Particularly in the area of pollution charges, the experience of developed countries could be invaluable. But countries in the tropics that are being asked to protect biodiversity and genetic resources partly for the benefit of others also need technical assistance in legally defining and protecting their rights regarding these resources.

Consequently, management strategies must go beyond assessing the impact of individual projects, as this tends to address the symptoms rather than the root causes of environmental problems. Such strategies must pay greater attention to broader issues and recognize intersectoral links and intergenerational concerns. This would entail integrating natural resource management with national economic planning as well as tailoring international assistance to specific aspects of resource conservation. To implement such strategies, African countries must strive to secure broad consensus and support, both nationally and internationally.

Conclusion

In the closing years of the 20th century, most countries in sub-Saharan Africa find themselves almost returning to the drawing board. Three decades of trying to drive their economies according to Western models have left them prostrate, their people wallowing in poverty, and their environment exposed to many hazards. More importantly, the international indebtedness of these countries and their present unattractiveness to foreign investors are forcing them to rethink the whole question of development.

The next 25 years thus offer real opportunities for improvement, beginning with population control. At the household level, the economic crisis is inducing a reassessment of the viability of large families; at the governmental level, political inertia and indifference to family planning programs are being replaced by more effort and initiative. Already, fertility has begun to decline in some countries, such as Zimbabwe, Kenya, and Cameroon.42 Although the future remains uncertain, there is every likelihood that this trend will spread across the region.

A decline in fertility, however, will not completely eliminate the momentum that has built up in the years of rapid population growth. The number of people will continue to increase, raising the population density all over the region. But as already emphasized, there is growing evidence that the African environment is more resilient than conventionally thought and can probably support a higher level of population and more intensive agriculture. Technological innovations and institutional developments are thus more important to maintaining a sound environment in sub-Saharan Africa than are efforts to reduce population pressure. If the focus of development shifts from mere economic growth to eradicating the widespread poverty, the people as a whole can play a more decisive role, not only in turning the economic fortunes of their countries around but also in enhancing the quality of the environment.
______________
* Akin L. Mabogunje is Chairman of the Development Policy Center in Ibadan, Nigeria, and a former professor of geography at the University of Ibadan.
Reprinted from
Environment, Volume 37, Number 4, page 4, May 1995. Reprinted with permission of the Helen Dwight Reid Educational Foundation. Published by Heldref Publications, 1319 Eighteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036-1802. Copyright © 1995.

References

1 World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Development: A Long Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989), 22.

2 United Nations Center for Human Settlements, Global Report on Human Settlements 1986 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), Table 1.

3 World Bank, World Development Report 1992 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 258-59.

4 W. B. Morgan and J. A. Solarz, "Agricultural Crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa: Development Constraints and Policy Problems," Geographical Journal 160, no. 1 (1994): 57-73.

5 World Bank, note 3 above, pages 250-51.

6 World Bank, World Development Report 1990 (New York: Oxford University Press 1990), 139.

7 A. S. MacDonald, Nowhere to Go But Down? Peasant Farming and the International Development Game (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989).

8 E. Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth (Chicago: Aldine, 1965); and E. Boserup, Population and Technological Change: A study of Long Term Trends (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981). See also R. W. Kates and V. Haarmann, "Where the Poor Live: Are the Assumptions Correct?" Environment, May 1992, 4.

9 World Bank, note 3 above, page 201

10 A. Grainger. "Quantifying Changes in Forest Cover in the Humid Tropics: Overcoming Current Limitations." Journal of World Forest Resource Management 1 (1984): 3-63

11 World Resources Institute, World Resources 1994-5 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 133. See also A. Grainger, Controlling Tropical Deforestation (London: Earthscan Publication, 1993)

12 A. Grainger, "Rates of Deforestation in the Humid Tropics: Estimates and Measurements," Geographical Journal 159, no 1 (1993);33-44

13 Food and Agriculture Organization, Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Tropical Countries, FAO Forestry Paper 112 9 Rome 1993), 38

14 World Resources Institute, note 11 above, page 310

15 A.D. Jones, "Species Conservation in Managed Tropical Forest," in T. C Whitmore and J.A. Sayers, ed., Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction (London: Chapman and Hall, 1992), 3.

16 J Davidson, Economic Use of Tropical Moist Forests, Commission on Ecology Paper NO. 9 (Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1985), 9

17 B. R. Davies, "Stream Regulation in Africa," in J. V. Ward and J. A. Stanford eds.., The Ecology of Regulated Streams (New York: Plenum Press, 1979). For more information on one such project in Botswana, see the review by C. W. Howe of the IUCN Review of the Southern Okavango Integrated Water Development Project, Environment, Jan/Feb 1994, 25

18 C. A. Drijver and M. Marchand, Taming the Floods: Environmental Aspects of Floodplain Development in Africa (leiden, the Netherlands: University of Leiden, 1985).

19 A Warren and M Khogali, Assessment of Desertification and Drought in the Sudano-Sahelian Region 1985-1991. (New York: United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office and United Nations Development Programme, 1993).

20 D. S. G. Thomas, "Sandstorm in a Teacup? Understanding Desertification," Geographical Journal 159, no 3 (1993): 318-31. See also United Nations Environment Programme, World Atlas of Desertification (London: Edward Arnold, 1992)

21 D. S. G. Thomas, note 20 above, page 328

22 P. H. Raven. "Biological Resources and Global Stability," in S. Kawano, J. H. Connell, and T. Hidaka, eds.., Evolution and Coadaptation in Biotic Communities (Tokyo: University of Tokyo, 1988), 16-23

23 W. V. Reid, "How Many Species Will There Be?" in T. C. Whitmore and J. A. Sayers, note 15 above, table 3.2

24 United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, note 2 above, table 6. See also G. McGranahan and J. Songsore, "Wealth, Health, and the Urban Household: Weighing Environmental Burdens in Accra, Jakarta, and Sao Paulo," Environment, Jul/Aug 1994, 4

25 World Resources Institute, note 11 above, pages 362-65. See also K. R. Smith, "Air Pollution: Assessing Total Exposure in Developing Countries," Environment, December 1988,16

26 World Resources Institute, note 11 above, page 201

27 United Nations Development Programme, Environment & Natural Resources Group, The Urban Environment in Developing Countries (New York: United Nations, 1992), 29

28 D. Satterthwaite, "The Impact on Health of Urban Environments," Environment and Urbanization 5, no 2 (1993): 87-111. For another side of this, see J. Briscoe, "When the Cup is Half Full: Improving Water and Sanitation Services in the Developing World," Environment, May 1993,6

29 D. Wilhite and M. Glantz, "Understanding the Drought Phenomenon: The Role of Definitions," in D. Wilhite and W. Easterling, eds., Planning for Drought (London: Westview Press, 1987), 1130

30 A. B. Oguntola and J. S. Oguntoyinbo, "Urban Flooding in Ibadan: A Diagnosis of the Problem," Urban Ecology 7 (1982):39-46

31 T. R. Odhiambo, "Insect Pests," in E. S. Ayensu and J. Marton-Lefevre, eds., Proceedings of the Symposium on the State of Biology in Africa (Washington, D.C: International Bioscience Network, ICSU [International Council of Scientific Unions]), 115

32 A. J. Dommen, Innovation in African Agriculture (Boulder, Colo. Westview Press, 1988), 115-17

33 B. L. Turner 11, G. Hyden, and R. Kates, eds., Population Growth and Agricultural Change in Africa (Gainesville, Fla: University Press of Florida, 1993)

34 Ibid., page 422. See also M. Mortimore and M. Tiffen, "Population Growth and a Sustainable Environment: The Machakos Story," Environment, October 1994, 10

35 R. A. Cline-Cole, H. A. C. Main, and J.E. Nichol, "On Fuelwood Consumption, Population Dynamics and Deforestation In Africa," World Development 18 (1990): 522-23. The conventional view is presented in E. Eckhom, G. Foley, G. Barnard , and L. Timberlake, Firewood: The Energy Crisis that Won't Go Away ((London: Earthscan, 1994); and E. Eckholm and L. Brown, Spreading Deserts: The Hand of Man, Worldwatch Paper 13 (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 1977)

36 H. P. Andersen, "Land Use Intensification and Landscape Ecological Changes in Budondo Sub-Country, Uganda," (Master's thesis, University of Oslo, 1993); and T.A. Benjamisen, "Fuelwood and Desertification: Sahel Orthodoxies Discussed on the Basis of Field Data from the Gourma Region of Mali," Geoforum 24, no 4 (1993): 397-409.

37 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 46

38 World Bank, note 6 above, pages 31-32.

39 A. O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice and Loyalty (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1990); see also G. Hyden, No Shortcuts to Progress: African Development Management in Perspective (London: Heinemann, 1983).

40 World Resources Institute, not 11 above, page 316

41 See R. L. Paarlberg, "The Politics of Agricultural Resource Abuse," Environment, October 1994, 6.

42 A. L. Mabogunje, Perspective on Urban Land and Urban Management Polices in sub-Saharan Africa, Technical Paper No 196 (Washington, DC : World Bank, 1992). 15-22

43 World Bank, note 3 above, page 12.

44 P. Richards, Indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985).

45 J.A. Tobey, "Toward a Global Effort to Protect the Earth's Biological Diversity," World Development 12, no 12 (1993): 1931-45

46 World Resources Institute, note 11 above, page 30. See also the articles in the January/February 1995 issue of Environment.

Find out more about ATF | Feature Articles | ATF Back Issues: Information You Can Use | Subscribe to ATF | Send a letter to the editor: Talk to us! | Send comments about this home page | ATF Technical Services | What's New | Related Web Sites

© 1998 African Technology Forum, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Environmental Challenges In Sub Saharan Africa

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The following article is copyright © African Technology Forum. All rights reserved. This article appeared in Volume 8, Number 1 of ATF. Select this link to see the table of contents for this issue. Select this link to order this issure of ATF . Akin L.

# data[].attributes.body
This website explains and shows some economic challenges and how Gabon economically works.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gabon joined the World Bank in 1963. Since then, the Bank has provided support through the financing of more than 20 projects in a variety of sectors.