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Women's Role in Serial Killing Teams: Reconstructing a Radical Feminist Perspective by Thompson, J. and Ricard, S. (2009) 

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📎 Document
Jessica Bennett - Lethal Ladies: Revisiting What We Know About Female Serial Murderers - Amanda L. Farrell, Robert D. Keppel and Victoria B. Titterington.
Jessica Bennett - Lethal Ladies: Revisiting What We Know About Female Serial Murderers - Amanda L. Farrell, Robert D. Keppel and Victoria B. Titterington.
Farrell, Keppel and Titterington (2004) recognise that serial murderers are rare offenders, and this, coupled with challenges to accessing data about them, poses a significant challenge to empirical investigation. The researchers suggest that female serial murderers are thought to be rarer than their male counterparts and have often been excluded from being labelled “serial murderers” due to narrowly constructed definitions. Therefore, female serial murderers are an even more elusive population to study. The results of this exploratory analysis, using newspaper articles to gather data about the crimes of a subset of 10 female serial murderers in the United States, suggest that not only are these women different from men who commit serial murder but also that the limited information published about these rare offenders may have underestimated the female serial murderer in terms of both offender and offense characteristics. 

 

Regardless of the path of future research, what is clear is that further research is needed. The current study demonstrated that what we know about female serial murderers may be significantly outweighed by what we do not know. These offenders are committing murders at ages earlier than previously found, remaining active for longer than previously projected and killing more victims than previously assumed. These facts, coupled with the findings from the current study that female serial murderers will not be charged in many of the homicides they commit, means that there may be unidentified victims whose murders are never discovered, or linked, and who will never receive the justice they deserve.

http://journals.sagepub.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1177/1088767911415938 
Masculinity and Child Homicide
Masculinity and Child Homicide
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.860.448&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Caitlin Veal -Female versus male perpetrated femicide: an exploratory analysis of whether offender gender matters (2012). By Muftic, L. R. and Baumann, M. L.
Caitlin Veal -Female versus male perpetrated femicide: an exploratory analysis of whether offender gender matters (2012). By Muftic, L. R. and Baumann, M. L. 
http://journals.sagepub.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1177/0886260512438282

- looking at gender differences in male and female perpetrators of femicide (the killing of a woman).

- The main similarities between male and female perpetrator cases of femicide is that the victim and the perpetrator know each other. However, for males their is usually an intimate relationship whereas with females it is usually an acquaintance or a family member.

- No significant difference found in choice of weapon between genders (pg. 2838). However wider literature fluctuates in these findings (pg. 2827)

- Age of the victim differs significantly depending on gender of the perpetrator. Males average age of victim is 36 but for females average age is 21 (because they are more likely to kill children) (pg. 2829).

- Men more likely to have commited femicide in conjunction with another crime eg sexual assault or burglary. If a woman committed femicide in conjunction with another crime they were usually acting as an accessory to a a male. (pg. 2837).

- In the study conducted within the article, only men were found to have commited femiside-suicide. Suggested to be because of gender differences in emotional expression. (Pg. 2838).
Evie Thatcher – Understanding The Influence Of Victim Gender In Death Penalty Cases: The Importance Of Victim Race, Sex-Related Victimization, and Jury Decision Making by Williams, Demuth and Holcomb (2007).
Evie Thatcher – Understanding The Influence Of Victim Gender In Death Penalty Cases: The Importance Of Victim Race, Sex-Related Victimization, and Jury Decision Making by Williams, Demuth and Holcomb (2007).

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9f32/dea0e760af17d3835f17999bd7cd894b4017.pdf 

·         The gender of the victim plays a substantial role within the jury’s decision making.
·         Victims gender has no relation to race when it comes to interest of research.
·         Offenders who murder women are more likely to receive the death sentence or harsher life sentences than those who murder men.
·         Women are viewed as more vulnerable, this view point is embeded in current theoretical explanations for the harsher treatment of defendants convicted of murdering women and girls.
·         The reasons for the higher rates in conviction toward offenders where the victim is female are often ignored.


Badlus, Woodworth and Pulaski 1990

·         Recent death penalty studies are characterized by comprehensive data and advanced statistical procedures marginalize victim gender in their analyses and often omit victim gender altogether.

Baumer, Messner, and Felson, 2000

·         Female homicide victims are perceived as engaging in less disreputable or contributing behaviour associated with their victimization in comparison with male victims. 

Stauffer et al. 2006

·         Found that juries are more likely to impose death sentences in homicides involving rape.

Mental Health and Domestic Violence: ‘I Call it Symptoms of Abuse’
Mental Health and Domestic Violence: ‘I Call it Symptoms of Abuse’ 
 Cathy Humphreys and Ravi Thiara. 

British Journal of Social Work (2003). 

Link:https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Mental+health+and+domestic+violence&btnG= 

The article explores the effects of domestic violence women suffer. For example, Cascardi et al. (1999) and Golding (1999) found fourteen and seventeen studies respectively, which explored the link between depression and women experiencing domestic violence. (pg.4) 

Research evidence now clearly shows a direct link between women’s experiences of domestic violence and heightened rates of depression, trauma symptoms, and selfharm (pg.2) 

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a further area in which significant patterns emerge with women’s experiences of domestic violence. Again, both Golding (1999) and Cascardi et al. (1999) have undertaken overviews of eleven studies reporting PTSD in women exposed to domestic violence. (pg.5) 

Many of the women’s stories trace the increasingly extreme ways in which men tried to control them. Some women described not being able to go to the toilet by themselves or the humiliation of sexual control (pg.8) 

Women’s experiences of depression, post-traumatic stress, and self-harm can be understood as ‘symptoms’ or the effects of living with violence and abuse. (pg.16) 

Furthermore, 60 per cent of women in the quantitative sample left because they believed they would be killed (pg.7) 
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Millie Mifflin - Women Who Kill Their Children. Silverman and Kennedy (1988)
Millie Mifflin - Women Who Kill Their Children. Silverman and Kennedy (1988)
 - Women in Canada rarely kill, when they do it is most often their spouse or lover. second most frequent target is other family members (including children)
- Most literature focuses on spousal homicide with emphasis on batter women who strike out
-Rasko (1976, 1981), Hungarian women who kill lovers 40% of time, 20% children (excluding infanticide)
- Totman, 'child killers' tend to use their hands and tend to be younger than those women who kill their spouses - Weisheit also found this
-  If the research literature on child killing is sparse, then the literature on infanticide (excluding purely clinical treatments) is almost nonexistent. 
-  2 reasons women commit violence against children: 
1. Physically abuse due to violent family situation
2. Transferring anger away from the actual source of distress and are using the child as an available target
- If charged with infanticide than child-killing mothers, they were younger and less mature, seen as having an inability to cope with a child. - high proportion of out-of-wedlock pregnancies are unwanted, Smith et al (1974)
- Two thirds of the homicides perpetrated by women are accounted for by killings of their husbands and children. Much of the rest of the female-perpetrated
homicide involves other family members and friends and acquaintances
-  females still contribute only about 10 to 12% to the overall homicide rate 
- When they kill their spouses, only 6% are declared as having mental illness, 9% if they kill other acquaintances or family But when they violate the maternal role and kill their children, women are declared mentally ill 67% of the time . 
- Staruas (1987) when a child is from a violent home they're more at risk of being violent when an adult
 Victim-offenders

Michaela Harker+ Heidi Russell- Another Side of Multiple Murder:Women Killers in the Domestic Context. JILL THERESA MESSING and JOHN W. HEEREN (2004)
Michaela Harker+ Heidi Russell- Another Side of Multiple Murder:Women Killers in the Domestic Context. JILL THERESA MESSING and JOHN W. HEEREN (2004)
 This article examines the difference in motivations of multiple murder between men and women in a domestic murder context. Using a national database of newspaper accounts, this article uses a sample of U.S. women who, between 1993 and 2001, killed two or more victims during a single episode of domestic violence. This article discovered: 

 

·         In most cases women who commit multiple murder within a family, kill just their children, whilst men kill both children and spouse. 
·         Motivations to kill are the same in terms of the desperation of a new reality. (they resort to violent means to solve personal problems) 
·         The difference in family member that men and women kill are suggested to be put in theory context with motivations determined by expected, learnt gender roles and gender role ideologies imposed by society. 
·         When men are faced with losing patriarchal power within their families, they resort to violence and the murder of their family to re-establish this dominant male position. 
·         When women are driven to commit multiple murder within the family, they tend to kill only their children as they feel as if they ‘own’ their children and have rights to their lives. 
 
·         When women are in a position where their husband has cheated or has left the family, women commit murder in one of two ways: 
Ø  Suicide-murder/ kill their children before they kill themselves as they feel obliged to take their lives as they don’t want to ‘leave them behind’ 
Ø  General multiple murder/ when a women feels like their children are a burden and can no longer support them (emotionally and financially) , instead of adoption as the solution, women kill their children. 

 


 

Ben Taylor- A Comparison of Domestic and Non-Domestic Homicides: Further Evidence for Distinct Dynamics and Heterogeneity of Domestic Homicide Perpetrators. (Juodis, Starzomski, Porter and Woodworth, 2014)
Ben Taylor- A Comparison of Domestic and Non-Domestic Homicides: Further Evidence for Distinct Dynamics and Heterogeneity of Domestic Homicide Perpetrators. (Juodis, Starzomski, Porter and Woodworth, 2014)
-Juodis et al aim to facilitate a deeper understanding of domestic homicides by comparing 37 domestic homicide correctional files (victim, perpetrator and offence characteristics) against those from 79 non-domestic homicides. 
-The aim is that the comparison will reveal distinct dynamics between the two. 
-Factors and characteristics are identified using the 'Revised Danger Assessment' (Campbell et al, 2009) and the 'Psychopathy Checklist-Revised' (Hare, 2003).  
-Contextually almost half of homicides (in Canada between 2000-2009) were identified as spousal homicides, with women more likely than men to be the victims (Statistic Canada, 2011). 
-However, it is 'not uncommon' for DH's (Domestic Homicides) to be portrayed as inexplicable phenomena. So this article aims to reduce the ambiguity of DH's.  
-Within the field, male control/proprietariness, women leaving, women having a new relationship, child custody/access disputes have been identified as a dominant themes for precursors and patterns (Campbell et al, 2003; Ontario Domestic Violence Death Review Committee, 2005). These studies outline that there is more to DH's than the media would have you believe sometimes, with several important triggers identified. 
-Juodis et al suggest that their work not only builds upon previous work but addresses gaps and contradictions within the field. For example, some academics have argued that DH's are not associated with special dynamics (Felson and Lane, 2010; Felson and Messner, 1998). Moreover, some have 'questioned whether specialisation in the intimate partner homicide is necessary'. 
-Finally Juodis et al aim to clarify the extent to which psychopathy plays within DH's. 
-Age, psychopathy status, type of homicide (reactive or instrumental), level of gratuitous violence, evidence of sadistic violence, evidence of sexual components to the violence were all identified as comparison characteristics. 
-By doing so Juodis et al aim answer whether DH and NDH perpetrators are the same people, and do they share the 'same correlates'? 

Results 
-In response to the methodology Juodis et al found several differences. 
-DH's were more likely to involve females victims and less likely to involve male victims. 
-Mean age of perpetrators shows that DH perpetrators were older on average at the time the homicide was committed than NDH. 
-DH perpetrators obtained significantly lower mean total in relation to psychopathy. A smaller amount of DH perpetrators were considered psychopaths. 
-DH's less likely to involve accomplices. 
-DH's more likely to involve pure reactive violence or pure instrumental violence as oppose to a mix of the two. 
-No significant differences in relation to those of which involved the use o substances. 
-70% of DH's were committed within circumstances of relationship separation. 

Discussion 
-Although the study revealed several characteristics which did not significantly differ, Joudis et al argues that there are several unique dynamics. 
-Several justifications brought to the surface via the research that further studies and research shouldd be carried out on the topic. 

Hannah Allison - Women's Role in Serial Killing Teams: Reconstructing a Radical Feminist Perspective by Thompson, J. and Ricard, S. (2009)
Hannah Allison - Women's Role in Serial Killing Teams: Reconstructing a Radical Feminist Perspective by Thompson, J. and Ricard, S. (2009) 
https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/sih/45127679?query=female+serial+killers&resultsUri=items%3Fquery%3Dfemale%2Bserial%2Bkillers%26facet%255B0%255D%3DEdsRecordOptions%253AIsFullText%26target%3Deds%26offset%3D30&facet%5B0%5D=EdsRecordOptions%3AIsFullText&target=eds

This article suggests a reconsidered version of radical feminism and applies it to three case studies of infamous female serial killers; Myra Hindley, Karla Holmolka and Martha Beck. Asking 4 questions; 
1. Were the women likely to have committed serial murder on their own? 
2. Did the women demonstrate a need to maintain their relationships? 
3. Were the women willing participants in the murder? 
4. Did the women kill in order to maintain their relationship? 

These questions fill gaps in previous studies by radical feminists of murders. All three of the case studies were found to relate to the 4 questions above with motives all relating to their partners and how patriarchy had played a part in the motive of their killings.
Caitlin Hunter -The Helen Jewett Murder in1836: Violence, Gender, and Sexual Licentiousness in Antebellum America by Cohen, P, C. (1990)
Caitlin Hunter -The Helen Jewett Murder in1836: Violence, Gender, and Sexual Licentiousness in Antebellum America by Cohen, P, C. (1990)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4316044?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents 

This journal focuses upon the murder of Helen Jewett, a prostitute in New York. The near-naked, charred body and a  cloak and a hatchet found in the backyard of the house were linked to Robinson by witnesses. From this evidence, the coroner's jury concluded that Helen Jewett had died from a blow to the head with a hatchet held by the hands of Richard P. Robinson. Robinson was bound over for trial and sent to Bellevue jail. 

It focuses on the ways journalism manipulated the ways females, including Helen Jewett were represented. By also creating sensationalised stories surrounding the murder scene, by sexualising and romanticising her death, which led to mass excitement and widespread publicity that focused on the unusual personalities of the two principle players.  
 Despite extensive documentation there failed to be knowledge of class and gender in Antebellum America. 
 
Feminist interpretations by Caputi, Walkowitz, and Cameron, of sexual murders theorized such crimes are fundamentally about male domination and patriarchal control of women. 
 
The issue at the time was the problem of unsupervised young people, a phenomenon of greater dimension then than at any previous time in American history as girls too were more mobile than ever before, but their job opportunities. A second issue was that, a controversial issue of illicit sex.- was it on the rise, aggressive?
Female sexuality was questioned? 

The public discourse about the Jewett case gave shape to emergent cultural constructions of male and female sexuality- demonstrated by the representations of Helen’s life and opportunities she had. The multiple versions of the life of Helen Jewett and the nationwide publicity the case called forth are evidence of the extreme tension of American society in the 1830s over the fear-or the hope-that women could be unregulated, sexual, independent beings. 





























Not an Ordinary KillerJust an Ordinary GuyWhen Men Murder an Intimate Woman Partner
Not an Ordinary KillerJust an Ordinary GuyWhen Men Murder an Intimate Woman Partner
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1077801204265015
Men who kill an intimate women are just ordinary  men who in a extreme moment 'snap' and kill.

Compare men who murder other men and men who murder an intimate female partner. 

Excluding the US patterns of intimate partner homicide through out the world is consistent across  time and societies.
Womens risk of intimate partner violence decreases with age.

Compare childhood  backgrounds of intimate female murderers and male murderers. Found that childhood instability may result in problems that can explain intimate female partner violence.

11% of men who eventually kill a woman had a father who was violence towards their mother. but 23% of men who eventually kill a man had a similar background.

Jessica Eddon- On self de
 Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers.
Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers. 
https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=women+who+kill&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=3475&context=nclr

This study explores why women kill the men who batter them and what type of charges they can face for doing so. It discusses one case where a severely beaten woman Ms Norman faces charges of murder. The court argued that she had had hours of peace before she shot her husband and she had not phoned the police that day although the police were aware of the danger her husband was to her from other occasions. Thus meaning that Ms Norman did not kill her husband in self defence button cold blood. The article looks at the issues in America's laws and the difference between self defence and murder. 
Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)
Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)
This study looks at murder-suicide. The authors explain that it his crime is gendered and sexed, with the perpetrators often being male. 

The purpose of the study was to explore the link between the men, masculinities and murder-suicide. They do this by analysing 45 North American murder-suicide cases. It was found that the motive for men to commit murder-suicide is often linked to underlying issues with their masculinities, for example worries around job security and their failing to provide financial and economic security. In many of the cases looked at, the authors found that men’s loss of control in their lives and men that feel as though the masculine identities have been threatened. 

The study also suggested ways in which murder-suicide can be prevented

1.       Gun control – guns have been linked to masculine identities (heroes and villains)
2.       Mental illness – empowering men, greater support, removing mental illness language and providing role models of hope and recovery.
3.       Employment – greater support for men.

Concluding statement is that more research in this area needs to be done.
Charlie Spence
Charlie Spence
The Trans Panic Defence: Masculinity, Heteronormativity, and the Murder of Transgender Women (Lee and Kwan,2014)
This article examines different cultural factors and structures of masculinity issues that contributes to the murder of a transgender woman. 

It discusses the traditional panic defence strategy used by male defendants claiming on the discovery that the (transgender) victim was biologically male provoked them into a passionate rage. And actually, results in juries believing this and acquitting him of first-degree murder and sentencing manslaughter.

It also looks at different masculinity theories on how and why men kill transgender women and get off with less severe sentences.

It also argues that the topic of transgender murder is a topic overlooked by the media and police and needs more attention.

Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)
Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)
This study researched the background and characteristics of 213 males who were charged with murder and were divided into two groups of domestic and nondomestic homicide. Demographics, developmental and family background, prior criminal records, victim characteristics and psychiatric status at the time of the crime were used to compare these groups.

Ones who were charged with domestic homicide/intrafamilial homicide tended to be older, have a more stable adjustment to the community, but also have more evidence of early childhood behavioural problems and were more likely to have committed prior rimes against persons. Psychological stressors such as recent loss of employment or recent release from a psychiatric hospital tended to be more prevalent in the domestic homicide cases. While the mean age of the domestic homicide group was 35.04, while the mean age of nondomestic homicide group was 26.89, there was no significant differences between the two groups in regard to race, job skills, education and number of previous arrests and convictions. 

Natasha Harrison- Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.
Natasha Harrison-  Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.
This article explores the race, culture, class, marital status and biology in the medias treatment and representation of two women, Khoua Her and Andrea Yates. Khoua was a Hmong immigrant who lived in the United States for several years, she strangled her six children. Andrea Yates who was middle class Christian homemaker and married who drowned her five children. Khoua was sentenced to fifty years and Andrea was sentenced to thirty-nine years. 
Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin
Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin
This article focuses on the link between individuals with schizophrenia and their involvement with violent behaviour. Thus, increasing the possibilities of committing murder. The study compares seven schizophrenic men with no history of violence to seven schizophrenic men who murdered family members.  Parricide (e.g. matricide or patricide) is considered to be closely related with schizophrenia, hinting at why there seems to be an apparent link between schizophrenia and domestic murder. 

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=19269ef0-7016-486a-8a15-259faec31a98@sdc-v-sessmgr01

Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters
Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters
Muftic and Baumann used homicide data from the Dallas Homicide Unit to research female perpetrated femicide as they claimed this area was understudied and required further attention from literature. Results from this study showed FPF were more likely to involve a dispute (70.3% of FPFs compared to 61.8% of MPFs) or family violence (21.6% of FPFs compared to 6.5% of MPFs). Findings also suggested in cases of female-perpetrated femicide the victim and perpetrator were more likely to know each other compared to cases of male-perpetrated femicide. 

https://www.cpcjalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/10d.-Female-Versus-Male-Perpetrated-Femicide.pdf
Ellen Pople
Ellen Pople
Madfis, E. and Cohen, J.W. (2018.) Female Involvement in School Rampage Plots. Violence and Gender, 5(2), pp.81-86.

Cohen and Madfis (2018) analyse the impact that females and gendered stereotypes have on School rampage plots. They believe that considering gender in relation to this topic brings a refreshing and thoughtful approach to this field of research. Female involvement in mass shootings is often ignored and is barely recognised.

They ultimately found that, consistent with research on the gendered nature of violence in general, school rampage plots involving female perpetrators tend to involve less serious forms of violence.

Secondly, in part, due to the reduced degree of violence, female-involved school rampage plots tend to be viewed as less serious with regard to established threat assessment tools. 

Then thirdly, they found out that in many instances, the female plotters themselves have engaged in bystander intervention in ways that undermine their male co-conspirators’ plans for successfully carrying out the plot.
Kiera Wears - Renée
 Kiera Wears - Renée Heberle (1999) ‘Disciplining Gender; Or, Are Women Getting Away with Murder?’, Signs, (4), p. 1103.
 
“The notion of killing a woman is almost tantamount in a lot of people’s minds to rape.” – Jeff Brown, public defender, San Francisco (quoted in chiang 1998)
 
This comment was made in response to the execution of Karla Faye Tucker, and the apparent societal ambivalence about executing her. His comment implies, women sex does shape their significance of their presence on death row. This article explores the discussion of why so few women face death row in comparison with men, stating that only 533 women were among the 19,161 confirmed executions since 1632 (to 1999), and only three women being among the 437 offenders executed since 1973 (to 1999). The study refers to many past study’s and theories such as Otto Pollacks work, who suggests in 1950 it is common knowledge “that women are getting away with evil that criminal stats cannot possibly capture”. Or Rapaport’s (1991) findings that women do not commit death-eligible crime son the same numbers as men.
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=c007183f-e082-458a-b280-eac8b5e5dd98@sessionmgr4009
Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)
Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)
-  debate on how we should respond to a woman who kills her abuser
- women are more at risk of spousal assault than men 
- 75% of recorded assaults on women take place at the victim or offenders home. Female homicide victims are far more likely to be killed by their spouse or ex spouse.
- 41% of female homicide victims are killed by a spouse or ex partner compared to 4% of male homicide victims 
- men who kill their wives are often separated from them at the time and is in relation to exclusivity or child custody. Women who kill their partners do not usually kill over sexual jealousy but due to a high degree of violence.
- women were more likely to be acquitted or to be convicted of a lesser offence e.g. manslaughter than men in regards to domestic homicide.
- BWS - battered woman syndrome. When women have faced repeated violence and are in a state of learned helplessness and are unable to improve their situation.
- BWS is an alternative to the defence of provocation as this needs to be a 'sudden loss of self-control' with no delay in the provocation and the action however some women have been facing the abuse over years. 
- Ahluwalia is a case that highlights this issue.

https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/legstd14&id=281&men_tab=srchresults
Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008).
Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008). 

This study explores domestic homicide between both heterosexual and homosexual relationships, addressing which types of violence can be expected to be seen by both men and women, and also the assumed levels of brutality of homicides committed by both men and women in heterosexual and homosexual relationships. 
 
Hyde (2005) suggested that whilst women do use violence in interactions, they are more likely to use relational aggression such as gossiping and social exclusion, than physical violence. Where research shows that men tend to kill their intimate partners in response to suspected or actual infidelity, women are likely to kill their male partners out of want for resources, or fear of injury or death for themselves or their children.
Worcester (2002) has found that intimate partner abuse amongst homosexual partners is similar in terms of type and frequency to that of heterosexual partners. 
 
The article also studied the brutality of homicide in relationships, coding very brutal, as homicides including beating and stabbing, and less brutal, as those including asphyxiation and shooting. The results found that gay men had a higher level of very brutal homicides 62.7%, compared to heterosexual men’s 29.8%. similar results were also identified regarding homosexual women’s killings, with 50.4% being classed as very brutal, compared to heterosexual women at 35.4%.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/424e/310beb3eaf43e38857ef9a8808e2046e18c0.pdf
Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams
Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams
file:///C:/Users/tomli/Downloads/ChildhoodAdversityMathewsetal2011.pdf

South African female homicide raes are 6x higher than the global average. it was discovered that half of all murdered women are killed by an intimate partner. (Abrahams et al. 2009) 
The article explains how men who have had a tough upbringing and felt insecure and powerless. this powerlessness leads them to become violent in order to try and gain respect and power. 


Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

This article explores murder within family and relationships. 
-6.5% were killed by their spouses, 3.5% by their parents, 1.9% by their own children and 2.6% by some other family member.
-45% of murder victims within a family were female.
-A third of family members involved a female as the killer. In sibling murders, females were 15% of killers where as in romantic relationships women represented 41% of killings.
-when a mother killed her own child, the offspring would more likely be a son than daughter(64% as opposed to 36%).
Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)
Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)
This article looks into the excuses and justification surrounding domestic violence and specifically with accounts of domestic violence where the perpetrator attempts to deny responsibility for violence and to present non-violent identities. Authors mentioned within the article are Dobash and Dobash (1998) who talk of men using violence to punish female partners who fail to meet their unspoken physical, sexual, or emotional needs. The findings from the research conducted for this article support the findings from previous researchers who found that domestic violence perpetrators will deny responsibility for their actions and find a number of excuses for said actions.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/089124301015003003
Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)
Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)
The article explores the gendered nature of intimate partner killings. It explores the childhoods of 20 men who were incarcerated for such murders and draws on their, their family and their friends interviews. The study found that traumatic childhood experiences increases emotional vulnerability, resulting in their feeling unloved, insecure and powerless. They adopt violent forms of masculinity to achieve respect and power.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shanaaz_Mathews/publication/268522894_Mathews_S_Jewkes_R_Abrahams_N_2011_I_had_a_hard_life_Exploring_childhood_adversity_in_the_shaping_of_masculinities_among_men_who_killed_an_intimate_partner_in_South_Africa_British_Journal_of_Criminolo/links/557b0dd708aeea18b7750cdb/Mathews-S-Jewkes-R-Abrahams-N-2011-I-had-a-hard-life-Exploring-childhood-adversity-in-the-shaping-of-masculinities-among-men-who-killed-an-intimate-partner-in-South-Africa-British-Journal-of-Crimin.pdf

Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997
Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997
This paper examines youths and their involvement in homicides. The youths in this article include people from age 10- 24. 
The paper found; 
-1/3 of offenders are youths. 
- mostly male.
the ages 18-24 are the highest group of offenders. (The drinking age) 
-Homicides carried out by 2 or more people is frequently juveniles.  

Jessica Bairstow
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8dba/28e01f8fe797d36b46c58631118c5d7a8284.pdf
Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)
Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)
This article looks at how rates of domestic violence by women and men are now more equal in comparison to previous research suggesting violence is carried out primarily by men against women. Crime victimisation studies are gathered from various sources such as household surveys, police statistics, The National Crime Survey and the National Crime Victimisation Study. They ask a large sample size about a range of assaults including sexual by both current partners and previous. This data finds gender asymmetry with women reporting more as victims, however it needs to be taken into account the lack of men reporting abuse for fear of losing their masculinity or being judged. Family Conflict Studies were also looked at and are in comparison smaller scale. It consists of an interview asking one respondent of a cohabiting couple about expressing conflict within a family. Overall these studies find equal perpetration by men and women, high rates of DV, stable levels of seriousness and lower rates of injury. The Contact Tactics Scale (CTS) was first developed by Strauss and his colleagues, with most empirical research having also used the same method. This allows for the acts of violence to be counted over a time period of 1 year but does not include the circumstances of the acts. Although asking about frequency, it is not an accurate account of an ongoing pattern of violence and abuse over potentially several years.
It is argued that despite evidence of gender symmetry being low, we should be increasingly concerned about women's violence. In recognising women's ability of intimate violence will highlight important issues especially gender symmetry in intimate partner violence between gay men and lesbian couples.  
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363.
Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)
Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)
This study examines domestic homicide committed by those aged 65+, and common factors in homicide-suicide cases. The study performed shows that most of the victims are women, who were current spouses of the perpetrators, and were mostly killed by either strangulation or firearms. A majority of those that committed homicide-suicide were found to have depression, and other illnesses, such as dementia and schizophrenia were also commonly found when examining the crimes. When it comes to domestic homicide, a majority of the perpetrators were the central caregivers for their ill victims, and that may have been what drove them to commit the crimes.
In conclusion, a large amount of older offender domestic homicides are committed by spouses where one is sick and the other is trying to ease their pain, and then they commit suicide right after, seen to be an attempt to stay with their partner.
Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)
Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)
This article uses a national database of newspaper accounts from two archives, Lexis-Nexis and ProQuest to explore women who, between 1993 and 2001, killed two or more victims during a single episode of domestic violence. The 32 cases found are similar to that of male mass murder but are different in other ways. A significant difference is that the murders that the women have committed are well planned and the victims are largely the women's own children. The article examines the cases in terms of social characteristics of the offenders as well as their relationship to the victims. It concludes that (particularly with the child killings) there are certain common predisposing factors (social isolation) and events (significant loss in the women's life) that play key roles in why these murders were committed.
Messing, J. and Heeren, J. (2004). Another Side of Multiple Murder. Homicide Studies, 8(2), pp.123-158.
Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey
Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey
This study explores partner violence and how historically it has been associated with males being the perpetrators. However this article explains how males face more partner violence by females than what is traditionally expected. This is due to media shaping perceptions of gender role expectations and therefore males not reporting that they need help. This is shown through the lack of professional help available to males who have suffered partner violence compared to the help out there for females. 

.... An masculated d
 .... An masculated dominated arena. 
Aimee Spaven 

https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yZeGDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=gender+and+murder&ots=t7aEki5oiu&sig=eE8E4RKDjNkJC9mV5I9gh95IZBM#v=onepage&q=gender and murder&f=false

Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE
Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE
This article acts as a response to a mass shooting at a Florida school that took place earlier this year. Spector (2018) highlights the importance in recognising that the majority of mass shooters in America are male, and presents an interpretation of why it is young males who behave in this way. It is suggested that failing relationships, poor transitions from childhood to 'manhood' and violent fantasies could influence why a mass shooter becomes such. Specifically, the allowance of violence within American culture through the media is signified as depicting the wrong images to young males, through outlets such as video games and pornography. Moreover, the idolisation of macho-male aggresive sports stars is deemed to have the same affect. Therefore it is put forward that a 'reconstruction of masculinity' within America needs to take place in order to put a stop to young males who live out their fantasies through the use of violence and murder. 
Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal
Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal
This book includes a feminist approach on women who commit and are accused of murder. Women who do kill either kill their children or their partner. Woman murder rates are less fewer than men, when a women does kill it seen as ‘unnatural’ of the usual gender representations of a women, the breaking of ‘social norms’ when a woman commits murder, (Myra Hindley and Aileen Wuornos)
When it comes to the criminal justice system, it is viewed as 
Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith
Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith
This article talks about one woman in particular who was a serial killer: Nancy Hazel Braggs Harrelson Lanning Morton Doss or Nannie Doss. She grew up in Arkansas with an abusive and strict father yet she was a happy and sweet child. She lived her whole life looking for the perfect man like she had been reading about in her romance books and magazines. With this need to find him, she murdered four of her husbands when they did not meet her standard. When she was caught, she admitted to poisoning them and also admitted killing her mother, her sister Dovie, her grandson Robert and one mother-in-law because they tried to get in the way of her finding her perfect man. She was smart though and had most of her husbands take out life insurance policies before killing them so she could collect the money. Eventually she was caught and put in jail for the murders, where she confessed and eventually died of leukemia.

Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012)
Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012) 
This article explores how chivalric values influence outcomes in capital cases. This highlights the difference in how gender effects the perception of the case. Shatz and Shatz particularly look at topics relating to rape-murders and domestic murders. They referred to male offenders as 'knights' (as chivalry in cases paint males in this light) and show that females are more likely to die in domestic circumstances. In conclusion, they found that judges and courts do promote chivalry in cases such as honour killings and there is a disproportionate use of death penalty in rape-murderers and domestic violence murders.  
Leah Cliff 
https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=+domestic+murder+and+gender&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=1299&context=bglj 
Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide
Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1557988314551359 
This article studies murder-suicide in regards to various biological and social factors. The author aimed to mostly find a connection between masculinity, men and murder.
Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.
Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.
Author: Angela Brown
* series of interviews with 'battered women' from domestic violence relationships that end up killing their partners and are charged for either murder or manslaughter, Colorado, USA
* opens a discussion around whether these types of killings should be punishable 
* the research traces how the women's relationships went from affection to violence
* Brown states how many 'partner homicides are preceded by a history of abuse' and how many women seek help from the police prior to the lethal altercation but often not enough is done to help them
* the purpose of the study was to understand more about the relationships of abused women who kill their husbands and to identify the dynamics that lead to the commission of a homicide

Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)
Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)
Peterson, E. (1999) Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide. Homicide Studies, 3 (1), pp.30-46.

This article focuses on the theory of self help and how this relates to race, gender and social class. Peterson then uses these factors to explain phenomenons of female homicide (against intimate partners in particular). Peterson also argues that looking more in depth at homicide committed by women will also help us learn more about men that commit murder.
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa 
Author: Shanaaz Mathews, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams 
Summery:
The brutal enforcement of racial hierarchies and apartheid laws in South Africa created grinding poverty. This poverty created townships, rife with crime, violence and unemployment. Consequently, such conditions challenged the existence of patriarchal family structures and men's hegemonic masculinity. This led to men's exercise of gendered dominance over women through intimate partner violence and femicide. For men, the pathway of violence begin with unhappy childhood, parental abuse at home, corporal punishment in school, emotionally detached parenting, and absence of a role model father figure. As a consequence, men developed a deep seeded distrust for their partners, insecurity, jealousy, lack of empathy and lower self-esteem. 
Even at a cultural level, women in South Africa were conditioned to accept their male partners' controlling behavior. They were also expected to be economically dependent on men. In an economy, rife with social inequalities and injustice, women's socio-economic dependence on men created a  sense of low self-esteem. 
In addition to that, the access to justice, problems in prosecuting men for killing their partners have been a few more issues that still plague the South African Criminal Justice System. 
In essense, women came to be viewed as commodities by their partners. Men felt a certain sense of entitlement towards them. This sense of entitlement, combined with men's lack of trust and their propensity for violence has created life threatening conditions for women in South Africa.
Reference:
Mathews, S., Jewkes, R. and Abrahams, N., 2014. ‘So now I’m the man’: Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa. British Journal of Criminology, 55(1), pp.107-124.    
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence
Author: Michael S. Kimmel
* "domestic violence increases in severity over time, so that earlier, "moderate" violence is likely to be followed by more severe violence". Pg 1338
* "Significant number of women killed by their spouses or ex-spouses were also earlier victims of violence". pg 1338
* Gender symmetry in domestic violence, a phenomenon in which women and men have equally used violence against each other in an intimate relationship, is largely a myth. 
* Even in the relationships where women are found to be the perpetrators of intimate partner violence, the violence is unlikely to escalate over time. 
Reference:
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363. 
Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers.
Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers. 
https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=women+who+kill&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=3475&context=nclr

This study explores why women kill the men who batter them and what type of charges they can face for doing so. It discusses one case where a severely beaten woman Ms Norman faces charges of murder. The court argued that she had had hours of peace before she shot her husband and she had not phoned the police that day although the police were aware of the danger her husband was to her from other occasions. Thus meaning that Ms Norman did not kill her husband in self defence button cold blood. The article looks at the issues in America's laws and the difference between self defence and murder. 
Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)
Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)
This study looks at murder-suicide. The authors explain that it his crime is gendered and sexed, with the perpetrators often being male. 

The purpose of the study was to explore the link between the men, masculinities and murder-suicide. They do this by analysing 45 North American murder-suicide cases. It was found that the motive for men to commit murder-suicide is often linked to underlying issues with their masculinities, for example worries around job security and their failing to provide financial and economic security. In many of the cases looked at, the authors found that men’s loss of control in their lives and men that feel as though the masculine identities have been threatened. 

The study also suggested ways in which murder-suicide can be prevented

1.       Gun control – guns have been linked to masculine identities (heroes and villains)
2.       Mental illness – empowering men, greater support, removing mental illness language and providing role models of hope and recovery.
3.       Employment – greater support for men.

Concluding statement is that more research in this area needs to be done.
Charlie Spence
Charlie Spence
The Trans Panic Defence: Masculinity, Heteronormativity, and the Murder of Transgender Women (Lee and Kwan,2014)
This article examines different cultural factors and structures of masculinity issues that contributes to the murder of a transgender woman. 

It discusses the traditional panic defence strategy used by male defendants claiming on the discovery that the (transgender) victim was biologically male provoked them into a passionate rage. And actually, results in juries believing this and acquitting him of first-degree murder and sentencing manslaughter.

It also looks at different masculinity theories on how and why men kill transgender women and get off with less severe sentences.

It also argues that the topic of transgender murder is a topic overlooked by the media and police and needs more attention.

Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)
Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)
This study researched the background and characteristics of 213 males who were charged with murder and were divided into two groups of domestic and nondomestic homicide. Demographics, developmental and family background, prior criminal records, victim characteristics and psychiatric status at the time of the crime were used to compare these groups.

Ones who were charged with domestic homicide/intrafamilial homicide tended to be older, have a more stable adjustment to the community, but also have more evidence of early childhood behavioural problems and were more likely to have committed prior rimes against persons. Psychological stressors such as recent loss of employment or recent release from a psychiatric hospital tended to be more prevalent in the domestic homicide cases. While the mean age of the domestic homicide group was 35.04, while the mean age of nondomestic homicide group was 26.89, there was no significant differences between the two groups in regard to race, job skills, education and number of previous arrests and convictions. 

Natasha Harrison- Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.
Natasha Harrison-  Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.
This article explores the race, culture, class, marital status and biology in the medias treatment and representation of two women, Khoua Her and Andrea Yates. Khoua was a Hmong immigrant who lived in the United States for several years, she strangled her six children. Andrea Yates who was middle class Christian homemaker and married who drowned her five children. Khoua was sentenced to fifty years and Andrea was sentenced to thirty-nine years. 
Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin
Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin
This article focuses on the link between individuals with schizophrenia and their involvement with violent behaviour. Thus, increasing the possibilities of committing murder. The study compares seven schizophrenic men with no history of violence to seven schizophrenic men who murdered family members.  Parricide (e.g. matricide or patricide) is considered to be closely related with schizophrenia, hinting at why there seems to be an apparent link between schizophrenia and domestic murder. 

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=19269ef0-7016-486a-8a15-259faec31a98%40sdc-v-sessmgr01

Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters
Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters
Muftic and Baumann used homicide data from the Dallas Homicide Unit to research female perpetrated femicide as they claimed this area was understudied and required further attention from literature. Results from this study showed FPF were more likely to involve a dispute (70.3% of FPFs compared to 61.8% of MPFs) or family violence (21.6% of FPFs compared to 6.5% of MPFs). Findings also suggested in cases of female-perpetrated femicide the victim and perpetrator were more likely to know each other compared to cases of male-perpetrated femicide. 

https://www.cpcjalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/10d.-Female-Versus-Male-Perpetrated-Femicide.pdf
Ellen Pople
Ellen Pople
Madfis, E. and Cohen, J.W. (2018.) Female Involvement in School Rampage Plots. Violence and Gender, 5(2), pp.81-86.

Cohen and Madfis (2018) analyse the impact that females and gendered stereotypes have on School rampage plots. They believe that considering gender in relation to this topic brings a refreshing and thoughtful approach to this field of research. Female involvement in mass shootings is often ignored and is barely recognised.

They ultimately found that, consistent with research on the gendered nature of violence in general, school rampage plots involving female perpetrators tend to involve less serious forms of violence.

Secondly, in part, due to the reduced degree of violence, female-involved school rampage plots tend to be viewed as less serious with regard to established threat assessment tools. 

Then thirdly, they found out that in many instances, the female plotters themselves have engaged in bystander intervention in ways that undermine their male co-conspirators’ plans for successfully carrying out the plot.
Kiera Wears - Renée
 Kiera Wears - Renée Heberle (1999) ‘Disciplining Gender; Or, Are Women Getting Away with Murder?’, Signs, (4), p. 1103.
 
“The notion of killing a woman is almost tantamount in a lot of people’s minds to rape.” – Jeff Brown, public defender, San Francisco (quoted in chiang 1998)
 
This comment was made in response to the execution of Karla Faye Tucker, and the apparent societal ambivalence about executing her. His comment implies, women sex does shape their significance of their presence on death row. This article explores the discussion of why so few women face death row in comparison with men, stating that only 533 women were among the 19,161 confirmed executions since 1632 (to 1999), and only three women being among the 437 offenders executed since 1973 (to 1999). The study refers to many past study’s and theories such as Otto Pollacks work, who suggests in 1950 it is common knowledge “that women are getting away with evil that criminal stats cannot possibly capture”. Or Rapaport’s (1991) findings that women do not commit death-eligible crime son the same numbers as men.
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=c007183f-e082-458a-b280-eac8b5e5dd98%40sessionmgr4009
Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)
Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)
-  debate on how we should respond to a woman who kills her abuser
- women are more at risk of spousal assault than men 
- 75% of recorded assaults on women take place at the victim or offenders home. Female homicide victims are far more likely to be killed by their spouse or ex spouse.
- 41% of female homicide victims are killed by a spouse or ex partner compared to 4% of male homicide victims 
- men who kill their wives are often separated from them at the time and is in relation to exclusivity or child custody. Women who kill their partners do not usually kill over sexual jealousy but due to a high degree of violence.
- women were more likely to be acquitted or to be convicted of a lesser offence e.g. manslaughter than men in regards to domestic homicide.
- BWS - battered woman syndrome. When women have faced repeated violence and are in a state of learned helplessness and are unable to improve their situation.
- BWS is an alternative to the defence of provocation as this needs to be a 'sudden loss of self-control' with no delay in the provocation and the action however some women have been facing the abuse over years. 
- Ahluwalia is a case that highlights this issue.

https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/legstd14&id=281&men_tab=srchresults
Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008).
Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008). 

This study explores domestic homicide between both heterosexual and homosexual relationships, addressing which types of violence can be expected to be seen by both men and women, and also the assumed levels of brutality of homicides committed by both men and women in heterosexual and homosexual relationships. 
 
Hyde (2005) suggested that whilst women do use violence in interactions, they are more likely to use relational aggression such as gossiping and social exclusion, than physical violence. Where research shows that men tend to kill their intimate partners in response to suspected or actual infidelity, women are likely to kill their male partners out of want for resources, or fear of injury or death for themselves or their children.
Worcester (2002) has found that intimate partner abuse amongst homosexual partners is similar in terms of type and frequency to that of heterosexual partners. 
 
The article also studied the brutality of homicide in relationships, coding very brutal, as homicides including beating and stabbing, and less brutal, as those including asphyxiation and shooting. The results found that gay men had a higher level of very brutal homicides 62.7%, compared to heterosexual men’s 29.8%. similar results were also identified regarding homosexual women’s killings, with 50.4% being classed as very brutal, compared to heterosexual women at 35.4%.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/424e/310beb3eaf43e38857ef9a8808e2046e18c0.pdf
Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams
Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams
file:///C:/Users/tomli/Downloads/ChildhoodAdversityMathewsetal2011.pdf

South African female homicide raes are 6x higher than the global average. it was discovered that half of all murdered women are killed by an intimate partner. (Abrahams et al. 2009) 
The article explains how men who have had a tough upbringing and felt insecure and powerless. this powerlessness leads them to become violent in order to try and gain respect and power. 


Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

This article explores murder within family and relationships. 
-6.5% were killed by their spouses, 3.5% by their parents, 1.9% by their own children and 2.6% by some other family member.
-45% of murder victims within a family were female.
-A third of family members involved a female as the killer. In sibling murders, females were 15% of killers where as in romantic relationships women represented 41% of killings.
-when a mother killed her own child, the offspring would more likely be a son than daughter(64% as opposed to 36%).
Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)
Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)
This article looks into the excuses and justification surrounding domestic violence and specifically with accounts of domestic violence where the perpetrator attempts to deny responsibility for violence and to present non-violent identities. Authors mentioned within the article are Dobash and Dobash (1998) who talk of men using violence to punish female partners who fail to meet their unspoken physical, sexual, or emotional needs. The findings from the research conducted for this article support the findings from previous researchers who found that domestic violence perpetrators will deny responsibility for their actions and find a number of excuses for said actions.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/089124301015003003
Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)
Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)
The article explores the gendered nature of intimate partner killings. It explores the childhoods of 20 men who were incarcerated for such murders and draws on their, their family and their friends interviews. The study found that traumatic childhood experiences increases emotional vulnerability, resulting in their feeling unloved, insecure and powerless. They adopt violent forms of masculinity to achieve respect and power.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shanaaz_Mathews/publication/268522894_Mathews_S_Jewkes_R_Abrahams_N_2011_I_had_a_hard_life_Exploring_childhood_adversity_in_the_shaping_of_masculinities_among_men_who_killed_an_intimate_partner_in_South_Africa_British_Journal_of_Criminolo/links/557b0dd708aeea18b7750cdb/Mathews-S-Jewkes-R-Abrahams-N-2011-I-had-a-hard-life-Exploring-childhood-adversity-in-the-shaping-of-masculinities-among-men-who-killed-an-intimate-partner-in-South-Africa-British-Journal-of-Crimin.pdf

Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997
Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997
This paper examines youths and their involvement in homicides. The youths in this article include people from age 10- 24. 
The paper found; 
-1/3 of offenders are youths. 
- mostly male.
the ages 18-24 are the highest group of offenders. (The drinking age) 
-Homicides carried out by 2 or more people is frequently juveniles.  

Jessica Bairstow
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8dba/28e01f8fe797d36b46c58631118c5d7a8284.pdf
Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)
Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)
This article uses a national database of newspaper accounts from two archives, Lexis-Nexis and ProQuest to explore women who, between 1993 and 2001, killed two or more victims during a single episode of domestic violence. The 32 cases found are similar to that of male mass murder but are different in other ways. A significant difference is that the murders that the women have committed are well planned and the victims are largely the women's own children. The article examines the cases in terms of social characteristics of the offenders as well as their relationship to the victims. It concludes that (particularly with the child killings) there are certain common predisposing factors (social isolation) and events (significant loss in the women's life) that play key roles in why these murders were committed.
Messing, J. and Heeren, J. (2004). Another Side of Multiple Murder. Homicide Studies, 8(2), pp.123-158.
Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)
Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)
This article looks at how rates of domestic violence by women and men are now more equal in comparison to previous research suggesting violence is carried out primarily by men against women. Crime victimisation studies are gathered from various sources such as household surveys, police statistics, The National Crime Survey and the National Crime Victimisation Study. They ask a large sample size about a range of assaults including sexual by both current partners and previous. This data finds gender asymmetry with women reporting more as victims, however it needs to be taken into account the lack of men reporting abuse for fear of losing their masculinity or being judged. Family Conflict Studies were also looked at and are in comparison smaller scale. It consists of an interview asking one respondent of a cohabiting couple about expressing conflict within a family. Overall these studies find equal perpetration by men and women, high rates of DV, stable levels of seriousness and lower rates of injury. The Contact Tactics Scale (CTS) was first developed by Strauss and his colleagues, with most empirical research having also used the same method. This allows for the acts of violence to be counted over a time period of 1 year but does not include the circumstances of the acts. Although asking about frequency, it is not an accurate account of an ongoing pattern of violence and abuse over potentially several years.
It is argued that despite evidence of gender symmetry being low, we should be increasingly concerned about women's violence. In recognising women's ability of intimate violence will highlight important issues especially gender symmetry in intimate partner violence between gay men and lesbian couples.  
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363.
Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)
Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)
This study examines domestic homicide committed by those aged 65+, and common factors in homicide-suicide cases. The study performed shows that most of the victims are women, who were current spouses of the perpetrators, and were mostly killed by either strangulation or firearms. A majority of those that committed homicide-suicide were found to have depression, and other illnesses, such as dementia and schizophrenia were also commonly found when examining the crimes. When it comes to domestic homicide, a majority of the perpetrators were the central caregivers for their ill victims, and that may have been what drove them to commit the crimes.
In conclusion, a large amount of older offender domestic homicides are committed by spouses where one is sick and the other is trying to ease their pain, and then they commit suicide right after, seen to be an attempt to stay with their partner.
Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey
Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey
This study explores partner violence and how historically it has been associated with males being the perpetrators. However this article explains how males face more partner violence by females than what is traditionally expected. This is due to media shaping perceptions of gender role expectations and therefore males not reporting that they need help. This is shown through the lack of professional help available to males who have suffered partner violence compared to the help out there for females. 

.... An masculated d
 .... An masculated dominated arena. 
Aimee Spaven 

https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yZeGDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=gender+and+murder&ots=t7aEki5oiu&sig=eE8E4RKDjNkJC9mV5I9gh95IZBM#v=onepage&q=gender%20and%20murder&f=false

Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE
Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE
This article acts as a response to a mass shooting at a Florida school that took place earlier this year. Spector (2018) highlights the importance in recognising that the majority of mass shooters in America are male, and presents an interpretation of why it is young males who behave in this way. It is suggested that failing relationships, poor transitions from childhood to 'manhood' and violent fantasies could influence why a mass shooter becomes such. Specifically, the allowance of violence within American culture through the media is signified as depicting the wrong images to young males, through outlets such as video games and pornography. Moreover, the idolisation of macho-male aggresive sports stars is deemed to have the same affect. Therefore it is put forward that a 'reconstruction of masculinity' within America needs to take place in order to put a stop to young males who live out their fantasies through the use of violence and murder. 
Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal
Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal
This book includes a feminist approach on women who commit and are accused of murder. Women who do kill either kill their children or their partner. Woman murder rates are less fewer than men, when a women does kill it seen as ‘unnatural’ of the usual gender representations of a women, the breaking of ‘social norms’ when a woman commits murder, (Myra Hindley and Aileen Wuornos)
When it comes to the criminal justice system, it is viewed as 
Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith
Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith
This article talks about one woman in particular who was a serial killer: Nancy Hazel Braggs Harrelson Lanning Morton Doss or Nannie Doss. She grew up in Arkansas with an abusive and strict father yet she was a happy and sweet child. She lived her whole life looking for the perfect man like she had been reading about in her romance books and magazines. With this need to find him, she murdered four of her husbands when they did not meet her standard. When she was caught, she admitted to poisoning them and also admitted killing her mother, her sister Dovie, her grandson Robert and one mother-in-law because they tried to get in the way of her finding her perfect man. She was smart though and had most of her husbands take out life insurance policies before killing them so she could collect the money. Eventually she was caught and put in jail for the murders, where she confessed and eventually died of leukemia.

Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012)
Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012) 
This article explores how chivalric values influence outcomes in capital cases. This highlights the difference in how gender effects the perception of the case. Shatz and Shatz particularly look at topics relating to rape-murders and domestic murders. They referred to male offenders as 'knights' (as chivalry in cases paint males in this light) and show that females are more likely to die in domestic circumstances. In conclusion, they found that judges and courts do promote chivalry in cases such as honour killings and there is a disproportionate use of death penalty in rape-murderers and domestic violence murders.  
Leah Cliff 
https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=+domestic+murder+and+gender&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=1299&context=bglj 
Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide
Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1557988314551359 
This article studies murder-suicide in regards to various biological and social factors. The author aimed to mostly find a connection between masculinity, men and murder.
Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.
Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.
Author: Angela Brown
* series of interviews with 'battered women' from domestic violence relationships that end up killing their partners and are charged for either murder or manslaughter, Colorado, USA
* opens a discussion around whether these types of killings should be punishable 
* the research traces how the women's relationships went from affection to violence
* Brown states how many 'partner homicides are preceded by a history of abuse' and how many women seek help from the police prior to the lethal altercation but often not enough is done to help them
* the purpose of the study was to understand more about the relationships of abused women who kill their husbands and to identify the dynamics that lead to the commission of a homicide

Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)
Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)
Peterson, E. (1999) Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide. Homicide Studies, 3 (1), pp.30-46.

This article focuses on the theory of self help and how this relates to race, gender and social class. Peterson then uses these factors to explain phenomenons of female homicide (against intimate partners in particular). Peterson also argues that looking more in depth at homicide committed by women will also help us learn more about men that commit murder.
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa 
Author: Shanaaz Mathews, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams 
Summery:
The brutal enforcement of racial hierarchies and apartheid laws in South Africa created grinding poverty. This poverty created townships, rife with crime, violence and unemployment. Consequently, such conditions challenged the existence of patriarchal family structures and men's hegemonic masculinity. This led to men's exercise of gendered dominance over women through intimate partner violence and femicide. For men, the pathway of violence begin with unhappy childhood, parental abuse at home, corporal punishment in school, emotionally detached parenting, and absence of a role model father figure. As a consequence, men developed a deep seeded distrust for their partners, insecurity, jealousy, lack of empathy and lower self-esteem. 
Even at a cultural level, women in South Africa were conditioned to accept their male partners' controlling behavior. They were also expected to be economically dependent on men. In an economy, rife with social inequalities and injustice, women's socio-economic dependence on men created a  sense of low self-esteem. 
In addition to that, the access to justice, problems in prosecuting men for killing their partners have been a few more issues that still plague the South African Criminal Justice System. 
In essense, women came to be viewed as commodities by their partners. Men felt a certain sense of entitlement towards them. This sense of entitlement, combined with men's lack of trust and their propensity for violence has created life threatening conditions for women in South Africa.
Reference:
Mathews, S., Jewkes, R. and Abrahams, N., 2014. ‘So now I’m the man’: Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa. British Journal of Criminology, 55(1), pp.107-124.    
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence
Author: Michael S. Kimmel
* "domestic violence increases in severity over time, so that earlier, "moderate" violence is likely to be followed by more severe violence". Pg 1338
* "Significant number of women killed by their spouses or ex-spouses were also earlier victims of violence". pg 1338
* Gender symmetry in domestic violence, a phenomenon in which women and men have equally used violence against each other in an intimate relationship, is largely a myth. 
* Even in the relationships where women are found to be the perpetrators of intimate partner violence, the violence is unlikely to escalate over time. 
Reference:
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363. 

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Jessica Bennett - Lethal Ladies: Revisiting What We Know About Female Serial Murderers - Amanda L. Farrell, Robert D. Keppel and Victoria B. Titterington.

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Jessica Bennett - Lethal Ladies: Revisiting What We Know About Female Serial Murderers - Amanda L. Farrell, Robert D. Keppel and Victoria B. Titterington.

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Farrell, Keppel and Titterington (2004) recognise that serial murderers are rare offenders, and this, coupled with challenges to accessing data about them, poses a significant challenge to empirical investigation. The researchers suggest that female serial murderers are thought to be rarer than their male counterparts and have often been excluded from being labelled “serial murderers” due to narrowly constructed definitions. Therefore, female serial murderers are an even more elusive population to study. The results of this exploratory analysis, using newspaper articles to gather data about the crimes of a subset of 10 female serial murderers in the United States, suggest that not only are these women different from men who commit serial murder but also that the limited information published about these rare offenders may have underestimated the female serial murderer in terms of both offender and offense characteristics.

Regardless of the path of future research, what is clear is that further research is needed. The current study demonstrated that what we know about female serial murderers may be significantly outweighed by what we do not know. These offenders are committing murders at ages earlier than previously found, remaining active for longer than previously projected and killing more victims than previously assumed. These facts, coupled with the findings from the current study that female serial murderers will not be charged in many of the homicides they commit, means that there may be unidentified victims whose murders are never discovered, or linked, and who will never receive the justice they deserve.

http://journals.sagepub.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1177/1088767911415938

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http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.860.448&rep=rep1&type=pdf

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Caitlin Veal -Female versus male perpetrated femicide: an exploratory analysis of whether offender gender matters (2012). By Muftic, L. R. and Baumann, M. L. 

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Caitlin Veal -Female versus male perpetrated femicide: an exploratory analysis of whether offender gender matters (2012). By Muftic, L. R. and Baumann, M. L. 

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http://journals.sagepub.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1177/0886260512438282

- looking at gender differences in male and female perpetrators of femicide (the killing of a woman).

- The main similarities between male and female perpetrator cases of femicide is that the victim and the perpetrator know each other. However, for males their is usually an intimate relationship whereas with females it is usually an acquaintance or a family member.

- No significant difference found in choice of weapon between genders (pg. 2838). However wider literature fluctuates in these findings (pg. 2827)

- Age of the victim differs significantly depending on gender of the perpetrator. Males average age of victim is 36 but for females average age is 21 (because they are more likely to kill children) (pg. 2829).

- Men more likely to have commited femicide in conjunction with another crime eg sexual assault or burglary. If a woman committed femicide in conjunction with another crime they were usually acting as an accessory to a a male. (pg. 2837).

- In the study conducted within the article, only men were found to have commited femiside-suicide. Suggested to be because of gender differences in emotional expression. (Pg. 2838).

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Evie Thatcher – Understanding The Influence Of Victim Gender In Death Penalty Cases: The Importance Of Victim Race, Sex-Related Victimization, and Jury Decision Making by Williams, Demuth and Holcomb (2007).

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Evie Thatcher – Understanding The Influence Of Victim Gender In Death Penalty Cases: The Importance Of Victim Race, Sex-Related Victimization, and Jury Decision Making by Williams, Demuth and Holcomb (2007).

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https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9f32/dea0e760af17d3835f17999bd7cd894b4017.pdf

·         The gender of the victim plays a substantial role within the jury’s decision making.

·         Victims gender has no relation to race when it comes to interest of research.

·         Offenders who murder women are more likely to receive the death sentence or harsher life sentences than those who murder men.

·         Women are viewed as more vulnerable, this view point is embeded in current theoretical explanations for the harsher treatment of defendants convicted of murdering women and girls.

·         The reasons for the higher rates in conviction toward offenders where the victim is female are often ignored.

Badlus, Woodworth and Pulaski 1990

·         Recent death penalty studies are characterized by comprehensive data and advanced statistical procedures marginalize victim gender in their analyses and often omit victim gender altogether.

Baumer, Messner, and Felson, 2000

·         Female homicide victims are perceived as engaging in less disreputable or contributing behaviour associated with their victimization in comparison with male victims.

Stauffer et al. 2006

·         Found that juries are more likely to impose death sentences in homicides involving rape.

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Mental Health and Domestic Violence: ‘I Call it Symptoms of Abuse’ 

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Mental Health and Domestic Violence: ‘I Call it Symptoms of Abuse’ 

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Cathy Humphreys and Ravi Thiara.

British Journal of Social Work (2003).

Link: https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Mental+health+and+domestic+violence&btnG=

The article explores the effects of domestic violence women suffer. For example, Cascardi et al. (1999) and Golding (1999) found fourteen and seventeen studies respectively, which explored the link between depression and women experiencing domestic violence. (pg.4)

Research evidence now clearly shows a direct link between women’s experiences of domestic violence and heightened rates of depression, trauma symptoms, and selfharm (pg.2)

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a further area in which significant patterns emerge with women’s experiences of domestic violence. Again, both Golding (1999) and Cascardi et al. (1999) have undertaken overviews of eleven studies reporting PTSD in women exposed to domestic violence. (pg.5)

Many of the women’s stories trace the increasingly extreme ways in which men tried to control them. Some women described not being able to go to the toilet by themselves or the humiliation of sexual control (pg.8)

Women’s experiences of depression, post-traumatic stress, and self-harm can be understood as ‘symptoms’ or the effects of living with violence and abuse. (pg.16)

Furthermore, 60 per cent of women in the quantitative sample left because they believed they would be killed (pg.7)
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Millie Mifflin - Women Who Kill Their Children. Silverman and Kennedy (1988)

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Millie Mifflin - Women Who Kill Their Children. Silverman and Kennedy (1988)

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- Women in Canada rarely kill, when they do it is most often their spouse or lover. second most frequent target is other family members (including children)
- Most literature focuses on spousal homicide with emphasis on batter women who strike out
-Rasko (1976, 1981), Hungarian women who kill lovers 40% of time, 20% children (excluding infanticide)
- Totman, 'child killers' tend to use their hands and tend to be younger than those women who kill their spouses - Weisheit also found this
-  If the research literature on child killing is sparse, then the literature on infanticide (excluding purely clinical treatments) is almost nonexistent.
-  2 reasons women commit violence against children:
1. Physically abuse due to violent family situation
2. Transferring anger away from the actual source of distress and are using the child as an available target
- If charged with infanticide than child-killing mothers, they were younger and less mature, seen as having an inability to cope with a child. - high proportion of out-of-wedlock pregnancies are unwanted, Smith et al (1974)
- Two thirds of the homicides perpetrated by women are accounted for by killings of their husbands and children. Much of the rest of the female-perpetrated
homicide involves other family members and friends and acquaintances
-  females still contribute only about 10 to 12% to the overall homicide rate
- When they kill their spouses, only 6% are declared as having mental illness, 9% if they kill other acquaintances or family But when they violate the maternal role and kill their children, women are declared mentally ill 67% of the time .
- Staruas (1987) when a child is from a violent home they're more at risk of being violent when an adult
Victim-offenders

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Michaela Harker+ Heidi Russell- Another Side of Multiple Murder:Women Killers in the Domestic Context. JILL THERESA MESSING and JOHN W. HEEREN (2004)

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Michaela Harker+ Heidi Russell- Another Side of Multiple Murder:Women Killers in the Domestic Context. JILL THERESA MESSING and JOHN W. HEEREN (2004)

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This article examines the difference in motivations of multiple murder between men and women in a domestic murder context. Using a national database of newspaper accounts, this article uses a sample of U.S. women who, between 1993 and 2001, killed two or more victims during a single episode of domestic violence. This article discovered:

·         In most cases women who commit multiple murder within a family, kill just their children, whilst men kill both children and spouse.

·         Motivations to kill are the same in terms of the desperation of a new reality. (they resort to violent means to solve personal problems)

·         The difference in family member that men and women kill are suggested to be put in theory context with motivations determined by expected, learnt gender roles and gender role ideologies imposed by society.

·         When men are faced with losing patriarchal power within their families, they resort to violence and the murder of their family to re-establish this dominant male position.

·         When women are driven to commit multiple murder within the family, they tend to kill only their children as they feel as if they ‘own’ their children and have rights to their lives.

·         When women are in a position where their husband has cheated or has left the family, women commit murder in one of two ways:

Ø  Suicide-murder/ kill their children before they kill themselves as they feel obliged to take their lives as they don’t want to ‘leave them behind’

Ø  General multiple murder/ when a women feels like their children are a burden and can no longer support them (emotionally and financially) , instead of adoption as the solution, women kill their children.

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Ben Taylor- A Comparison of Domestic and Non-Domestic Homicides: Further Evidence for Distinct Dynamics and Heterogeneity of Domestic Homicide Perpetrators. (Juodis, Starzomski, Porter and Woodworth, 2014)

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Ben Taylor- A Comparison of Domestic and Non-Domestic Homicides: Further Evidence for Distinct Dynamics and Heterogeneity of Domestic Homicide Perpetrators. (Juodis, Starzomski, Porter and Woodworth, 2014)

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-Juodis et al aim to facilitate a deeper understanding of domestic homicides by comparing 37 domestic homicide correctional files (victim, perpetrator and offence characteristics) against those from 79 non-domestic homicides.
-The aim is that the comparison will reveal distinct dynamics between the two.
-Factors and characteristics are identified using the 'Revised Danger Assessment' (Campbell et al, 2009) and the 'Psychopathy Checklist-Revised' (Hare, 2003).
-Contextually almost half of homicides (in Canada between 2000-2009) were identified as spousal homicides, with women more likely than men to be the victims (Statistic Canada, 2011).
-However, it is 'not uncommon' for DH's (Domestic Homicides) to be portrayed as inexplicable phenomena. So this article aims to reduce the ambiguity of DH's.
-Within the field, male control/proprietariness, women leaving, women having a new relationship, child custody/access disputes have been identified as a dominant themes for precursors and patterns (Campbell et al, 2003; Ontario Domestic Violence Death Review Committee, 2005). These studies outline that there is more to DH's than the media would have you believe sometimes, with several important triggers identified.
-Juodis et al suggest that their work not only builds upon previous work but addresses gaps and contradictions within the field. For example, some academics have argued that DH's are not associated with special dynamics (Felson and Lane, 2010; Felson and Messner, 1998). Moreover, some have 'questioned whether specialisation in the intimate partner homicide is necessary'.
-Finally Juodis et al aim to clarify the extent to which psychopathy plays within DH's.
-Age, psychopathy status, type of homicide (reactive or instrumental), level of gratuitous violence, evidence of sadistic violence, evidence of sexual components to the violence were all identified as comparison characteristics.
-By doing so Juodis et al aim answer whether DH and NDH perpetrators are the same people, and do they share the 'same correlates'?

Results
-In response to the methodology Juodis et al found several differences.
-DH's were more likely to involve females victims and less likely to involve male victims.
-Mean age of perpetrators shows that DH perpetrators were older on average at the time the homicide was committed than NDH.
-DH perpetrators obtained significantly lower mean total in relation to psychopathy. A smaller amount of DH perpetrators were considered psychopaths.
-DH's less likely to involve accomplices.
-DH's more likely to involve pure reactive violence or pure instrumental violence as oppose to a mix of the two.
-No significant differences in relation to those of which involved the use o substances.
-70% of DH's were committed within circumstances of relationship separation.

Discussion
-Although the study revealed several characteristics which did not significantly differ, Joudis et al argues that there are several unique dynamics.
-Several justifications brought to the surface via the research that further studies and research shouldd be carried out on the topic.

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Hannah Allison - Women's Role in Serial Killing Teams: Reconstructing a Radical Feminist Perspective by Thompson, J. and Ricard, S. (2009) 

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Hannah Allison - Women's Role in Serial Killing Teams: Reconstructing a Radical Feminist Perspective by Thompson, J. and Ricard, S. (2009) 

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https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/sih/45127679?query=female+serial+killers&resultsUri=items%3Fquery%3Dfemale%2Bserial%2Bkillers%26facet%255B0%255D%3DEdsRecordOptions%253AIsFullText%26target%3Deds%26offset%3D30&facet%5B0%5D=EdsRecordOptions%3AIsFullText&target=eds

This article suggests a reconsidered version of radical feminism and applies it to three case studies of infamous female serial killers; Myra Hindley, Karla Holmolka and Martha Beck. Asking 4 questions;
1. Were the women likely to have committed serial murder on their own?
2. Did the women demonstrate a need to maintain their relationships?
3. Were the women willing participants in the murder?
4. Did the women kill in order to maintain their relationship?

These questions fill gaps in previous studies by radical feminists of murders. All three of the case studies were found to relate to the 4 questions above with motives all relating to their partners and how patriarchy had played a part in the motive of their killings.

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Caitlin Hunter -The Helen Jewett Murder in1836: Violence, Gender, and Sexual Licentiousness in Antebellum America by Cohen, P, C. (1990)

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Caitlin Hunter -The Helen Jewett Murder in1836: Violence, Gender, and Sexual Licentiousness in Antebellum America by Cohen, P, C. (1990)

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/4316044?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

This journal focuses upon the murder of Helen Jewett, a prostitute in New York. The near-naked, charred body and a  cloak and a hatchet found in the backyard of the house were linked to Robinson by witnesses. From this evidence, the coroner's jury concluded that Helen Jewett had died from a blow to the head with a hatchet held by the hands of Richard P. Robinson. Robinson was bound over for trial and sent to Bellevue jail.

It focuses on the ways journalism manipulated the ways females, including Helen Jewett were represented. By also creating sensationalised stories surrounding the murder scene, by sexualising and romanticising her death, which led to mass excitement and widespread publicity that focused on the unusual personalities of the two principle players.
Despite extensive documentation there failed to be knowledge of class and gender in Antebellum America.

Feminist interpretations by Caputi, Walkowitz, and Cameron, of sexual murders theorized such crimes are fundamentally about male domination and patriarchal control of women.

The issue at the time was the problem of unsupervised young people, a phenomenon of greater dimension then than at any previous time in American history as girls too were more mobile than ever before, but their job opportunities. A second issue was that, a controversial issue of illicit sex.- was it on the rise, aggressive?

Female sexuality was questioned?

The public discourse about the Jewett case gave shape to emergent cultural constructions of male and female sexuality- demonstrated by the representations of Helen’s life and opportunities she had. The multiple versions of the life of Helen Jewett and the nationwide publicity the case called forth are evidence of the extreme tension of American society in the 1830s over the fear-or the hope-that women could be unregulated, sexual, independent beings.

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Not an Ordinary KillerJust an Ordinary GuyWhen Men Murder an Intimate Woman Partner

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Not an Ordinary KillerJust an Ordinary GuyWhen Men Murder an Intimate Woman Partner

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http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1077801204265015
Men who kill an intimate women are just ordinary  men who in a extreme moment 'snap' and kill.

Compare men who murder other men and men who murder an intimate female partner.

Excluding the US patterns of intimate partner homicide through out the world is consistent across  time and societies.
Womens risk of intimate partner violence decreases with age.

Compare childhood  backgrounds of intimate female murderers and male murderers. Found that childhood instability may result in problems that can explain intimate female partner violence.

11% of men who eventually kill a woman had a father who was violence towards their mother. but 23% of men who eventually kill a man had a similar background.

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Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers.
Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers. 
https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=women+who+kill&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=3475&context=nclr

This study explores why women kill the men who batter them and what type of charges they can face for doing so. It discusses one case where a severely beaten woman Ms Norman faces charges of murder. The court argued that she had had hours of peace before she shot her husband and she had not phoned the police that day although the police were aware of the danger her husband was to her from other occasions. Thus meaning that Ms Norman did not kill her husband in self defence button cold blood. The article looks at the issues in America's laws and the difference between self defence and murder. 
Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)
Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)
This study looks at murder-suicide. The authors explain that it his crime is gendered and sexed, with the perpetrators often being male. 

The purpose of the study was to explore the link between the men, masculinities and murder-suicide. They do this by analysing 45 North American murder-suicide cases. It was found that the motive for men to commit murder-suicide is often linked to underlying issues with their masculinities, for example worries around job security and their failing to provide financial and economic security. In many of the cases looked at, the authors found that men’s loss of control in their lives and men that feel as though the masculine identities have been threatened. 

The study also suggested ways in which murder-suicide can be prevented

1.       Gun control – guns have been linked to masculine identities (heroes and villains)
2.       Mental illness – empowering men, greater support, removing mental illness language and providing role models of hope and recovery.
3.       Employment – greater support for men.

Concluding statement is that more research in this area needs to be done.
Charlie Spence
Charlie Spence
The Trans Panic Defence: Masculinity, Heteronormativity, and the Murder of Transgender Women (Lee and Kwan,2014)
This article examines different cultural factors and structures of masculinity issues that contributes to the murder of a transgender woman. 

It discusses the traditional panic defence strategy used by male defendants claiming on the discovery that the (transgender) victim was biologically male provoked them into a passionate rage. And actually, results in juries believing this and acquitting him of first-degree murder and sentencing manslaughter.

It also looks at different masculinity theories on how and why men kill transgender women and get off with less severe sentences.

It also argues that the topic of transgender murder is a topic overlooked by the media and police and needs more attention.

Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)
Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)
This study researched the background and characteristics of 213 males who were charged with murder and were divided into two groups of domestic and nondomestic homicide. Demographics, developmental and family background, prior criminal records, victim characteristics and psychiatric status at the time of the crime were used to compare these groups.

Ones who were charged with domestic homicide/intrafamilial homicide tended to be older, have a more stable adjustment to the community, but also have more evidence of early childhood behavioural problems and were more likely to have committed prior rimes against persons. Psychological stressors such as recent loss of employment or recent release from a psychiatric hospital tended to be more prevalent in the domestic homicide cases. While the mean age of the domestic homicide group was 35.04, while the mean age of nondomestic homicide group was 26.89, there was no significant differences between the two groups in regard to race, job skills, education and number of previous arrests and convictions. 

Natasha Harrison- Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.
Natasha Harrison-  Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.
This article explores the race, culture, class, marital status and biology in the medias treatment and representation of two women, Khoua Her and Andrea Yates. Khoua was a Hmong immigrant who lived in the United States for several years, she strangled her six children. Andrea Yates who was middle class Christian homemaker and married who drowned her five children. Khoua was sentenced to fifty years and Andrea was sentenced to thirty-nine years. 
Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin
Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin
This article focuses on the link between individuals with schizophrenia and their involvement with violent behaviour. Thus, increasing the possibilities of committing murder. The study compares seven schizophrenic men with no history of violence to seven schizophrenic men who murdered family members.  Parricide (e.g. matricide or patricide) is considered to be closely related with schizophrenia, hinting at why there seems to be an apparent link between schizophrenia and domestic murder. 

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=19269ef0-7016-486a-8a15-259faec31a98%40sdc-v-sessmgr01

Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters
Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters
Muftic and Baumann used homicide data from the Dallas Homicide Unit to research female perpetrated femicide as they claimed this area was understudied and required further attention from literature. Results from this study showed FPF were more likely to involve a dispute (70.3% of FPFs compared to 61.8% of MPFs) or family violence (21.6% of FPFs compared to 6.5% of MPFs). Findings also suggested in cases of female-perpetrated femicide the victim and perpetrator were more likely to know each other compared to cases of male-perpetrated femicide. 

https://www.cpcjalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/10d.-Female-Versus-Male-Perpetrated-Femicide.pdf
Ellen Pople
Ellen Pople
Madfis, E. and Cohen, J.W. (2018.) Female Involvement in School Rampage Plots. Violence and Gender, 5(2), pp.81-86.

Cohen and Madfis (2018) analyse the impact that females and gendered stereotypes have on School rampage plots. They believe that considering gender in relation to this topic brings a refreshing and thoughtful approach to this field of research. Female involvement in mass shootings is often ignored and is barely recognised.

They ultimately found that, consistent with research on the gendered nature of violence in general, school rampage plots involving female perpetrators tend to involve less serious forms of violence.

Secondly, in part, due to the reduced degree of violence, female-involved school rampage plots tend to be viewed as less serious with regard to established threat assessment tools. 

Then thirdly, they found out that in many instances, the female plotters themselves have engaged in bystander intervention in ways that undermine their male co-conspirators’ plans for successfully carrying out the plot.
Kiera Wears - Renée
 Kiera Wears - Renée Heberle (1999) ‘Disciplining Gender; Or, Are Women Getting Away with Murder?’, Signs, (4), p. 1103.
 
“The notion of killing a woman is almost tantamount in a lot of people’s minds to rape.” – Jeff Brown, public defender, San Francisco (quoted in chiang 1998)
 
This comment was made in response to the execution of Karla Faye Tucker, and the apparent societal ambivalence about executing her. His comment implies, women sex does shape their significance of their presence on death row. This article explores the discussion of why so few women face death row in comparison with men, stating that only 533 women were among the 19,161 confirmed executions since 1632 (to 1999), and only three women being among the 437 offenders executed since 1973 (to 1999). The study refers to many past study’s and theories such as Otto Pollacks work, who suggests in 1950 it is common knowledge “that women are getting away with evil that criminal stats cannot possibly capture”. Or Rapaport’s (1991) findings that women do not commit death-eligible crime son the same numbers as men.
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=c007183f-e082-458a-b280-eac8b5e5dd98%40sessionmgr4009
Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)
Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)
-  debate on how we should respond to a woman who kills her abuser
- women are more at risk of spousal assault than men 
- 75% of recorded assaults on women take place at the victim or offenders home. Female homicide victims are far more likely to be killed by their spouse or ex spouse.
- 41% of female homicide victims are killed by a spouse or ex partner compared to 4% of male homicide victims 
- men who kill their wives are often separated from them at the time and is in relation to exclusivity or child custody. Women who kill their partners do not usually kill over sexual jealousy but due to a high degree of violence.
- women were more likely to be acquitted or to be convicted of a lesser offence e.g. manslaughter than men in regards to domestic homicide.
- BWS - battered woman syndrome. When women have faced repeated violence and are in a state of learned helplessness and are unable to improve their situation.
- BWS is an alternative to the defence of provocation as this needs to be a 'sudden loss of self-control' with no delay in the provocation and the action however some women have been facing the abuse over years. 
- Ahluwalia is a case that highlights this issue.

https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/legstd14&id=281&men_tab=srchresults
Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008).
Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008). 

This study explores domestic homicide between both heterosexual and homosexual relationships, addressing which types of violence can be expected to be seen by both men and women, and also the assumed levels of brutality of homicides committed by both men and women in heterosexual and homosexual relationships. 
 
Hyde (2005) suggested that whilst women do use violence in interactions, they are more likely to use relational aggression such as gossiping and social exclusion, than physical violence. Where research shows that men tend to kill their intimate partners in response to suspected or actual infidelity, women are likely to kill their male partners out of want for resources, or fear of injury or death for themselves or their children.
Worcester (2002) has found that intimate partner abuse amongst homosexual partners is similar in terms of type and frequency to that of heterosexual partners. 
 
The article also studied the brutality of homicide in relationships, coding very brutal, as homicides including beating and stabbing, and less brutal, as those including asphyxiation and shooting. The results found that gay men had a higher level of very brutal homicides 62.7%, compared to heterosexual men’s 29.8%. similar results were also identified regarding homosexual women’s killings, with 50.4% being classed as very brutal, compared to heterosexual women at 35.4%.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/424e/310beb3eaf43e38857ef9a8808e2046e18c0.pdf
Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams
Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams
file:///C:/Users/tomli/Downloads/ChildhoodAdversityMathewsetal2011.pdf

South African female homicide raes are 6x higher than the global average. it was discovered that half of all murdered women are killed by an intimate partner. (Abrahams et al. 2009) 
The article explains how men who have had a tough upbringing and felt insecure and powerless. this powerlessness leads them to become violent in order to try and gain respect and power. 


Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

This article explores murder within family and relationships. 
-6.5% were killed by their spouses, 3.5% by their parents, 1.9% by their own children and 2.6% by some other family member.
-45% of murder victims within a family were female.
-A third of family members involved a female as the killer. In sibling murders, females were 15% of killers where as in romantic relationships women represented 41% of killings.
-when a mother killed her own child, the offspring would more likely be a son than daughter(64% as opposed to 36%).
Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)
Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)
This article looks into the excuses and justification surrounding domestic violence and specifically with accounts of domestic violence where the perpetrator attempts to deny responsibility for violence and to present non-violent identities. Authors mentioned within the article are Dobash and Dobash (1998) who talk of men using violence to punish female partners who fail to meet their unspoken physical, sexual, or emotional needs. The findings from the research conducted for this article support the findings from previous researchers who found that domestic violence perpetrators will deny responsibility for their actions and find a number of excuses for said actions.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/089124301015003003
Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)
Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)
The article explores the gendered nature of intimate partner killings. It explores the childhoods of 20 men who were incarcerated for such murders and draws on their, their family and their friends interviews. The study found that traumatic childhood experiences increases emotional vulnerability, resulting in their feeling unloved, insecure and powerless. They adopt violent forms of masculinity to achieve respect and power.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shanaaz_Mathews/publication/268522894_Mathews_S_Jewkes_R_Abrahams_N_2011_I_had_a_hard_life_Exploring_childhood_adversity_in_the_shaping_of_masculinities_among_men_who_killed_an_intimate_partner_in_South_Africa_British_Journal_of_Criminolo/links/557b0dd708aeea18b7750cdb/Mathews-S-Jewkes-R-Abrahams-N-2011-I-had-a-hard-life-Exploring-childhood-adversity-in-the-shaping-of-masculinities-among-men-who-killed-an-intimate-partner-in-South-Africa-British-Journal-of-Crimin.pdf

Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997
Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997
This paper examines youths and their involvement in homicides. The youths in this article include people from age 10- 24. 
The paper found; 
-1/3 of offenders are youths. 
- mostly male.
the ages 18-24 are the highest group of offenders. (The drinking age) 
-Homicides carried out by 2 or more people is frequently juveniles.  

Jessica Bairstow
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8dba/28e01f8fe797d36b46c58631118c5d7a8284.pdf
Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)
Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)
This article looks at how rates of domestic violence by women and men are now more equal in comparison to previous research suggesting violence is carried out primarily by men against women. Crime victimisation studies are gathered from various sources such as household surveys, police statistics, The National Crime Survey and the National Crime Victimisation Study. They ask a large sample size about a range of assaults including sexual by both current partners and previous. This data finds gender asymmetry with women reporting more as victims, however it needs to be taken into account the lack of men reporting abuse for fear of losing their masculinity or being judged. Family Conflict Studies were also looked at and are in comparison smaller scale. It consists of an interview asking one respondent of a cohabiting couple about expressing conflict within a family. Overall these studies find equal perpetration by men and women, high rates of DV, stable levels of seriousness and lower rates of injury. The Contact Tactics Scale (CTS) was first developed by Strauss and his colleagues, with most empirical research having also used the same method. This allows for the acts of violence to be counted over a time period of 1 year but does not include the circumstances of the acts. Although asking about frequency, it is not an accurate account of an ongoing pattern of violence and abuse over potentially several years.
It is argued that despite evidence of gender symmetry being low, we should be increasingly concerned about women's violence. In recognising women's ability of intimate violence will highlight important issues especially gender symmetry in intimate partner violence between gay men and lesbian couples.  
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363.
Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)
Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)
This study examines domestic homicide committed by those aged 65+, and common factors in homicide-suicide cases. The study performed shows that most of the victims are women, who were current spouses of the perpetrators, and were mostly killed by either strangulation or firearms. A majority of those that committed homicide-suicide were found to have depression, and other illnesses, such as dementia and schizophrenia were also commonly found when examining the crimes. When it comes to domestic homicide, a majority of the perpetrators were the central caregivers for their ill victims, and that may have been what drove them to commit the crimes.
In conclusion, a large amount of older offender domestic homicides are committed by spouses where one is sick and the other is trying to ease their pain, and then they commit suicide right after, seen to be an attempt to stay with their partner.
Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)
Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)
This article uses a national database of newspaper accounts from two archives, Lexis-Nexis and ProQuest to explore women who, between 1993 and 2001, killed two or more victims during a single episode of domestic violence. The 32 cases found are similar to that of male mass murder but are different in other ways. A significant difference is that the murders that the women have committed are well planned and the victims are largely the women's own children. The article examines the cases in terms of social characteristics of the offenders as well as their relationship to the victims. It concludes that (particularly with the child killings) there are certain common predisposing factors (social isolation) and events (significant loss in the women's life) that play key roles in why these murders were committed.
Messing, J. and Heeren, J. (2004). Another Side of Multiple Murder. Homicide Studies, 8(2), pp.123-158.
Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey
Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey
This study explores partner violence and how historically it has been associated with males being the perpetrators. However this article explains how males face more partner violence by females than what is traditionally expected. This is due to media shaping perceptions of gender role expectations and therefore males not reporting that they need help. This is shown through the lack of professional help available to males who have suffered partner violence compared to the help out there for females. 

.... An masculated d
 .... An masculated dominated arena. 
Aimee Spaven 

https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yZeGDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=gender+and+murder&ots=t7aEki5oiu&sig=eE8E4RKDjNkJC9mV5I9gh95IZBM#v=onepage&q=gender%20and%20murder&f=false

Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE
Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE
This article acts as a response to a mass shooting at a Florida school that took place earlier this year. Spector (2018) highlights the importance in recognising that the majority of mass shooters in America are male, and presents an interpretation of why it is young males who behave in this way. It is suggested that failing relationships, poor transitions from childhood to 'manhood' and violent fantasies could influence why a mass shooter becomes such. Specifically, the allowance of violence within American culture through the media is signified as depicting the wrong images to young males, through outlets such as video games and pornography. Moreover, the idolisation of macho-male aggresive sports stars is deemed to have the same affect. Therefore it is put forward that a 'reconstruction of masculinity' within America needs to take place in order to put a stop to young males who live out their fantasies through the use of violence and murder. 
Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal
Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal
This book includes a feminist approach on women who commit and are accused of murder. Women who do kill either kill their children or their partner. Woman murder rates are less fewer than men, when a women does kill it seen as ‘unnatural’ of the usual gender representations of a women, the breaking of ‘social norms’ when a woman commits murder, (Myra Hindley and Aileen Wuornos)
When it comes to the criminal justice system, it is viewed as 
Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith
Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith
This article talks about one woman in particular who was a serial killer: Nancy Hazel Braggs Harrelson Lanning Morton Doss or Nannie Doss. She grew up in Arkansas with an abusive and strict father yet she was a happy and sweet child. She lived her whole life looking for the perfect man like she had been reading about in her romance books and magazines. With this need to find him, she murdered four of her husbands when they did not meet her standard. When she was caught, she admitted to poisoning them and also admitted killing her mother, her sister Dovie, her grandson Robert and one mother-in-law because they tried to get in the way of her finding her perfect man. She was smart though and had most of her husbands take out life insurance policies before killing them so she could collect the money. Eventually she was caught and put in jail for the murders, where she confessed and eventually died of leukemia.

Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012)
Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012) 
This article explores how chivalric values influence outcomes in capital cases. This highlights the difference in how gender effects the perception of the case. Shatz and Shatz particularly look at topics relating to rape-murders and domestic murders. They referred to male offenders as 'knights' (as chivalry in cases paint males in this light) and show that females are more likely to die in domestic circumstances. In conclusion, they found that judges and courts do promote chivalry in cases such as honour killings and there is a disproportionate use of death penalty in rape-murderers and domestic violence murders.  
Leah Cliff 
https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=+domestic+murder+and+gender&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=1299&context=bglj 
Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide
Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1557988314551359 
This article studies murder-suicide in regards to various biological and social factors. The author aimed to mostly find a connection between masculinity, men and murder.
Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.
Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.
Author: Angela Brown
* series of interviews with 'battered women' from domestic violence relationships that end up killing their partners and are charged for either murder or manslaughter, Colorado, USA
* opens a discussion around whether these types of killings should be punishable 
* the research traces how the women's relationships went from affection to violence
* Brown states how many 'partner homicides are preceded by a history of abuse' and how many women seek help from the police prior to the lethal altercation but often not enough is done to help them
* the purpose of the study was to understand more about the relationships of abused women who kill their husbands and to identify the dynamics that lead to the commission of a homicide

Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)
Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)
Peterson, E. (1999) Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide. Homicide Studies, 3 (1), pp.30-46.

This article focuses on the theory of self help and how this relates to race, gender and social class. Peterson then uses these factors to explain phenomenons of female homicide (against intimate partners in particular). Peterson also argues that looking more in depth at homicide committed by women will also help us learn more about men that commit murder.
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa 
Author: Shanaaz Mathews, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams 
Summery:
The brutal enforcement of racial hierarchies and apartheid laws in South Africa created grinding poverty. This poverty created townships, rife with crime, violence and unemployment. Consequently, such conditions challenged the existence of patriarchal family structures and men's hegemonic masculinity. This led to men's exercise of gendered dominance over women through intimate partner violence and femicide. For men, the pathway of violence begin with unhappy childhood, parental abuse at home, corporal punishment in school, emotionally detached parenting, and absence of a role model father figure. As a consequence, men developed a deep seeded distrust for their partners, insecurity, jealousy, lack of empathy and lower self-esteem. 
Even at a cultural level, women in South Africa were conditioned to accept their male partners' controlling behavior. They were also expected to be economically dependent on men. In an economy, rife with social inequalities and injustice, women's socio-economic dependence on men created a  sense of low self-esteem. 
In addition to that, the access to justice, problems in prosecuting men for killing their partners have been a few more issues that still plague the South African Criminal Justice System. 
In essense, women came to be viewed as commodities by their partners. Men felt a certain sense of entitlement towards them. This sense of entitlement, combined with men's lack of trust and their propensity for violence has created life threatening conditions for women in South Africa.
Reference:
Mathews, S., Jewkes, R. and Abrahams, N., 2014. ‘So now I’m the man’: Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa. British Journal of Criminology, 55(1), pp.107-124.    
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence
Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence
Author: Michael S. Kimmel
* "domestic violence increases in severity over time, so that earlier, "moderate" violence is likely to be followed by more severe violence". Pg 1338
* "Significant number of women killed by their spouses or ex-spouses were also earlier victims of violence". pg 1338
* Gender symmetry in domestic violence, a phenomenon in which women and men have equally used violence against each other in an intimate relationship, is largely a myth. 
* Even in the relationships where women are found to be the perpetrators of intimate partner violence, the violence is unlikely to escalate over time. 
Reference:
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Jessica Eddon- On self defence, imminence and women who kill their batterers. 

# data[].attributes.body
https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=women+who+kill&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=3475&context=nclr

This study explores why women kill the men who batter them and what type of charges they can face for doing so. It discusses one case where a severely beaten woman Ms Norman faces charges of murder. The court argued that she had had hours of peace before she shot her husband and she had not phoned the police that day although the police were aware of the danger her husband was to her from other occasions. Thus meaning that Ms Norman did not kill her husband in self defence button cold blood. The article looks at the issues in America's laws and the difference between self defence and murder.

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Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)

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Alice Sanders - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide (John L. Oliffe, RN, PhD1 , Christina S. E. Han, MA1 , Murray Drummond, PhD2 , Estephanie Sta. Maria, BA1 , Joan L. Bottorff, PhD3 , and Genevieve Creighton, PhD1)

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This study looks at murder-suicide. The authors explain that it his crime is gendered and sexed, with the perpetrators often being male.

The purpose of the study was to explore the link between the men, masculinities and murder-suicide. They do this by analysing 45 North American murder-suicide cases. It was found that the motive for men to commit murder-suicide is often linked to underlying issues with their masculinities, for example worries around job security and their failing to provide financial and economic security. In many of the cases looked at, the authors found that men’s loss of control in their lives and men that feel as though the masculine identities have been threatened.

The study also suggested ways in which murder-suicide can be prevented

1.       Gun control – guns have been linked to masculine identities (heroes and villains)

2.       Mental illness – empowering men, greater support, removing mental illness language and providing role models of hope and recovery.

3.       Employment – greater support for men.

Concluding statement is that more research in this area needs to be done.

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The Trans Panic Defence: Masculinity, Heteronormativity, and the Murder of Transgender Women (Lee and Kwan,2014)
This article examines different cultural factors and structures of masculinity issues that contributes to the murder of a transgender woman.

It discusses the traditional panic defence strategy used by male defendants claiming on the discovery that the (transgender) victim was biologically male provoked them into a passionate rage. And actually, results in juries believing this and acquitting him of first-degree murder and sentencing manslaughter.

It also looks at different masculinity theories on how and why men kill transgender women and get off with less severe sentences.

It also argues that the topic of transgender murder is a topic overlooked by the media and police and needs more attention.

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Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)

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Dominika KisielowskaA Comparison Between Men Charged with Domestic and Nondomestic Homicide (Anasseril E. Daniel and William R. Holcomb)

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This study researched the background and characteristics of 213 males who were charged with murder and were divided into two groups of domestic and nondomestic homicide. Demographics, developmental and family background, prior criminal records, victim characteristics and psychiatric status at the time of the crime were used to compare these groups.

Ones who were charged with domestic homicide/intrafamilial homicide tended to be older, have a more stable adjustment to the community, but also have more evidence of early childhood behavioural problems and were more likely to have committed prior rimes against persons. Psychological stressors such as recent loss of employment or recent release from a psychiatric hospital tended to be more prevalent in the domestic homicide cases. While the mean age of the domestic homicide group was 35.04, while the mean age of nondomestic homicide group was 26.89, there was no significant differences between the two groups in regard to race, job skills, education and number of previous arrests and convictions.

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Natasha Harrison-  Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.

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Natasha Harrison-  Women who kill their children: case study an conclusion concerning the differences in the fall from maternal grace by Khoua Her and Andrea Yates.

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This article explores the race, culture, class, marital status and biology in the medias treatment and representation of two women, Khoua Her and Andrea Yates. Khoua was a Hmong immigrant who lived in the United States for several years, she strangled her six children. Andrea Yates who was middle class Christian homemaker and married who drowned her five children. Khoua was sentenced to fifty years and Andrea was sentenced to thirty-nine years.

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Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin

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Ebony Crump - Psychotic Domestic Murder: Neuropsychological Differences Between Homicidal and Nonhomicidal Schizophrenic Men.Robert E. Hanlon, Joseph J. Coda, Derin Cobia and Leah H. Rubin

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This article focuses on the link between individuals with schizophrenia and their involvement with violent behaviour. Thus, increasing the possibilities of committing murder. The study compares seven schizophrenic men with no history of violence to seven schizophrenic men who murdered family members.  Parricide (e.g. matricide or patricide) is considered to be closely related with schizophrenia, hinting at why there seems to be an apparent link between schizophrenia and domestic murder.

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=19269ef0-7016-486a-8a15-259faec31a98%40sdc-v-sessmgr01

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Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters

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Bekah Todd- Female Versus Male Perpetrated Femicide: An Exploratory Analysis of Whether Offender Gender Matters

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Muftic and Baumann used homicide data from the Dallas Homicide Unit to research female perpetrated femicide as they claimed this area was understudied and required further attention from literature. Results from this study showed FPF were more likely to involve a dispute (70.3% of FPFs compared to 61.8% of MPFs) or family violence (21.6% of FPFs compared to 6.5% of MPFs). Findings also suggested in cases of female-perpetrated femicide the victim and perpetrator were more likely to know each other compared to cases of male-perpetrated femicide.

https://www.cpcjalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/10d.-Female-Versus-Male-Perpetrated-Femicide.pdf

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Madfis, E. and Cohen, J.W. (2018.) Female Involvement in School Rampage Plots. Violence and Gender, 5(2), pp.81-86.

Cohen and Madfis (2018) analyse the impact that females and gendered stereotypes have on School rampage plots. They believe that considering gender in relation to this topic brings a refreshing and thoughtful approach to this field of research. Female involvement in mass shootings is often ignored and is barely recognised.

They ultimately found that, consistent with research on the gendered nature of violence in general, school rampage plots involving female perpetrators tend to involve less serious forms of violence.

Secondly, in part, due to the reduced degree of violence, female-involved school rampage plots tend to be viewed as less serious with regard to established threat assessment tools.

Then thirdly, they found out that in many instances, the female plotters themselves have engaged in bystander intervention in ways that undermine their male co-conspirators’ plans for successfully carrying out the plot.

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Kiera Wears - Renée Heberle (1999) ‘Disciplining Gender; Or, Are Women Getting Away with Murder?’, Signs, (4), p. 1103.

“The notion of killing a woman is almost tantamount in a lot of people’s minds to rape.” – Jeff Brown, public defender, San Francisco (quoted in chiang 1998)

This comment was made in response to the execution of Karla Faye Tucker, and the apparent societal ambivalence about executing her. His comment implies, women sex does shape their significance of their presence on death row. This article explores the discussion of why so few women face death row in comparison with men, stating that only 533 women were among the 19,161 confirmed executions since 1632 (to 1999), and only three women being among the 437 offenders executed since 1973 (to 1999). The study refers to many past study’s and theories such as Otto Pollacks work, who suggests in 1950 it is common knowledge “that women are getting away with evil that criminal stats cannot possibly capture”. Or Rapaport’s (1991) findings that women do not commit death-eligible crime son the same numbers as men.
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=c007183f-e082-458a-b280-eac8b5e5dd98%40sessionmgr4009

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Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)

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Georgia Stafford - Battered Woman Syndrome and Defences to Homicide: Where Now? Wells, C. (1994)

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-  debate on how we should respond to a woman who kills her abuser
- women are more at risk of spousal assault than men
- 75% of recorded assaults on women take place at the victim or offenders home. Female homicide victims are far more likely to be killed by their spouse or ex spouse.
- 41% of female homicide victims are killed by a spouse or ex partner compared to 4% of male homicide victims
- men who kill their wives are often separated from them at the time and is in relation to exclusivity or child custody. Women who kill their partners do not usually kill over sexual jealousy but due to a high degree of violence.
- women were more likely to be acquitted or to be convicted of a lesser offence e.g. manslaughter than men in regards to domestic homicide.
- BWS - battered woman syndrome. When women have faced repeated violence and are in a state of learned helplessness and are unable to improve their situation.
- BWS is an alternative to the defence of provocation as this needs to be a 'sudden loss of self-control' with no delay in the provocation and the action however some women have been facing the abuse over years.
- Ahluwalia is a case that highlights this issue.

https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/legstd14&id=281&men_tab=srchresults

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Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008). 

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Levi Kay - Partner Homicide Methods in Heterosexual, gay, and Lesbian Relationships. Mize, K.D. and Shackelford, T.K (2008). 

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This study explores domestic homicide between both heterosexual and homosexual relationships, addressing which types of violence can be expected to be seen by both men and women, and also the assumed levels of brutality of homicides committed by both men and women in heterosexual and homosexual relationships.

Hyde (2005) suggested that whilst women do use violence in interactions, they are more likely to use relational aggression such as gossiping and social exclusion, than physical violence. Where research shows that men tend to kill their intimate partners in response to suspected or actual infidelity, women are likely to kill their male partners out of want for resources, or fear of injury or death for themselves or their children.

Worcester (2002) has found that intimate partner abuse amongst homosexual partners is similar in terms of type and frequency to that of heterosexual partners.

The article also studied the brutality of homicide in relationships, coding very brutal, as homicides including beating and stabbing, and less brutal, as those including asphyxiation and shooting. The results found that gay men had a higher level of very brutal homicides 62.7%, compared to heterosexual men’s 29.8%. similar results were also identified regarding homosexual women’s killings, with 50.4% being classed as very brutal, compared to heterosexual women at 35.4%.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/424e/310beb3eaf43e38857ef9a8808e2046e18c0.pdf

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Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams

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Brittany Hall ‘I HAD A HARD LIFE’Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinities among MenWho Killed an Intimate Partner in South AfricaShanaaz Mathews*, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams

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file:///C:/Users/tomli/Downloads/ChildhoodAdversityMathewsetal2011.pdf

South African female homicide raes are 6x higher than the global average. it was discovered that half of all murdered women are killed by an intimate partner. (Abrahams et al. 2009)
The article explains how men who have had a tough upbringing and felt insecure and powerless. this powerlessness leads them to become violent in order to try and gain respect and power.

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Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

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Katie Donnelly- Dawson, J.M. and Langan, P.A., 1994. Murder in families. Washington: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

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This article explores murder within family and relationships.
-6.5% were killed by their spouses, 3.5% by their parents, 1.9% by their own children and 2.6% by some other family member.
-45% of murder victims within a family were female.
-A third of family members involved a female as the killer. In sibling murders, females were 15% of killers where as in romantic relationships women represented 41% of killings.
-when a mother killed her own child, the offspring would more likely be a son than daughter(64% as opposed to 36%).

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Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)

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Rebecca Reilly- Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men's accounts of domestic violence by Anderson and Umberson (2001)

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This article looks into the excuses and justification surrounding domestic violence and specifically with accounts of domestic violence where the perpetrator attempts to deny responsibility for violence and to present non-violent identities. Authors mentioned within the article are Dobash and Dobash (1998) who talk of men using violence to punish female partners who fail to meet their unspoken physical, sexual, or emotional needs. The findings from the research conducted for this article support the findings from previous researchers who found that domestic violence perpetrators will deny responsibility for their actions and find a number of excuses for said actions.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/089124301015003003

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Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)

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Charlotte Scargall- 'I HAD A HARD LIFE' Exploring Childhood Adversity in the Shaping of Masculinity among Men who killed an Intimate Partner in South Africa (Mathews, Jewkes and Abrahams, 2011)

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The article explores the gendered nature of intimate partner killings. It explores the childhoods of 20 men who were incarcerated for such murders and draws on their, their family and their friends interviews. The study found that traumatic childhood experiences increases emotional vulnerability, resulting in their feeling unloved, insecure and powerless. They adopt violent forms of masculinity to achieve respect and power.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shanaaz_Mathews/publication/268522894_Mathews_S_Jewkes_R_Abrahams_N_2011_I_had_a_hard_life_Exploring_childhood_adversity_in_the_shaping_of_masculinities_among_men_who_killed_an_intimate_partner_in_South_Africa_British_Journal_of_Criminolo/links/557b0dd708aeea18b7750cdb/Mathews-S-Jewkes-R-Abrahams-N-2011-I-had-a-hard-life-Exploring-childhood-adversity-in-the-shaping-of-masculinities-among-men-who-killed-an-intimate-partner-in-South-Africa-British-Journal-of-Crimin.pdf

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Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997

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Youth as victims and offenders of homicides-Carlos Carach 1997

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This paper examines youths and their involvement in homicides. The youths in this article include people from age 10- 24.
The paper found;
-1/3 of offenders are youths.
- mostly male.
the ages 18-24 are the highest group of offenders. (The drinking age)
-Homicides carried out by 2 or more people is frequently juveniles.

Jessica Bairstow
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8dba/28e01f8fe797d36b46c58631118c5d7a8284.pdf

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Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)

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Kate Searle - Another Side of Multiple Murder Women Killers in the Domestic Context (Messing and Heeren, 2004)

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This article uses a national database of newspaper accounts from two archives, Lexis-Nexis and ProQuest to explore women who, between 1993 and 2001, killed two or more victims during a single episode of domestic violence. The 32 cases found are similar to that of male mass murder but are different in other ways. A significant difference is that the murders that the women have committed are well planned and the victims are largely the women's own children. The article examines the cases in terms of social characteristics of the offenders as well as their relationship to the victims. It concludes that (particularly with the child killings) there are certain common predisposing factors (social isolation) and events (significant loss in the women's life) that play key roles in why these murders were committed.
Messing, J. and Heeren, J. (2004). Another Side of Multiple Murder. Homicide Studies, 8(2), pp.123-158.

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Messing, J. and Heeren, J. (2004). Another Side of Multiple Murder. Homicide Studies, 8(2), pp.123-158.

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Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)

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Imogen Guymer - "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence (MS Kimmel, 2002)

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This article looks at how rates of domestic violence by women and men are now more equal in comparison to previous research suggesting violence is carried out primarily by men against women. Crime victimisation studies are gathered from various sources such as household surveys, police statistics, The National Crime Survey and the National Crime Victimisation Study. They ask a large sample size about a range of assaults including sexual by both current partners and previous. This data finds gender asymmetry with women reporting more as victims, however it needs to be taken into account the lack of men reporting abuse for fear of losing their masculinity or being judged. Family Conflict Studies were also looked at and are in comparison smaller scale. It consists of an interview asking one respondent of a cohabiting couple about expressing conflict within a family. Overall these studies find equal perpetration by men and women, high rates of DV, stable levels of seriousness and lower rates of injury. The Contact Tactics Scale (CTS) was first developed by Strauss and his colleagues, with most empirical research having also used the same method. This allows for the acts of violence to be counted over a time period of 1 year but does not include the circumstances of the acts. Although asking about frequency, it is not an accurate account of an ongoing pattern of violence and abuse over potentially several years.
It is argued that despite evidence of gender symmetry being low, we should be increasingly concerned about women's violence. In recognising women's ability of intimate violence will highlight important issues especially gender symmetry in intimate partner violence between gay men and lesbian couples.
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363.

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Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)

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Meagan Bunda - Domestic Homicide and Homicide-Suicide: The Older Offender (Dominique Bourget, Pierre Gagne, & Laurie Whitehurst, 2010)

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This study examines domestic homicide committed by those aged 65+, and common factors in homicide-suicide cases. The study performed shows that most of the victims are women, who were current spouses of the perpetrators, and were mostly killed by either strangulation or firearms. A majority of those that committed homicide-suicide were found to have depression, and other illnesses, such as dementia and schizophrenia were also commonly found when examining the crimes. When it comes to domestic homicide, a majority of the perpetrators were the central caregivers for their ill victims, and that may have been what drove them to commit the crimes.
In conclusion, a large amount of older offender domestic homicides are committed by spouses where one is sick and the other is trying to ease their pain, and then they commit suicide right after, seen to be an attempt to stay with their partner.

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Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey

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Perceptions of Partner Violence: How Aggressor Gender, Masculinity/Femininity, and Victim Gender Influence Criminal Justice Decisions -(Brenda Russell & Shane Kraus) Kim Grey

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This study explores partner violence and how historically it has been associated with males being the perpetrators. However this article explains how males face more partner violence by females than what is traditionally expected. This is due to media shaping perceptions of gender role expectations and therefore males not reporting that they need help. This is shown through the lack of professional help available to males who have suffered partner violence compared to the help out there for females.

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.... An masculated dominated arena.
Aimee Spaven

https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yZeGDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=gender+and+murder&ots=t7aEki5oiu&sig=eE8E4RKDjNkJC9mV5I9gh95IZBM#v=onepage&q=gender%20and%20murder&f=false

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Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE

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Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity (Paul Spector, 2018) APRIL HOWE

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This article acts as a response to a mass shooting at a Florida school that took place earlier this year. Spector (2018) highlights the importance in recognising that the majority of mass shooters in America are male, and presents an interpretation of why it is young males who behave in this way. It is suggested that failing relationships, poor transitions from childhood to 'manhood' and violent fantasies could influence why a mass shooter becomes such. Specifically, the allowance of violence within American culture through the media is signified as depicting the wrong images to young males, through outlets such as video games and pornography. Moreover, the idolisation of macho-male aggresive sports stars is deemed to have the same affect. Therefore it is put forward that a 'reconstruction of masculinity' within America needs to take place in order to put a stop to young males who live out their fantasies through the use of violence and murder.

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Men are afraid that women will laugh at them. Women are afraid that men will kill them.

Margaret Atwood

The recent shooting in a Florida school represents an increasingly common form of violence in this country. Two subjects dominate public discourse on this phenomenon, guns and mental illness. However a third attribute that applies to every shooter from Columbine (1999) to the present has been neglected. They are all men.

Why is this not part of the conversation?

Numbers tell stories. The statistics on gender and homicide provide an essential part of this one. Nine out of ten murders are committed by men. This ratio holds true in countries with high or low murder rates.

When men and women murder each other, they kill for different reasons. Adult victims of female killers are most often male intimate partners who have physically abused the women. On the other hand a jealous rage is a common precipitating circumstance when men kill their intimate partners. Half of all female homicide victims in the US are killed by their intimate partners.

Do we accept the idea that men are biologically predisposed to kill or do these statistics reflect a more complicated story?

There are two kinds of risk factors, either modifiable or not. Being male would appear to fall into the later category. However masculinity is a cultural construct that can and does change. How society defines manhood is worthy of examination in these times.

Throughout history cultures have devised rituals to transform boys into men. While the process varies widely it has reflected a society's values and the roles men are expected to play. Most commonly boys have been prepped to protect, provide, procreate and often pillage.

At the age of 14, boys in the Bukusu tribe of western Kenya undergo sikhebo, a circumcision ceremony. Following the ceremony a guardian takes the initiate away and teaches him to hunt, build a hut, tan a hide and do battle. On his return, the boy who left is recognized as a man with valuable skills. He feels worthy of his new found respect and social role.

What rituals guide contemporary American boys to manhood?

Traditionally marriage has been one. It signified the ascension to an adult masculine role and provided a socializing effect. The successful husband's ability to provide financially was an essential part of his self-esteem.

American marriage rates dropped from 72% in 1960 to 50% in 2014. No doubt women's rights and the increasing acceptance of divorce have forcefully contributed to this trend. But it also reflects economic changes that have made men less necessary and less desirable partners.

In a 2017 paper "When Work Disappears: Manufacturing Decline and the Falling Marriage-Market Value of Men" David Dorn, an economist at the University of Zurich, linked employability and marriageability. When states lose male manufacturing jobs, fertility and marriage rates in young men also decline. So does their self-esteem.

Gender stereotypes die slowly. Work has been at the core of being a man and not all work is seen as equally masculine. These facts clash with recent history. Paradoxically, the long overdue progress of women in recent decades coincides with an unfortunate reversal for many men.

Women became the majority of the work force for the first time in US history in 2010. For every two men who graduate from college, three women do the same. Three quarters of the 8 million people who lost jobs in the Great Recession were men. The sectors hardest hit, construction, manufacturing and finance were all traditionally male. Health care, education and administration, the fastest growing sectors of the economy, are all traditionally female.

In 2015, approximately 20 million men between the ages of 20 and 65 had no paid work. 7 million men have stopped looking.

In the aftermath of a mass shooting the country seeks to understand how this could happen. This quest for cause frequently focuses on mental illness. As the political commentator Anne Coulter famously said, "Guns don't kill people, the mentally ill do." After the Newtown shootings, Wayne LaPierre, executive director of the NRA, proposed a national registry for people with mental illness.

The association of mental illness and violence wilts under the light of actual data. In fact what distinguishes the mentally ill is that they are much more likely to be the victim than the perpetrator of violence.

The public and political embrace of a mental health solution to mass shootings is based on two seemingly logical assumptions. First, a core competency of mental health workers is the capacity to predict violent behavior. Second, an adequate mental health system could treat treat the potentially violent and thereby eliminate mass shootings.

So how good are mental health workers in the violence prediction business?

Not so good.

A prominent researcher in this field stated that recent improvements allow clinicians to distinguish violent from nonviolent patients with a "modest, better-than-chance level of accuracy." Most people would agree that this level of competence does not seem appropriate for determining whether or not to commit an individual to a psychiatric facility, especially if that individual is you.

Although mental health professionals may not perform well in predicting violent behavior, they can do a great deal to ease the suffering of individuals who live with mental illness. The continued stigmatization of this population makes it less likely that they will risk revealing themselves by seeking treatment.

While there is no single profile of a mass shooter they typically possess several of the following attributes. They are alienated young men who feel disempowered. They are failing in school or work or relationships or all of these. Their failure fuels resentment about rejection and humiliation. They often are obsessed with guns and collect them. They are injustice collectors tormented by the idea that others get a better deal. Envy and a sense of entitlement produce violent reparative fantasies of power and revenge.

This distorted character is more a cultural creation than a mental illness, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disease or depression. There is no psychiatric cure for angry young men with violent fantasies. Like most problems, this is better addressed with prevention than attempts at repair.

American culture is flooded with aggressive male images. Role models in sport and film provide boys with macho heroes. Much pornography depicts men dominating women. Video games provide vivid experiences of shooting people. The most recent version of Grand Theft Auto, a particularly violent and misogynistic video game, generated more than one billion dollars in sales within three days of its release. This makes it one of the fastest selling entertainment products of all time. Masculine power often takes the form of a gun in this culture.

Unfortunately we live in a time and culture that does little to prevent the creation of such masculinity. The disparity of the haves and have nots continues to grow. The space given to male defeat is small. Men don't get depressed, they get angry and they get even. Aggression appears a path to power when self-esteem is challenged and competence is low. Guns are the great equalizer.

Healthy male mentors, public role models, job training programs and useful rites of passage are in short supply but firearms are readily available. Perhaps our most urgent infrastructure project is the reconstruction of masculinity.

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Men, Murder, Madness and Masculinity in America - Thrive Global - Medium

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Men are afraid that women will laugh at them. Women are afraid that men will kill them. Margaret Atwood The recent shooting in a Florida school represents an increasingly common form of violence in this country. Two subjects dominate public discourse on this phenomenon, guns and mental illness.

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Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal

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Women, murder and femininity Lizzie Seal

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This book includes a feminist approach on women who commit and are accused of murder. Women who do kill either kill their children or their partner. Woman murder rates are less fewer than men, when a women does kill it seen as ‘unnatural’ of the usual gender representations of a women, the breaking of ‘social norms’ when a woman commits murder, (Myra Hindley and Aileen Wuornos)
When it comes to the criminal justice system, it is viewed as

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Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith

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Kaylie Corda- Women Who Kill: Nannie Doss by Karen K. Smith

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This article talks about one woman in particular who was a serial killer: Nancy Hazel Braggs Harrelson Lanning Morton Doss or Nannie Doss. She grew up in Arkansas with an abusive and strict father yet she was a happy and sweet child. She lived her whole life looking for the perfect man like she had been reading about in her romance books and magazines. With this need to find him, she murdered four of her husbands when they did not meet her standard. When she was caught, she admitted to poisoning them and also admitted killing her mother, her sister Dovie, her grandson Robert and one mother-in-law because they tried to get in the way of her finding her perfect man. She was smart though and had most of her husbands take out life insurance policies before killing them so she could collect the money. Eventually she was caught and put in jail for the murders, where she confessed and eventually died of leukemia.

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Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012) 

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Chivalry Is Not Dead: Murder, Gender, and the Death Penalty By Shatz and Shatz (2012) 

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This article explores how chivalric values influence outcomes in capital cases. This highlights the difference in how gender effects the perception of the case. Shatz and Shatz particularly look at topics relating to rape-murders and domestic murders. They referred to male offenders as 'knights' (as chivalry in cases paint males in this light) and show that females are more likely to die in domestic circumstances. In conclusion, they found that judges and courts do promote chivalry in cases such as honour killings and there is a disproportionate use of death penalty in rape-murderers and domestic violence murders.
Leah Cliff
https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?start=10&q=+domestic+murder+and+gender&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&httpsredir=1&article=1299&context=bglj

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Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide

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Cherie Jamieson - Men, Masculinities, and Murder-Suicide

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http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1557988314551359
This article studies murder-suicide in regards to various biological and social factors. The author aimed to mostly find a connection between masculinity, men and murder.

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Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.

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Browne, A., 2008. When battered women kill. Simon and Schuster.

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Author: Angela Brown

* series of interviews with 'battered women' from domestic violence relationships that end up killing their partners and are charged for either murder or manslaughter, Colorado, USA

* opens a discussion around whether these types of killings should be punishable

* the research traces how the women's relationships went from affection to violence

* Brown states how many 'partner homicides are preceded by a history of abuse' and how many women seek help from the police prior to the lethal altercation but often not enough is done to help them

* the purpose of the study was to understand more about the relationships of abused women who kill their husbands and to identify the dynamics that lead to the commission of a homicide

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Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)

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Danielle Scott - Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide (Peterson, E. 1999)

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Peterson, E. (1999) Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide. Homicide Studies, 3 (1), pp.30-46.

This article focuses on the theory of self help and how this relates to race, gender and social class. Peterson then uses these factors to explain phenomenons of female homicide (against intimate partners in particular). Peterson also argues that looking more in depth at homicide committed by women will also help us learn more about men that commit murder.

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Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa 

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Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: 'SO NOW I'M THE MAN': Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa 

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Author: Shanaaz Mathews, Rachel Jewkes and Naeemah Abrahams
Summery:
The brutal enforcement of racial hierarchies and apartheid laws in South Africa created grinding poverty. This poverty created townships, rife with crime, violence and unemployment. Consequently, such conditions challenged the existence of patriarchal family structures and men's hegemonic masculinity. This led to men's exercise of gendered dominance over women through intimate partner violence and femicide. For men, the pathway of violence begin with unhappy childhood, parental abuse at home, corporal punishment in school, emotionally detached parenting, and absence of a role model father figure. As a consequence, men developed a deep seeded distrust for their partners, insecurity, jealousy, lack of empathy and lower self-esteem.
Even at a cultural level, women in South Africa were conditioned to accept their male partners' controlling behavior. They were also expected to be economically dependent on men. In an economy, rife with social inequalities and injustice, women's socio-economic dependence on men created a  sense of low self-esteem.
In addition to that, the access to justice, problems in prosecuting men for killing their partners have been a few more issues that still plague the South African Criminal Justice System.
In essense, women came to be viewed as commodities by their partners. Men felt a certain sense of entitlement towards them. This sense of entitlement, combined with men's lack of trust and their propensity for violence has created life threatening conditions for women in South Africa.
Reference:
Mathews, S., Jewkes, R. and Abrahams, N., 2014. ‘So now I’m the man’: Intimate partner femicide and its interconnections with expressions of masculinities in South Africa. British Journal of Criminology, 55(1), pp.107-124.

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Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence

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Syed Daniyal Ahmed: Article Title: "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence

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Author: Michael S. Kimmel
* "domestic violence increases in severity over time, so that earlier, "moderate" violence is likely to be followed by more severe violence". Pg 1338
* "Significant number of women killed by their spouses or ex-spouses were also earlier victims of violence". pg 1338
* Gender symmetry in domestic violence, a phenomenon in which women and men have equally used violence against each other in an intimate relationship, is largely a myth.
* Even in the relationships where women are found to be the perpetrators of intimate partner violence, the violence is unlikely to escalate over time.
Reference:
Kimmel, M.S., 2002. “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence against women, 8(11), pp.1332-1363.