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Camera angles - Camera - GCSE Moving Image Arts (CCEA) Revision - BBC Bitesize

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Filmmakers can make audiences feel more connected to their stories by using simple camera techniques.

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It was supposed to be a visit to mark the Queen's platinum jubilee - a chance to present the modern face of the British monarchy to a region where republican sentiment is on the rise.

But it really didn't turn out that way.

When the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge end their week-long tour of the Caribbean on Saturday, they will report back that the tour may have accelerated moves to ditch the Queen as the head of state.

Calls for slavery reparations and the enduring fury of the Windrush scandal followed them across Belize, Jamaica and the Bahamas - overshadowing a trip aimed at strengthening the Commonwealth and discouraging other countries from following Barbados's example in becoming a republic.

Upon arrival in Belize, the couple were met with protests from villagers over a land dispute involving a charity William is a patron of. In Jamaica, the prime minister told them in an awkward meeting that the country would be "moving on" to become a republic, and a government committee in the Bahamas urged the royals to issue "a full and formal apology for their crimes against humanity".

The Duchess of Cambridge shakes hands with children during a visit to Trench Town. Photograph: Reuters

From photos of Will and Kate shaking hands with Jamaican children through wire fences, to the military parade in which the pair stood, dressed in white, in an open-top Land Rover, the optics of the visit has been described by local campaigners as a throwback to colonialism.

"This was another photo opportunity, and rather presumptuous to assume that Jamaican people were suddenly going to welcome William and his wife with open arms," said Velma McClymont, a writer and former Caribbean studies academic who was born in Jamaica and was five when the country gained independence.

"My grandparents could trace generations back to slavery, but they died believing Jamaica was fully independent. Imagine, 60 years later and it's still an extension of the British empire. It's an infant colony, not standing alone."

'The monarchy is a relic': Protests in Jamaica over royal visit - video

Followers of the trip in the UK may have gained a different impression. On Friday, the Sun reserved its front page for the tour, gushing that "Kate dazzles on Jamaica tour" and suggesting that the pair had "touched hearts". On Wednesday, the Daily Mail splashed a photo of Kate, the "diving duchess", scuba-diving with nurse sharks in Belize.

The same could not be said of the coverage in the Jamaican media. "It was dubbed in [the UK] media as a charm offensive, but I'm not quite so sure it came off that way. It wasn't a royal failure, but I wouldn't quite deem it a regal success either," said Tyrone Reid, an associate editor at national newspaper the Jamaica Gleaner.

Reid added that local publications had devoted considerable column inches to the views of "a growing number of Jamaicans demanding the British monarch and British state apologise for and accept its role in the abhorrent slave trade of years ago."

Royals experts, including one former palace PR, said that an enormous amount of planning went in to the visits, often starting years in advance. They are led by government in line with Foreign Office diplomatic, culture and commercial priorities.

Philip Murphy, a professor at the University of London and former director of the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, said that although the palace had "taken a relaxed view" about countries removing the Queen as head of state, "the British government has been less consistent about that" - ministers are thought to be anxious to preserve the soft power benefits of the Commonwealth after Brexit.

The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge view a portrait of the Queen during a visit to Sybil Strachan primary school in Nassau, the Bahamas. Photograph: Ian Vogler/The Daily Mirror/PA

"I think the Foreign Office is sometimes a bit naive, and it doesn't have much institutional memory any more. There are profound sensitivities around the legacies of colonialism and slavery and around the royal presence in the Caribbean, and sometimes you get the feeling that the Foreign Office doesn't quite get it," he said.

Murphy pointed to the growing emphasis on the relationship between colonialism and racial oppression after the Black Lives Matter movement, along with damage to the royals' reputations after Meghan Markle's accusations of racism and the British government through the Windrush scandal. "All of those things make it politically very difficult to stage this visit at this time. You've got the makings of a perfect storm," he said.

A better approach to the trip, said Prof Trevor Burnard, director of the Wilberforce Institute for the Study of Slavery and Emancipation at the University of Hull, would have been for the royals to go prepared to directly acknowledge and apologise for the family's role in the slave trade, including through memorial visits to sites connected with slavery, such as Kingston harbour, to express sorrow instead of upbeat photo ops.

"They should recognise that members of the royal family from Charles II to William IV were involved with and supported slavery and the slave trade, and that this is part of their past."

Although a "quiet minority" in Jamaica were supportive of the Queen as head of state, there was "a great deal of antipathy and resentment toward the monarchy", said Cynthia Barrow-Giles, a professor at the University of West Indies who has researched the British monarchy in the Caribbean. "[The visit] smacks of political opportunism and is disturbingly self-serving," she said.

Many members of Commonwealth countries in the Caribbean are increasingly questioning its purpose, especially since they have received little support during the pandemic, which has devastated the Jamaican economy and left 120,000 children out of school, and are pointing to unequal access to vaccines, which has resulted in nearly 3,000 deaths in an island of 3 million people.

Jennifer Housen, a lawyer in Jamaica, said the fact the UK revoked visa-free access for Jamaicans in 2003, with applications regularly refused, had led people to feel "the relationship is pointless".

The Duchess of Cambridge attends a dinner hosted by Patrick Allen, governor general of Jamaica, at King's House, Kingston, Jamaica. Photograph: Toby Melville/PA

"These are discussions we need to be having with them - not pretty flags and smiling black children pushing their hand through chain fences to say: 'Oh, you know, I've touched the royals'; that's garbage, that's fostering something that is completely cringeworthy."

The reparations movement has been growing considerably over the Caribbean in recent years, led by the 15-country strong intergovernmental Caricom Reparations Commission.

Rosalea Hamilton, one of the campaigners for Advocates Network who organised slavery reparations protests in Jamaica, said there was currently a "heightened consciousness of the history", including "understanding of the legacies of colonialism today, economic, sociological, psychological". There was, she said, an increased awareness that this had led to trauma in the population that affected confidence levels, along with swathes of the population living in "unhealthy, unsanitary, unsafe" conditions.

Reid said the reparations movement had been "gathering significant steam" in part because of increased access to information about Jamaica's history that went beyond the school textbooks that had traditionally taught a British interpretation of history.

"The man on the street is demanding reparations as well, it's not just at the intellectual level. That's when you know something is really gathering momentum, when it's spreading across a broad section of society. More people are recognising the horror of slavery and the atrocities that were committed, and becoming aware of the impact that has on modern day life."

This article was amended on 26 March 2022 to correctly refer to the Queen's platinum jubilee, rather than diamond jubilee as an earlier version said.

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'Perfect storm': William and Kate's awkward Caribbean tour

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Indians have moved on since the Queen took the throne

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On 21 August 2018, the then-Home Secretary Sajid Javid announced that - after a review of 11,800 cases - 18 members of the Windrush generation who could have been wrongfully removed or detained would get a formal apology from the government.

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After World War Two, thousands of people moved to the UK from the Caribbean - and they were known as the Windrush generation.

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The Civil War is the central event in America's historical consciousness. While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865 determined what kind of nation it would be. The war resolved two fundamental questions left unresolved by the revolution: whether the United States was to be a dissolvable confederation of sovereign states or an indivisible nation with a sovereign national government; and whether this nation, born of a declaration that all men were created with an equal right to liberty, would continue to exist as the largest slaveholding country in the world.

Northern victory in the war preserved the United States as one nation and ended the institution of slavery that had divided the country from its beginning. But these achievements came at the cost of 625,000 lives--nearly as many American soldiers as died in all the other wars in which this country has fought combined. The American Civil War was the largest and most destructive conflict in the Western world between the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the onset of World War I in 1914.

The Civil War started because of uncompromising differences between the free and slave states over the power of the national government to prohibit slavery in the territories that had not yet become states. When Abraham Lincoln won election in 1860 as the first Republican president on a platform pledging to keep slavery out of the territories, seven slave states in the deep South seceded and formed a new nation, the Confederate States of America. The incoming Lincoln administration and most of the Northern people refused to recognize the legitimacy of secession. They feared that it would discredit democracy and create a fatal precedent that would eventually fragment the no-longer United States into several small, squabbling countries.

The event that triggered war came at Fort Sumter in Charleston Bay on April 12, 1861. Claiming this United States fort as their own, the Confederate army on that day opened fire on the federal garrison and forced it to lower the American flag in surrender. Lincoln called out the militia to suppress this "insurrection." Four more slave states seceded and joined the Confederacy. By the end of 1861 nearly a million armed men confronted each other along a line stretching 1200 miles from Virginia to Missouri. Several battles had already taken place--near Manassas Junction in Virginia, in the mountains of western Virginia where Union victories paved the way for creation of the new state of West Virginia, at Wilson's Creek in Missouri, at Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, and at Port Royal in South Carolina where the Union navy established a base for a blockade to shut off the Confederacy's access to the outside world.

But the real fighting began in 1862. Huge battles like Shiloh in Tennessee, Gaines' Mill, Second Manassas, and Fredericksburg in Virginia, and Antietam in Maryland foreshadowed even bigger campaigns and battles in subsequent years, from Gettysburg in Pennsylvania to Vicksburg on the Mississippi to Chickamauga and Atlanta in Georgia. By 1864 the original Northern goal of a limited war to restore the Union had given way to a new strategy of "total war" to destroy the Old South and its basic institution of slavery and to give the restored Union a "new birth of freedom," as President Lincoln put it in his address at Gettysburg to dedicate a cemetery for Union soldiers killed in the battle there.

For three long years, from 1862 to 1865, Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia staved off invasions and attacks by the Union Army of the Potomac commanded by a series of ineffective generals until Ulysses S. Grant came to Virginia from the Western theater to become general in chief of all Union armies in 1864. After bloody battles at places with names like The Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg, Grant finally brought Lee to bay at Appomattox in April 1865. In the meantime Union armies and river fleets in the theater of war comprising the slave states west of the Appalachian Mountain chain won a long series of victories over Confederate armies commanded by hapless or unlucky Confederate generals. In 1864-1865 General William Tecumseh Sherman led his army deep into the Confederate heartland of Georgia and South Carolina, destroying their economic infrastructure while General George Thomas virtually destroyed the Confederacy's Army of Tennessee at the battle of Nashville.

By the spring of 1865 all the principal Confederate armies surrendered, and when Union cavalry captured the fleeing Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Georgia on May 10, 1865, resistance collapsed and the war ended. The long, painful process of rebuilding a united nation free of slavery began.

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The supreme court justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg has died of pancreatic cancer, the court said Friday. She was 87.

Ginsburg was the second woman appointed to the court in history and became a liberal icon for her sharp questioning of witnesses and intellectually rigorous defenses of civil liberties, reproductive rights, first amendment rights and equal protections under the law.

In a statement, the court said Ginsburg, who served more than 27 years on the bench, "died this evening surrounded by her family at her home in Washington DC, due to complications of metastatic pancreas cancer".
Ruth Bader Ginsburg changed America long before she joined the supreme court | Moira Donegan
The chief justice, John Roberts, said that the nation "has lost a jurist of historic stature. We at the supreme court have lost a cherished colleague. Today we mourn, but with confidence that future generations will remember Ruth Bader Ginsburg as we knew her - a tireless and resolute champion of justice."

Her death thrust an immediate spotlight on who might fill the vacancy on the court, with just over six weeks before the election. The news was received with alarm by liberals and moderates who feared that Republicans would exploit the narrow window to install a third Donald Trump appointee on the supreme court.

The Senate majority leader, Mitch McConnell, pledged to get Trump a swift vote his supreme court pick. "President Trump's nominee will receive a vote on the floor of the United States Senate," McConnell said.

The Democratic presidential candidate, Joe Biden, said that the Republican-controlled Senate should wait until after the election to confirm Ginsburg's replacement, following the precedent Republicans set in 2016.

McConnell blocked Barack Obama from filling a court vacancy in March 2016, eight months before the presidential election that year, claiming that the window of time was too narrow and saying the slot had to be held for the next president to fill.

"Tonight and in the coming days we should focus on the loss of the justice and her enduring legacy," Biden said. "But there is no doubt - let me be clear - that the voters should pick the president and the president should pick the justice for the Senate to consider. This was the position the Republican Senate took in 2016 when there were almost 10 months to go before the election."

Biden: successor to 'giant' Ginsburg should be decided by US election winner - video

Both of Trump's supreme court appointments to date - Neil Gorsuch and Brett Kavanaugh - replaced justices appointed by fellow Republican presidents. But by replacing Ginsburg, who was appointed in 1993 by Bill Clinton, Trump could decisively skew the ideological balance of the court for a generation.

Tributes poured in on Friday, with figures on the left and the right offering praise and condolences. Meanwhile hundreds of mourners gathered outside the supreme court in Washington DC, laying flowers and candles on its steps.

"During her extraordinary career, this Brooklyn native broke barriers & the letters RBG took on new meaning- - as battle cry & inspiration," tweeted the New York governor, Andrew Cuomo.

Andrew Cuomo (@NYGovCuomo)
NY's heart breaks with the passing of Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg.

During her extraordinary career, this Brooklyn native broke barriers & the letters RBG took on new meaning-as battle cry & inspiration.

Her legal mind & dedication to justice leave an indelible mark on America.
September 19, 2020

"Justice Ginsburg paved the way for so many women, including me. There will never be another like her," said former secretary of state Hillary Clinton, while the former president George W Bush said " she inspired more than one generation of women and girls ".

Hillary Clinton (@HillaryClinton)
Justice Ginsburg paved the way for so many women, including me. There will never be another like her. Thank you RBG.
September 19, 2020

The president's son, Eric Trump, called Ginsburg " a remarkable woman with an astonishing work ethic". Donald Trump, who was holding a rally in Minnesota when the news broke on Friday, appeared not to learn of the news until he left the stage.

After the the event, the president offered brief comments to the press before boarding Air Force One, according to the White House pool report.

"She just died? I didn't know that," Trump said. "She led an amazing life, what else can you say? Whether you agree or not ... she led an amazing life."

'An amazing woman': Donald Trump reacts to death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg - video

Ginsburg had been in poor health and was admitted to the hospital as recently as mid-July, when she was taken in with a fever and chills, but was released after about 24 hours, with the court reporting that she was recovering well.

After her discharge Ginsburg announced that she had been undergoing chemotherapy since May to treat cancerous lesions on her liver. A scan on 7 July had revealed "reduction of the liver lesions and no new disease", she said.

Ginsburg had survived four cancer treatments going back to 1999. She participated in oral arguments in May from a hospital bed while receiving treatments believed at the time to be for a malignant tumor on her pancreas diagnosed in 2019. Ginsburg had announced in January that she was cancer-free.

Ginsburg had undergone surgery on 21 December 2018 to remove two cancerous nodules from her lung.

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People gather in Washington following the death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Photograph: Alexander Drago/Reuters

Doctors discovered that she had developed lung cancer in the course of a health review following a 7 November fall in which the associate justice fractured three ribs. She returned to work within days of that incident.

Ginsburg had been diagnosed with colon cancer in 1999 and pancreatic cancer in 2009, undergoing surgery both times.

Trump could become the first president to appoint three supreme court justices in his first term since Richard Nixon a half-century ago. In July, Trump nominated Kavanaugh to replace the retiring Anthony Kennedy. In early 2017, Trump nominated Gorsuch to replace Antonin Scalia, who died 11 months before the end of Obama's presidency. McConnell declined to hold hearings on the nomination by Obama of the appeals court judge Merrick Garland.

In her 25 years on the court, Ginsburg was an essential vote in watershed rulings that combatted gender discrimination and protected abortion rights, equal pay, civil liberties and privacy rights.

Of reproductive rights, Ginsburg told an interviewer in 2009: "The basic thing is that the government has no business making that choice for a woman."

In her later years Ginsburg gained traction as a cultural figure and feminist icon. A biopic released in 2018 was chosen by the National Board of Review as the best documentary of the year. A blog called Notorious RBG packaged Ginsburg's feminist appeal in a hip-hop persona, and she had a daily workout that defeated Stephen Colbert.

Ginsburg was born in Brooklyn, New York, and was one of the first women to enroll at Harvard Law School, from which she transferred to graduate from Columbia. She served as general counsel for the American Civil Liberties Union and was co-founder of the Women's Rights Project. "Women's rights are an essential part of the overall human rights agenda, trained on the equal dignity and ability to live in freedom all people should enjoy," she said.

Elevated to a federal judgeship by Jimmy Carter, Ginsburg was Clinton's first nomination to the court. The Senate voted 96-3 to confirm her nomination to the supreme court.
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Ruth Bader Ginsburg, supreme court justice, dies aged 87

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The supreme court justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg has died of pancreatic cancer, the court said Friday. She was 87. Ginsburg was the second woman appointed to the court in history and became a liberal icon for her sharp questioning of witnesses and intellectually rigorous defenses of civil liberties, reproductive rights, first amendment rights and equal protections under the law.