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EL with Disabilities

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Difference between school identification for special education services and a clinical diagnoses

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Difference between school identification for special education services and a clinical diagnoses

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The doctor tells you your child has dyslexia and ADHD. So does the IEP team at school. So they've both diagnosed your child, right? Not exactly.

People often say the school "diagnosed" their child. But technically, that's not what happened. Schools don't diagnose conditions. Only doctors and other clinicians do.

This chart explains the differences between a school identification and a clinical diagnosis.

What it refers to

A learning "disability" or health impairment (including ADHD) that's identified after a school evaluation

A medical condition (including ADHD) or learning "disorder"

Who makes the determination

A doctor, clinical child psychologist, pediatric neuropsychologist, speech-language pathologist, or other qualified clinical professionals

The basis for using the term

* Schools identify conditions based on IDEA, the special education law.

* Clinical professionals diagnose conditions found in the DSM-5 ( Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).

* Conditions don't have to affect school performance in order for clinicians to diagnose them.

* Diagnoses that aren't covered by IDEA might be used under Section 504.

* Conditions are considered ongoing unless symptoms change and the diagnosis is revised.

* The law covers 13 categories of disability. For a child to be eligible for special education services, the school must identify learning and thinking differences that fall under one of those categories.

* Most learning differences fall under "specific learning disability." ADHD often falls under "other health impairment."

* Conditions must also affect the child's ability to function in the classroom or elsewhere in school at the time they're identified.

* Child must be reassessed, and issues formally identified, at least every three years.

The purpose behind it

* It determines if a child is eligible for special education.

It is used to understand the cause of symptoms and to guide decisions on treatment. (It may also provide information to help with the evaluation process at school.)

* It entitles eligible student to the supports and services needed to get a free appropriate public education through an IEP.

* The same information may be used by a 504 committee at the school to determine eligibility for a 504 plan.

What the evaluation process might involve

* Observation in classroom and other school settings

* Physical exam and other medical testing

* Review of developmental milestones, plus medical and family history

* Standardized assessments of intellectual ability, speech and language skills, and more

* Mental health assessment

* Parent or caregiver interviews

* Teacher input

* Review of educational history

* Review of developmental milestones, plus medical and family history

* Standardized assessments of intellectual ability, speech and language skills, and more

* Mental health screening

* Parent or caregiver interviews

* Teacher input

* Review of educational history

Free, if done through the public school special education process

Parent pays; health insurance may provide some coverage

How they relate to each other

An IEP team might consider any clinical information that's available when it's determining if a child is eligible for special education. That includes a clinical diagnosis.

A clinician should consider how the diagnostic process could be helpful for educational planning.

A diagnosis doesn't automatically qualify a child for special education. It might be enough to qualify the child for 504 accommodations, however.

A diagnosis alone doesn't satisfy IDEA requirements for getting supports and services in school, however.

A diagnosis and an identification have a common goal: to get your child the right kind of support.

About the author

About the author

Peg Rosen writes for digital and print, including

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Bob Cunningham, EdM serves as executive director of learning development at Understood.

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Diagnosis vs. Identification of Learning and Thinking Differences | Understood

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The doctor tells you your child has dyslexia and ADHD. So does the IEP team at school. So they've both diagnosed your child, right? Not exactly. People often say the school "diagnosed" their child. But technically, that's not what happened. Schools don't diagnose conditions. Only doctors and other clinicians do.

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"My son's teacher says he needs to repeat his grade next year. I just don't know about that. How do I know if that's the best thing to do? I want him to do well in school, but this has to be a terrible blow to his self-confidence, and it's hard enough to keep him thinking positively about school. What do I do?"

I hear this question over and over each spring. It's parents agonizing over the welfare of their kids. It's an expression of frustration and anger about the fact that their children's achievement problems haven't been solved. It's a time of shattered dreams. It's also time for some very serious decision making for both school personnel and parents.

The decision to retain a student is a decision that must not be made lightly. The fallout from this decision will have a lasting impact on the child. We have seen good results, with lives changed for the better, in cases where children have been retained appropriately. However, these stories are in the minority. The research in this area indicates that the highest number of retentions turn out to leave scars that do not heal easily.

Many students who become candidates for retention are the ones who either fail or refuse to turn in written assignments. It is important to remember that uncompleted written assignments are not proof that a child is not learning.

I have seen many children score high on achievement tests at the end of a year even though they have a history of not completing their written work. This is a major frustration for teachers.

PUNISHMENT IS TEMPTING

The temptation in these situations is to do something to the child to show that he/she is not going to get away with this. Retention and/or threats of retention are often the first things that come to mind. If we buy into this way of thinking, it means we believe the child has all the abilities and skills needed to be successful, has no self-concept problems, is not dealing with any emotional issues, and just wants to be unsuccessful in school and in life.

I wish it were that simple. If so, all we would have to do is occasionally threaten children with retention, and good grades immediately would follow.

The root causes behind lack of success in school are not easily discovered. These causes hide deep in the subconscious minds of children. Profes-sionals just recently have discovered that 97 percent of the children who avoid their schoolwork have problems related to self-concept or self-concept problems with emotional overlays. These kids are not part of "organized crime" but are children who are damaged, discouraged, or disenchanted with the possibilities of success in school.

WHEN TO RETAIN
IDENTIFY THE ROOT CAUSES
Identifying the root causes of the problem is something that requires the cooperation of both teacher and parent. It cannot be done by either teacher or parent alone since it requires looking at family patterns and the reactions of the child at school. Caution! Do not consider retention until this first step has been achieved
CREATE A PLAN FOR SUCCESS
Until a solid plan that indicates a 90 percent to 100 percent chance of success is developed, retention not only will be wasted but permanently damaging. Once the root causes are identified, a plan can be developed. It usually includes changes in family patterns at home, strong cooperation between school and home, some individual counseling for the child, as well as different teaching and relationship strategies at school. Do not consider retention until this step has been achieved.

People often say, "Let's retain this child. I just think he/she could profit from another year of maturity." This looks at only one aspect of the problem and does not guarantee that the root causes have been considered, nor does it indicate there is any plan of action that might lead to success.
ADMINISTER "LIGHT'S RETENTION SCALE"
H. Wayne Light, Ph.D., discovered there are 19 different aspects of a child's life that need to be considered before deciding to use retention. He has developed a scale that is very helpful when parents and professionals work together to make the retention decision.

This scale looks at age, sex, knowledge of the English language, physical size, present grade placement, previous retention, brothers and sisters, parents' school participation, child's life experiences, family moves, school attendance, intelligence, history of learning disabilities, present level of academic achievement, student's attitude about possible retention, student's interest in schoolwork, immature behavior, emotional problems, and history of serious behavior problems.

Needless to say, Dr. Light warns us there is much to be considered before making the crucial decision to retain. Information about this scale is available from Academic Therapy Publications, 20 Commercial Blvd., Novato, CA 94947.

PROVIDE EFFECTIVE COUNSELING

It is important that child, parent, and teacher each feels good about the retention. If any one of these does not, it is doomed. It is especially important for the youngster to feel good about this decision. Children who are not adequately and effectively helped with their beliefs about retention usually suffer long-term self-concept problems, resulting in additional learning problems as the years go on.

Children must frequently hear, and sincerely believe, that their parents will continue to love them regardless of their success in school.

Retention is rarely a solution for under-achievement problems. It is effective only when all of the following questions can be answered with a resounding YES.

QUESTIONS TO ASK

1. Have the root causes of the problem been discovered?

2. Has an effective plan of treatment been developed and accepted by both the professionals and the parents?

3. Does the Light's Retention Scale indicate the child is a good candidate for retention?

4. Does the student feel good about the retention?

5. Do the parents feel good about the retention?

6. Does the school feel good about the retention?

If any one of these questions receives a negative answer, forget about the retention until all six questions receive a resounding YES.

©2010 by Sylvia B. Rimm. All rights reserved. This publication, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without written permission of the author.

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gifted children speaker author dr sylvia rimm underachievement family counselor psychologist help gifted parenting 
underachievement iq testing creativity teaching learning single parent step parent college readiness overweight children sibling competition rivalry
gifted children

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Does Repeating a Grade Ever Work by Dr. Sylvia Rimm

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"My son's teacher says he needs to repeat his grade next year. I just don't know about that. How do I know if that's the best thing to do? I want him to do well in school, but this has to be a terrible blow to his self-confidence, and it's hard enough to keep him thinking positively about school.

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Lights Retention Scale Interpretation Chart

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Lights Retention Scale Interpretation Chart

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5 Things to Know about ESSA and IEP meetings 

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5 Things to Know about ESSA and IEP meetings 

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Considering a Student's Limited English Proficiency in the IEP

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In developing an IEP for a student with limited English proficiency, the IEP Team must consider the student's level of English language proficiency. It's important to know that second language conversational skills are acquired in one to two years, but academic language proficiency is acquired over a longer period of time of five to seven years.

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At a glance

A strengths-based IEP uses student abilities to help work on weaknesses.

IEP goals are built around what the student can do and how the team can use those abilities.

Helping students identify and leverage their strengths, interests, and preferences can lead to more self-awareness and self-advocacy.

But more and more schools are shifting the focus from deficits to a strengths-based approach. This kind of IEP gives much more weight to a student's strengths, interests, and preferences. The team not only identifies strengths but leverages them to help address weaknesses.

Here's what you need to know to help develop a strengths-based IEP for your child.

What strengths-based IEPs are

A strengths-based IEP looks at abilities as well as weaknesses. It looks at what students can do, what the team wants them to do next, and how strengths might be used to set goals to help address a particular need.

How strengths-based IEPs work

There's no one way to develop a strengths-based IEP. But here are some common elements and approaches.

Use a strengths finder before the IEP meeting. These kinds of student self-assessments can help IEP teams develop a strengths-based IEP. A strengths test not only tells the IEP team about kids' abilities. It also tells the kids about their own abilities. And these insights can be a guiding force throughout the IEP meeting.

Give students a leadership role in IEP meetings. Having students actively participate in parts of the IEP meeting can help in many ways. For example, students can lead the part of the meeting where they share what they discovered about themselves when taking the strengths test.

Student involvement in IEP meetings can deepen the discussion about strengths. It can also give kids a sense of ownership when they get to help make decisions about their IEP.

Reframe the way the IEP team talks about strengths. Too often, IEP teams discuss a student's strengths by saying things like "What I like about Elana is...." And these kinds of comments can be hard to connect to the rest of the IEP in actionable ways.

But IEP teams can reframe the strengths discussion so it focuses on abilities: "What does Elana do well?"

For example, if Elana struggles in math, what does she do well in that subject? Can she work independently? Does she prefer to work in groups? Is she able to use a calculator? Strengths-based IEPs aim to start with a strength for each of the skill sets discussed in this section.

Weave strengths into IEP goals. This is the heart of a strengths-based IEP. IEP goals are built around what the student can do and how the team can use that ability to work on an area of weakness.

It's important for IEP goals to be SMART ( Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results-oriented, and T ime-bound). Incorporating your child's strengths into SMART goals can make the goals even stronger. It helps kids see how to make progress by leveraging what they're good at.

Here are a few examples of how a strengths-based IEP goal could differ from a SMART goal that isn't strengths-based:

The common goals and the strengths-based goals set the same expectation for student progress. But only the strengths-based goals use the student's abilities and interests to help chart a path to progress.

The potential of strengths-based IEPs

Strengths-based IEPs aren't widely used yet. But as more schools make strides in student-led IEPs and other areas, they may inspire more districts to rewrite their IEP templates. Adjusting these templates can help ensure that strengths are discussed throughout the IEP meeting, not just in the first section.

In the meantime, you don't have to wait for your child's school to change its IEP template. There's a lot you can do right now.

Key takeaways

Strengths tests and self-assessments can help deepen the discussion about strengths.

Strengths-based IEP goals use a student's abilities, interests, and preferences to help chart a path to progress.

Involving students in IEP meetings can help the team think about ways to develop strengths and work on weaknesses.

About the author

About the author

Julie Rawe is the special projects editor at Understood.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Brian Stack, MEd is the principal of Sanborn Regional High School in Kingston, New Hampshire.

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Strengths-based IEPs: What you need to know

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Understood.org is the resource that helps the 70 million people with learning and thinking differences anticipate the challenges, barriers, or opportunities in life and confidently reach their potential.

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Engage in real time with experts on key issues, challenges, and solutions related to education, health, and justice. Register for our upcoming webinars and browse our webinar archives.

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Building Capacity for School Success in Families of Young English Learner Students

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Engage in real time with experts on key issues, challenges, and solutions related to education, health, and justice. Register for our upcoming webinars and browse our webinar archives.

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Engage in real time with experts on key issues, challenges, and solutions related to education, health, and justice. Register for our upcoming webinars and browse our webinar archives.

Hosted by the English Learner Alliance at Regional Educational Laboratory West (REL West) at WestEd.
Current research confirms that children and families benefit when families are involved in a child's early learning, both inside the classroom and at home. However, getting involved can be a daunting task for many family members, especially those with limited English and experience with U.S. schools.

In this webinar, presenters share a research-based framework for family engagement, discuss what young English learner students need to learn and be able to do, and detail promising practices for actively engaging families in this effort.
Who Will Benefit

Early childhood education and kindergarten teachers

Administrators working with young English learner students and their families

What You Will Learn

The foundations of effective partnerships between school and home that enhance the learning and language development of the child

Progressions of age-appropriate linguistic and academic milestones students will need to succeed in school

Successful outreach efforts to engage families in learning and supporting the skills necessary to succeed in school

Webinar Presenter(s):

Linda M. Espinosa Professor Emeritus of Early Childhood Education, University of Missouri, Columbia

Eric Haas

Materials from the Webinar

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Structuring Meaningful Home-School Partnerships with Families of Young English Learner Students

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Engage in real time with experts on key issues, challenges, and solutions related to education, health, and justice. Register for our upcoming webinars and browse our webinar archives. Hosted by the English Learner Alliance at Regional Educational Laboratory West (REL West) at WestEd.

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TESOL Community and Family Engagement Guide 

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TESOL Community and Family Engagement Guide 

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Professional Development for Parent Engagement with English Learners

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Professional Development for Bilingual Parent Engagement for ESL, Family Reading & Vocabulary Development with English Learners.

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Links to multiple resources focused on parent/family engagement for English learners 

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Links to multiple resources focused on parent/family engagement for English learners 

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Since one of the sections in our new book on teaching ELLs will be on working with families, I thought it would be useful to pull together all the related resources I have on the topic and put them in one "Best" list.

You can find all my parent engagement-related "Best" lists here, and also access my Engaging Parents In School blog.

Here are my picks:
The Best Places Where Students Can Tell Their - And/Or Their Families - Immigration Story The Best Practical Resources For Helping Teachers, Students & Families Respond To Immigration Challenges The Best Posts On The Migration Policy Institute Report On Engaging Immigrant Parents My Best Posts, Articles & Interviews On Parent Engagement The Best Student Projects That Need Family Engagement - Contribute Your Lessons! The Best Multilingual Resources For Parents
Involving Latino Parents in Homework is a nice practical post from ASCD Express.

Contours of the Field: Engaging Parents of English Learners is from New America.

"But What If I Don't Know English?" is another great resource from Colorin Colorado. It ideas on how parents who don't speak English can still help their children develop literacy skills.

ELL Parents Can Boost Their Children's English Skills By Doing These Two Things is from Ed Week.

Study Suggests Early Learning in Native Language Can Help English Skills is from public radio.

4 Reasons Parents Should Speak Heritage Languages at Home is a very important article for teachers who have immigrant students.

How to Reach Out to Parents of ELLs is an article from Colorin Colorado that offers some useful advice.
Engaging English Language Learner Families "Here Are Text Messages We're Sending Home To ELL Students & Parents - Share Your Ideas"
Lesli Maxwell over at Education Week has written a good summary post, Immigrant Paradox Less Consistent in Young Children, Study Finds, about a study related to English Language Learners. The study itself is lengthy, but has an interesting section on immigrant parents and schools. I was going to copy and paste that section because it's pretty short, but it unfortunately is "protected" and won't allow that action. So, just go to the study link and you'll find the family involvement section on page 10 and 11. It's worth a visit.

To Help Language-Learners, Extend Aid to Their Families Too, New Study Argues is an important post from Ed Week's Learning The Language blog.

Here's how it begins:
A new report from the Center for American Progress makes the case that communities looking to improve education for school-aged English-language learners should also offer services to their parents. The study, "The Case for a Two-Generation Approach for Educating English Language Learners," finds that limited English skills for parents and students "can create a poverty trap for families" and argues that engaging them simultaneously improves the academic and educational well-being of both generations.
Tech: A language translator allows districts to reach out to ELLs is from District Administration.

Can You Translate That? New App Allows Parents, Teachers to Bridge Language Divide is from 74.

Multilingual Texting Platform Aims to Help Schools Engage All Families is from Education World.

Use this free app to message parents in 20 languages! https://t.co/GkxZcMpZyQ https://t.co/BnOyJlGfRW #ell #esl #eal #esol #eld #ela pic.twitter.com/7y8jjnmlc2

- Tan Huynh (@TanELLclassroom) September 15, 2017

Learn how to send messages to non-English- speaking parents with ClassTag: https://t.co/njE2GwAuco #edu #edchat #ptchat

- ClassTag (@classtagme) September 3, 2017

The Race to Translate: Which Parent Communication Tool Will Reign Supreme? is from EdSurge.

Schools are under federal pressure to translate for immigrant parents is from The Hechinger Report.

Parent Guide for English Learners-English and Spanish versions is from Education Northwest.

The barriers keeping immigrant parents from getting involved in their kids' education is from Vox.

Tips for Connecting With Non-English-Speaking Parents is from Ed Week.

Honoring Our Families' Immigrant Narratives is from Edutopia.

Building Relationships With Families of ELLs is from my Ed Week column.

Home-School Connections Help ELLs and Their Parents is from Ed Week.

Growing Up with Undocumented Parents: The Challenges Children Face is from New America.

Latino Parents Value College More Than Anybody Else is Take Part.

A Guide for Engaging ELL Families: Twenty Strategies for School Leaders is from Colorin Colorado.

Find great FREE resources to engage #ESL #ELL #families with the new #TESOL Community & Family Toolkit https://t.co/OwRWBatASQ #students #parents #teachers #communities #ELT #education pic.twitter.com/VhvInP5EWg

- TESOL Intl Assn (@TESOL_Assn) November 26, 2017

Teachers view immigrant, minority parents as less involved in their children's education is from Eureka Alert. Teachers View Immigrant Parents as Less Involved. That Mindset May Be Hurting Students is from Ed Week and is about the same study.

The English Learner Family Toolkit (from National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition) was created to help families choose education services that meet their child's needs. U.S. educators, elementary and secondary school teachers, principals, and other school staff can also share the toolkit as a resource for English learners and their families.
GOOGLE'S NEW "INTERPRETER MODE" MAKES IT EASIER FOR TEACHERS & PARENTS TO TALK IF THEY DON'T SPEAK EACH OTHER'S LANGUAGES
At a Northern Virginia school, parents of different backgrounds speak the same language is from The Washington Post.

Language access: Not just for students is from Phi Delta Kappan.

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The Best Parent Engagement Resources For Immigrant Families

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Since one of the sections in our new book on teaching ELLs will be on working with families, I thought it would be useful to pull together all the related resources I have on the topic and put them in one "Best" list.

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English language learners (ELLs) benefit just as much from their parents' involvement in their education as other students. Some Hispanic parents may feel apprehensive about getting involved because of their limited English skills, lack of familiarity with mainstream culture and the public school system in the United States, and other reasons. Below are some ways to reach out to parents of ELLs and increase the likelihood of their participation.

Use their preferred language

This is an essential place to start. Without a common language, very little communication can take place. Here are some ways to build an ongoing relationship with parents by reaching out through their native language.

Find a fully bilingual interpreter.

Whether a school employee, parent liaison, family member, friend, or community member, this person can translate for parent-teacher conferences, back-to-school nights, PTA meetings, and regular communication. It is best to find an adult and not rely on the student as the translator, as this practice can disempower the parent.

Translate the written communications that you send home.

Find a way to send home personal notes and materials in Spanish. This will keep parents in the loop on issues such as report cards, school events, and homework. Try to offer complete translations in a straightforward Spanish that parents can understand.

Learn some Spanish yourself.

Even if it is just some common words and greetings, using Spanish with parents will make them feel welcome. For starters, here are a few common classroom words and phrases in Spanish.

Put parents in touch with bilingual staff.

Give parents a list of names and phone numbers of bilingual staff in the school and district who they can contact to deal with educational concerns. Also encourage them to reach out to other parents who are bilingual or monolingual so they can share experiences and help one another.

Educate parents on the U.S. school system

To support their children's education, the parents of your ELL students need to understand how the U.S. school system and culture work. Listen to parents' concerns, answer their questions, and provide them with written materials in Spanish. Make sure that they understand things like:

How your school works

If necessary, review school hours, school holidays, school rules, school trajectory from pre-kindergarten through high school, and the school's administrative hierarchy.

Your school curriculum, standards, benchmarks, and materials

Consider that in many Latin American countries, the curriculum is very centralized. There is often one set of books. Uniforms are usually required. And rules tend to be the same for all schools across an entire country.

Teacher/school expectations

Explain that teachers hope and expect that parents will help with homework, find tutors, read books, tell stories, take their children to the library, visit the classroom, and become involved in the school.

Parent rights

Make certain that your ELL parents know about their rights regarding access to interpreters and translated materials from your school, free lunch programs, your school's ELL curriculum, supplementary school services that may be available to their children, and anything else that parents at your school have a right to know. If your school receives federal funds, provide information on the No Child Left Behind requirements of schools and the rights of parents. Learn about parents' rights.

Language programs

Work in collaboration with your school social service worker or guidance counselor, and explain the different language program options that your school has, why they work the way they do, and why the chosen program may be most suitable for their children. If parents have doubts, discuss their options and invite them to visit and observe the class.

Arrange home and community visits

Visiting homes and communities is a way to establish a relationship with parents who are working during school and after-school hours or who may feel intimidated by the school setting. Before doing this, however, make sure that parents are receptive to the idea and that your school district and union allow home visits by teachers.

It is often easier to resolve difficult issues face to face as opposed to over the telephone or through written communication. This way, you and the parents can anticipate problems and agree on how to solve them. When organizing home and community visits, try to:

Arrange for an interpreter to be present.

Respect the family's time constraints and choice of location - whether in the home, church, or community center.

Point out ways they can help with their child's language development, reading skills, and homework.

Welcome parents into your school

Here are some ways to involve Hispanic parents at school:

Host a Spanish-language back-to-school night

Host an evening event at the beginning of the school year for Spanish-speaking parents. Make sure ahead of time that a good interpreter will be in attendance. For this important first meeting, try to accommodate parents' requests for scheduling, transportation, and child care. Take this time to get to know them, communicate your expectations, and answer questions. Also find out the best way to maintain regular communication with each of these parents.

Arrange for a "tour" of the school

Within the first semester, organize a general school orientation session for parents of English language learners. With a bilingual facilitator, explain and answer any questions about things such as state standards, assessments, school expectations, language program options, etc. It would be helpful to actually walk parents around the school and introduce them to key people on staff. Some states, districts, and schools already do this.

Benefits of reaching out

Watch children's author and literacy advocate Pat Mora discuss the benefits to reaching out to Spanish-speaking parents.

This video is also available on YouTube.

Recruit volunteers

If parents are willing to volunteer their time, find out what their interests and skills are. ELL parents may be able to help with a variety of activities, such as cooking food for school-wide holidays, telling stories, teaching a dance, teaching a craft, or making a presentation.

Adult learning opportunities

Immigrant families may be unaware of the opportunities available to them. Another way to reach out to parents is to make them aware of learning opportunities for themselves. Somewhere in your community there are likely to be English and/or native language literacy classes for adults, family literacy projects, and parenting classes.

If your school has not compiled a list of these resources, ask your school administrators to do so. They should call your school district, city, county, library, park and recreation center, community college, and community-based organizations. Be sure to verify that families are eligible to receive the services offered regardless of immigration status. To be most effective, this list should be made available in Spanish and English and updated regularly.

References

Adapted from: Calderón, M. E., & Minaya-Rowe, L. (2003). Designing and implementing two-way bilingual programs. A step-by step guide for administrators, teachers and parents. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Reprints

You are welcome to print copies or republish materials for non-commercial use as long as credit is given to Colorín Colorado and the author(s). For commercial use, please contact [email protected] .

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English language learners (ELLs) benefit just as much from their parents' involvement in their education as other students. Some Hispanic parents may feel apprehensive about getting involved because of their limited English skills, lack of familiarity with mainstream culture and the public school system in the United States, and other reasons.

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Connecting with parents when they do not know English 

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Connecting with parents when they do not know English 

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Note: This article is targeted towards Spanish speakers, but the information can be adapted and applied to speakers of other languages.

If your Spanish is a lot better than your English, then speak, read, and sing to your child in Spanish. Whether in English or Spanish, you can spend time reading, singing, and talking to your child every day. Doing so will increase your child's ability to use language.

Would you like some ideas on how to build your child's literacy skills? Click below to find out how to:

You can learn English, too!

As your child learns English, you can too! There are many groups that offer English classes for adults. You can find a class near you by calling the National Literacy Hotline, a toll-free phone number. You can talk to a Spanish-speaking person who will help you find a class.

Please call between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. Eastern time, Monday through Friday. At other times, you can leave a message and someone will call you back.
1-800-228-8813

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Note: This article is targeted towards Spanish speakers, but the information can be adapted and applied to speakers of other languages. If your Spanish is a lot better than your English, then speak, read, and sing to your child in Spanish. Whether in English or Spanish, you can spend time reading, singing, and talking to your child every day.

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Academic Parent Teacher Teams in Georgia 

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Academic Parent Teacher Teams in Georgia 

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Academic Parent-Teacher Teams (APTT) is a family engagement model, designed by Dr. Maria Paredes of WestEd, that strengthens teacher-family relationships by focusing on student academic growth and achievement. The APTT Model elevates the efforts of traditional parent-teacher conferences by inviting…

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Guideline for parents regarding overrepresentation of English learners for special education 

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Guideline for parents regarding overrepresentation of English learners for special education 

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Since 1994, the National School Reform Faculty has created and refined more than 200 protocols and activities to use in Critical Friends Group ® communities, classrooms, meetings, and beyond. Each one is designed to help you arrive at a specific desired outcome, efficiently and effectively. Our oldest, "original" protocols* are available to you as downloadable PDF files through the open-access list provided below. If you know the name of the protocol or activity you wish to use, scroll down the list to find it by its title.

If you have an active regular membership or coaches' membership, you have access to the extended Protocol Libraries which provide updated and refined protocols, activities, and additional resources with focused search options and distinct categories, as well as protocol/activity overviews and definers.

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Since 1994, the National School Reform Faculty has created and refined more than 200 protocols and activities to use in Critical Friends Group ® communities, classrooms, meetings, and beyond. Each one is designed to help you arrive at a specific desired outcome, efficiently and effectively.

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Protocols By Tag | New Protocols | Spanish Protocols | Portuguese Protocols | Protocols For Youth Engagement

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Collaborative Culture: Protocols | EL Education

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How can a protocol support my classroom instruction?

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Angela Duckworth--Grit and Perseverance 

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Angela Duckworth--Grit and Perseverance 

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Everything I've learned about grit as a scientist, teacher, and parent.

Get the Book

Angela Duckworth is the founder and CEO of Character Lab, a nonprofit whose mission is to advance scientific insights that help children thrive. She is also a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania and in 2013 was named a MacArthur Fellow. Prior to her career in research, she was a math and science teacher at public schools in New York City, San Francisco, and Philadelphia. Angela shares research-backed advice for parents and teachers in her Tip of the Week. Sign up to receive it by email here.

Learn More

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Everything I've learned about grit as a scientist, teacher, and parent. Get the Book Angela Duckworth is the founder and CEO of Character Lab, a nonprofit whose mission is to advance scientific insights that help children thrive. She is also a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania and in 2013 was named a MacArthur Fellow.

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1. Sebastian's Blunder
Sebastian Garcia couldn't figure out where he'd gone wrong. One minute he was up by a bishop and a pawn, in good position, feeling strong, looking to start off the 2011 National Junior High Chess Championships with a victory. And the next minute he was in deep trouble, his advantage squandered, his king scurrying across the board like a frightened little mouse, fleeing his opponent's rook. A few moves later, when his defeat was complete, Sebastian limply shook hands with the boy who had beaten him, a sandy-haired kid from a central Ohio suburb, shuffled his way through the cavernous convention-center ballroom where a thousand heads were bowed over chessboards, and slunk back to Union B, the windowless conference room down the hall that was his chess team's temporary home. Sebastian, a short, stocky, quiet Latino with round cheeks and a thick bristle of black hair, was in the sixth grade at Intermediate School 318 in Brooklyn, and two days earlier, along with sixty teammates and a handful of teachers and parents, he had traveled eleven hours in a chartered bus to Columbus, Ohio, for a few days of competitive chess. His weekend was not off to a good start.

The ritual for students on the IS 318 team was that, win or lose, after each game they would come back to the team room for a post-mortem with the school's chess teacher, Elizabeth Spiegel. Sebastian slouched into Union B and approached the small table where Spiegel, tall and slender, sat behind a chessboard.

"I lost," he announced.

"Tell me about your game," Spiegel said. She was in her mid-thirties, dressed all in black, her pale skin made paler by the contrast with her brightly dyed hair, which changed hues somewhat from season to season. For this tournament, she had chosen the deep vermilion of red velvet cake. Sebastian dropped into the chair opposite her and handed her his chess notation book, where he'd scrawled all sixty-five of his moves as well as all of his opponent's.

The other guy was simply better than him, Sebastian explained. "He had good skills," he said, a little plaintively. "Good strategies."

"Well, let's see," said Spiegel, and she took the white pieces and started re-creating the game on the board between them, making each of Sebastian's opponent's moves while Sebastian, as black, replayed his own moves. Sebastian and the Ohio boy had both begun by bringing out a couple of pawns, and white quickly developed his knights, a standard opening called the Caro-Kann, which they'd gone over in chess class back in Brooklyn dozens of times. And then the Ohio boy had pulled one knight back to an unexpected square, so that both of his knights were attacking a single black pawn. Sebastian, nervous, moved another pawn up to defend, but he had stumbled into a trap. His opponent quickly swooped a knight down to capture the defending pawn, and just four moves into the game, Sebastian was down a piece.

Spiegel stared at Sebastian. "How long did you spend on that move?" she asked.

"Two seconds."

Spiegel's face grew cloudy. "We did not bring you here so that you could spend two seconds on a move," she said, a steely edge in her voice. Sebastian looked down. "Sebastian!" He looked up. "This is pathetic. If you continue to play like this, I'm going to withdraw you from the tournament, and you can just sit here with your head down for the rest of the weekend. Two seconds is not slow enough." Her voice softened a little. "Look, if you make a mistake, that's okay. But you do something without even thinking about it? That's not okay. I'm very, very, very upset to be seeing such a careless and thoughtless game."

And then as quickly as the storm had arrived, it passed, and Spiegel was back to moving pieces and examining Sebastian's game. "Nice," she said as he avoided a pawn capture. "Very clever," she said when he took his opponent's knight. They went on like this, move after move, Spiegel praising Sebastian's good ideas, asking him to come up with alternatives to his less-good ones, and again and again reminding him that he had to slow down. "You were playing in some ways an excellent game," she told him, "and then once in a while you moved superfast and you did something really stupid. If you can stop doing that, you're going to do very, very well."

I first met Spiegel in the winter of 2009, after I read an article in the New York Times about her team's performance at the National Scholastic K−12 Championship the previous December. The article, by the paper's chess columnist, Dylan McClain, pointed out that IS 318 was in the federal education department's Title I program, meaning that more than 60 percent of the students at the school were from low-income families, and yet at the tournament in question, Spiegel's students had beaten wealthy kids from private schools and magnet schools. I was intrigued, but to be honest, I was also a little skeptical. Hollywood producers and magazine editors love tales of inner-city kids defeating private-school students in chess tournaments, but often, when you look a little more closely at the triumphs, they aren't quite as inspiring as they originally seemed. Sometimes the tournament that the team from the disadvantaged neighborhood won turns out to be a minor one, or the division that the students were competing in was restricted to students below a certain ability rating. Or the low-income kids turn out to be somehow atypical - they go to a selective school with an entrance exam, or they're recent immigrants from Asia or Eastern Europe rather than black or Latino kids from families with long poverty histories. In 2005, to give one example, New York magazine ran a long, adulatory profile of the chess team from the Mott Hall School, known as the Dark Knights of Harlem, "a hard-charging bunch of 10-to-12-year-olds from Washington Heights, Inwood, and Harlem" who were competing in a national tournament in Nashville. They did come in second in their division of the sixth-grade tournament, which was a fine achievement-but they were competing in the under-1000 section, meaning they didn't play anybody with a rating over 1000, which is fairly low. And the students had all had to pass an entrance exam to get into Mott Hall, so they were above average to begin with. Plus the team, while technically from Harlem, had only one black player; almost all the others were immigrants born in Kosovo or Poland or Mexico or Ecuador or China.

And so when I showed up at IS 318 on a January morning, I expected to encounter some comparable asterisk. But I couldn't find one. The team is diverse -there are a handful of whites and Asians - but most of the players are black or Hispanic, and the best players are African American. Few students on the team, from what I could tell, faced quite the daunting array of disadvantages and obstacles that the average student at Fenger High School in Roseland did, but with 87 percent of IS 318's students eligible for federal lunch subsidies, the school had come by its Title I designation honestly. IS 318 was in South Williamsburg, near the border of Bedford-Stuyvesant - its most famous graduate was the rapper Jay-Z, who grew up in the nearby Marcy housing project - and the team reflected the student body; the students' families were mostly from the struggling working class, and the majority of their parents were employed but not college educated.

Over the next two years, I returned often to IS 318 - sitting in on classes, accompanying the team to tournaments and chess clubs around New York City, following their progress on Spiegel's blog -and all the while, I was trying to figure out how they did it. The blunt reality is that rich kids win chess tournaments - or, more precisely, rich kids plus the cognitive elite who attend selective schools with competitive entrance exams. Take a look at the team winners, by grade, of the 2010 scholastic tournament in Orlando, held a few months before the Columbus tournament that Sebastian Garcia was playing in:

Kindergarten

Oak Hall School, a private school in Gainesville, Florida

First grade

SciCore Academy, a private school in New Jersey

Second grade

Dalton School, a private school in New York City

Third grade

Hunter College Elementary, an exam school in New York City

Fourth grade

Tie between SciCore Academy and Stuart Hall School for Boys, a Catholic school in New Orleans

Fifth grade

Regnart Elementary, a public school in Cupertino, California, home of Apple and dozens of software companies

Ninth grade

San Benito Veterans Memorial Academy, in southern Texas, a public school whose student body is mostly Hispanic and low income

Tenth grade

Horace Mann, a private school in New York City

Eleventh grade

Solomon Schechter, a private school in a New York City suburb

Twelfth grade

Bronx Science, an exam school in New York City

The winning team in every grade, in other words - with the exception of those outliers from San Benito - came from a private school, an exam school, a parochial school, or a public school populated by the children of Apple engineers.

Except, that is, for the middle-school grades, where the list of winners looked like this:

Sixth grade

IS 318, a low-income public school in Brooklyn

Seventh grade

IS 318, a low-income public school in Brooklyn

Eighth grade

IS 318, a low-income public school in Brooklyn

The students at IS 318 didn't win in just one grade; they won in every grade the school was allowed to enter. The roster of schools they beat reads like a wealthy parent's wish list of the most desirable private schools in the country: Trinity, Collegiate, Spence, Dalton, and Horace Mann in New York City, and exclusive private schools in Boston, Miami, and Greenwich, Connecticut. And the 2010 tournament wasn't a one-time fluke; IS 318 won in all three grades in 2008 as well. (In 2009, they won in the sixth- and seventh-grade divisions but lost the eighth-grade trophy by half a point.)

In the end, it is a simple truth, no caveats or asterisks required: the chess program at Intermediate School 318 is the best middle-school chess program in the United States, bar none. In fact, it is almost certainly the best scholastic chess program in the country at any grade level. The team's reputation has grown in recent years, and they have begun to draw good elementary-school players from around the city, which has added to their advantage. But mostly, they win tournaments because of what Elizabeth Spiegel was sitting in Union B doing that April afternoon: taking eleven-year-old kids, like Sebastian Garcia, who know a little chess but not a lot, and turning them, move by painstaking move, into champions.

By the thirty-fifth move in the game Sebastian was replaying with Spiegel, he had recovered completely from his early errors and taken a clear lead. He pushed his queen deep into enemy territory, putting the white king in check. His opponent drew a pawn up to block the black queen's attack. Sebastian moved his queen two squares ahead: check again. The white king retreated a square, pulling out of the queen's range.

And then, rather than keeping the pressure on the white king, Sebastian went for the easy score: he captured a white pawn with his queen. Once again, he had missed a looming threat: from the other side of the board, his opponent's rook stole Sebastian's bishop, and Sebastian's advantage started to slip away.

"You took the pawn?" Spiegel asked. "Come on. What's a better move?"

Sebastian said nothing. "What about check?" Sebastian stared at the board. "Think about it," Spiegel said. "Remember, when I ask you a question, you don't have to answer right away. But you do have to be right." Suddenly a bit of a smile crept onto Sebastian's face. "I could win the queen," he said. "Show me," Spiegel said, and Sebastian made the moves, demonstrating how one more check would have not only saved his bishop but also sent white into a tailspin, forcing the Ohio boy to choose between losing his queen and losing the game.

"This is the thing," Spiegel said evenly, moving the pieces back to where they were when Sebastian had gone for the easy pawn. "Think back on this moment. When you made this move" - she captured the white pawn, as Sebastian had done - "you lost the game. If you had made this move" -she put the white king in check - "you would have won the game." She leaned back in her chair, her gaze fixed on Sebastian. "It's okay if the loss hurts you a little," she said. "You should feel bad. You're a talented player, but you have to slow down and think more. Because now you have" - she checked her watch - "four hours until the next game, which means that you have four hours to think about the fact that you got beat by this kid." She tapped the board. "All because of this one time when you could have slowed down but you didn't."

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1. Sebastian's Blunder Sebastian Garcia couldn't figure out where he'd gone wrong. One minute he was up by a bishop and a pawn, in good position, feeling strong, looking to start off the 2011 National Junior High Chess Championships with a victory.

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Colorin Colorado Webcast English Language Learners with Disabilities 

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Colorin Colorado Webcast English Language Learners with Disabilities 

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English Language Learners with Learning Disabilities

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Abstract and Introduction

Abstract

Speech-language problems are the most common disability of childhood yet they are the least well detected, particularly in primary care settings. The goal of this article is to: (1) define the nature of speech-language problems, their causes, and consequences; (2) facilitate early recognition by healthcare providers via accurate screening and surveillance measures suitable for busy clinics; and (3) describe the referral and intervention process.

Introduction

Speech-language deficits are the most common of childhood disabilities and affect about 1 in 12 children or 5% to 8% of preschool children.[1] The consequences of untreated speech-language problems are significant and lead to behavioral challenges, mental health problems, reading difficulties,[2] and academic failure including in-grade retention and high school dropout.[3] Yet, such problems are ones that are least well detected in primary care,[4] even though intervention is available and plentiful.

Speech-language impairments embrace a wide range of conditions that have, at their core, challenges in effective communication. As the term implies, they include speech disorders which refer to impairment in the articulation of speech sounds, fluency, and voice as well as language disorders which refer to impairments in the use of the spoken (or signed or written) system and may involve the form of language (grammar and phonology), the content of language (semantics), and the function of language (pragmatics).[5] These may also be described more generally as communication disorders which are typically classified by their impact on a child's receptive skills (ie, the ability to understand what is said or to decode, integrate, and organize what is heard) and expressive skills (ie, the ability to articulate sounds, use appropriate rate and rhythm during speech, exhibit appropriate vocal tone and resonance, and use sounds, words, and sentences in meaningful contexts). There are common conditions in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers that are associated with receptive and expressive communication challenges as presented in Table 1 .[6- 17]

Table 1

Condition & Cause

Receptive Communication Problems

Expressive Communication Problems

Psychosocial risk, abuse and neglect

Less talkative and fewer conversational skills than expected; seldom volunteer ideas or discuss feelings; utterances shorter than peers[6]

Autism spectrum disorder

Difficulty analyzing, integrating, and processing information; misinterpretation of social cues[6]

Variability in speech production from functionally nonverbal to echolalic speech to nearly typical speech; use of language in social situations is more challenging than producing language forms (eg, articulating speech sounds, using sentence structure)[7]; tendency to use verbal scripts; difficulty selecting the right words to represent intended meaning; often mechanical voice quality

Brain injury

Difficulty making connections, inferences and using information to solve problems; challenges in attention and memory which affect linguistic processing; challenges in understanding figurative language and multiple meaning words[6]

Greatest difficulty is commonly inpragmatics - using language appropriately across contexts, especially narratives and conversations[8]

Cerebral palsy

Speech sound discrimination, information processing and attention can be areas of challenge; language comprehension is affected by cognitive status

Dysarthric speech - slower rate, with shorter phrases or prolonged pauses; articulation is often imprecise with distorted vowel productions; voice quality can be breathy or harsh, hypernasal with a low or monotone pitch; apraxic speech - sound substitutions that can be inconsistent, groping for sound production and nonfluent volitional speech with more fluent automatic speech[6]; language production is affected by breath support as well as cognitive status

Fetal drug or alcohol exposure

Difficulty comprehending verbal information, especially understanding abstract concepts, multiple word meanings, and words indicating time and space[6]

Fewer vocalizations in infancy, poor use of gestures and delays in oral language[6]; poor word retrieval, shorter sentences, and less well-developed conversational skills[9]

Fluency disorders

Difficulty with the rate and rhythm of speech; false starts; repetitions of sounds, syllables and words; may or may not be accompanied by atypical physical behaviors (eg, grimacing, head bobbing)

Hearing impairment

Difficulty with sound perception and discrimination, voice recognition, and understanding of speech, especially under adverse hearing conditions[6]

Sound productions made until about 6 months; limited oral output depending on degree of hearing loss; for oral communicators, vocal resonance, speech sound accuracy, and syntactic structure often affected

Intellectual Disability

Comprehension of language is often below cognitive ability[10]; difficulty organizing and categorizing information heard for later retrieval; difficulty with abstract concepts; difficulty interpreting information presented auditorily[6]

Production is often below cognitive ability[10]; similar but slower developmental path than typical peers; tendency to use more immature language forms; tendency to produce shorter and less elaborated utterances[11]

Specific language impairment

Slower and less efficient information processing[12, 13]; limited capacity for understanding language[14, 15]

Shorter, less elaborated sentences than typical peers; difficulty in rule formulation for speech sound, word, and sentence productions[16]; ineffective use of language forms in social contexts sometimes leading to inappropriate utterances[17]; poorly developed vocabulary

It is important to distinguish speech and language impairment from language delay and language difference. Language delay is characterized by the emergence of language that is relatively late albeit typical in its pattern of development. In contrast to an impairment or a delay, a language difference is associated with systematic variation in vocabulary, grammar, or sound structures. Such variation is "used by a group of individuals [and] reflects and is determined by shared regional, social, or cultural and ethnic factors" and is not considered a disorder.[18]

Unfortunately, non-native speakers of English, speakers of various dialects (whose language also varies within dialect), and bilingual or multilingual speakers are frequently classified as language delayed or disordered when, in fact, they are language different[18, 19]-although problems of underidentification also occur. This is particularly important in an increasingly pluralistic society such as ours in which 1 of 4 people identify as other than white non-Hispanic, approximately 17% of the population is bilingual (mostly speaking Spanish and English), and where minorities represent more than 50% of the population in several cities and counties.[20]

The overidentification of culturally and linguistically diverse populations commonly occurs when a mismatch is observed and incorrectly interpreted between a language used in a particular community and that of the majority culture. This may be seen most clearly in the improper use of formal tests of speech and language to assess the competencies of speakers who are dissimilar to the sample upon which the test was normed and developed.[21] Similar errors also occur during informal evaluations of language and literacy as when the sound structure of the language influences the spelling or grammatical conventions used in written discourse.[22] With regard to bilingualism, it is commonly assumed that children's acquisition of 1 or both languages is delayed; however, the effects of bilingualism are more complex and differ with the age of the child, the nature of the linguistic input, and the manner and timing of language acquisition. What is clear is that equivalent proficiency in each language should not be expected or assumed as this has the potential to lead to misidentification of a speech and language impairment. (For more information on the effects of bilingualism on language learning, see http://asha.org/public/speech/development/BilingualChildren.htm and http://asha.org/public/speech/development/second.htm) In the case of culturally and linguistically diverse individuals, decisions to intervene and bring language use in line with that of the majority culture or promote proficiency in the dominant language are not inappropriate; however, such decisions must be seen as separate from the language difference vs disorder question.

All of the following statements about young children with speech and language impairment are true except:

Answer: Children usually begin to put 2 words together at 30 months. Children usually begin to put 2 words together at 18 months.

Etiology, Neurobiology, and Prevalence of Speech-Language Impairments

The etiology of most cases of speech-language impairments is unknown but diverse causes are suspected. The range of causes or origins includes anatomical abnormalities, cognitive deficits, faulty learning, genetic differences, hearing impairments, neurologic impairments, or physiologic abnormalities.[6] As noted above, language differences as revealed in the communication output associated with diverse cultural, ethnic, regional or social dialects are not considered disorders.[5] Speech and language impairments may be acquired (ie, result from illness, injury or environmental factors) or congenital (ie, present at birth).

Children with speech and language impairment are an under-representation of the broader occurrence of communication disorders,[23] especially considering the co-occurrence of communication disorders with other disabilities (eg, learning disabilities). Approximately 8% to 12% of preschool populations exhibit language impairments.[6] Among children enrolled in early intervention programs, 46% have communication impairments while 26% have developmental delays in multiple areas, usually including language skills.[24] These findings indicate that the most common presentation of disability in preschoolers involves problems with language.

In a family with a child with a speech and language impairment, which of the following would be clinically appropriate?

Reassure the parents that the child is just a late talker and will catch up

Urge the parents to have their child undergo genetic testing

Discourage the child's parents and sibling(s) from talking for the child as this may be a primary cause of a speech and language impairment

Advise the parent to have the child's hearing tested

Answer: Advise the parent to have the child's hearing tested. This is appropriate because hearing would be the first condition to rule out as a potential cause of a speech and language delay.

Course and Prognosis

Speech-language impairment sometimes emerges during infancy with challenges in response to sound, atypical birth cries, or limited response to others and progresses through the toddler and preschool age with limited comprehension of spoken language and difficult interactions with peers and others as well as delays in producing first words and word combinations. Speech and language difficulties often persist in school age with difficulties following directions, attending and comprehending oral and written language, and problems producing narratives and using language appropriately in social contexts. Parents are often the first to notice difficulties as they encounter other children with more advanced speech-language skills and thus often wonder if their child is behind.[25] Although many parents raise concerns to primary care providers, many do not. In turn, primary care providers who do not use quality screening tools often dismiss parental concerns with panaceas such as, "He's a boy. Boys talk later." Or, "Let's give this some time and see if it continues." Yet, parental concerns about speech and language are associated with developmental disabilities[26] and, thus, careful screening with accurate tools is the requisite response.[27]

The use of a "wait and see" approach underscores the difficulty in distinguishing children who are language delayed from those who have a speech and language impairment. Although most children who have aspeech and language impairment have a history of language delay, only one quarter to one half of late-talkers are eventually diagnosed with a language disorder.[19] In advocating for a more aggressive response for late-talking children, some have argued for careful scrutiny of other risk factors that may guide decisions to refer and intervene.[19] Predictors of a true speech and language impairment that should be considered include poor receptive language skills,[28] limited expressive language skills (eg, small vocabulary, few verbs), and limited development in the sound structure of a language (eg, limited number of consonants, limited variety in babbling structure, vowel errors).[26] Additional predictors include nonspeech (eg, behavioral problems, few gestures, little imitation or symbolic play), environmental (eg, low socioeconomic status, parental use of a directive rather than sensitive and responsive interactional style), and hereditary factors (eg, family history).[26] As a general recommendation, professionals are urged to consider a larger number of risk factors with greater concern.[26]

Often speech-language impairments can be difficult to distinguish from what is considered typical variations in speech and language. For example, disfluencies in speech may be either normal or abnormal. In the nonstuttering child, the most common disfluencies include 1-unit word repetitions (eg, "I... I want that"), interjections (eg, "I saw a... um... picture"), and revisions (eg, "I don't know where... Mommy, help me find my doll") and, when combined, comprise no more than 10% of words spoken.[29] In the stuttering child, the fluency disorder typically emerges between the ages of 2 and 5 years, is more common among males than females, and is characterized by more than 10% disfluencies in speech, multi-unit syllable (eg, "s-s-s-s-s-September") and word (eg, "That's my-my-my ball") repetitions, and may be accompanied by secondary behaviors such as eye-blinking, head-bobbing, or grimacing, as well as feelings of frustration or embarrassment surrounding the stuttering event.[29]

Identification of speech and language impairments is further complicated by the fact that they often masquerade as other diagnostic conditions. For example, children with a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may in fact have an underlying language disorder. Differential diagnosis is challenged by the diagnostic criteria shared between the 2 conditions. Specifically, the diagnostic criteria for ADHD share several characteristics with language disorders including difficulty listening when spoken to, following instructions, talking excessively, blurting out answers, interrupting, and waiting for turns in conversation.[30] Similarly, 50% of preschoolers presenting for psychiatric services were found in several studies to have undiagnosed language impairment.[31, 32]

The diagnostic criteria for speech-language impairments are defined both by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV)[33, 34] and by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) through the US Department of Education. Table 2 specifies the criteria for communication disorders as described in the DSM-IV. As an example of eligibility criteria for speech-language impairment in response to IDEA guidelines, Vermont indicates that children must demonstrate significant deficits greater than 2 standard deviations below the mean in listening comprehension (eg, measures of auditory (language) processing or comprehension of connected speech including semantics, syntax, phonology, recalling information, following directions and pragmatics) and/or oral expression (eg, measures of oral discourse-syntax, semantics, phonology and pragmatics; voice; fluency; articulation) to qualify as speech or language impaired.[35]

Table 2

Characteristics

Expressive Language Disorder

Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder

Standardized tests indicate skill area is substantially below what is expected considering chronological age (CA), IQ, and education

Expressive language development (eg, vocabulary, tense errors, word recall, sentence length, and complexity) is below nonverbal IQ and receptive language

Battery of measures of receptive and expressive languagedevelopment (eg, understanding words, sentences, or specific word types-spatial terms) is below nonverbal IQ

Difficulties interfere with academic or occupational achievement or with social communication

X

X

If mental retardation, environmental deprivation, sensory or speech motor deficit is present, difficulties are greater than what is expected

X

X

Criteria not met for mixed receptive-expressive language disorder

X

Criteria not met for pervasive developmental disorder

X

X

Distinguishing children with speech-language deficits from those with other disabilities is often a challenging task as several disabilities share characteristics and have similar diagnostic criteria. For example, an intellectual disability is one in which a child's performance falls at or below 1.5 standard deviations from the mean on a test of intellectual ability with concurrent deficits in adaptive behavior. Children with intellectual disabilities, however, often have significant challenges in receptive and expressive communication as is typical of children with speech and language impairments. Children with learning disabilities have deficits in 1 or more basic skill areas including oral expression and listening comprehension, challenges characteristic of children with speech-language impairments. Children with pervasive developmental disorders/autism exhibit marked impairments in communication and social interaction and restricted and repetitive stereotyped patterns of behavior. Although social impairment is a defining feature of autism, communication impairments are similar to those with a speech-language impairment.

Which of the following is not true of speech-language impairment?

Early intervention is critical as speech-language impairments place children at risk for later academic difficulties

Most children with speech-language impairments have intellectual deficits

Communication disorders may manifest themselves at different stages of life

Children with learning disabilities are likely to have speech and language impairments

Answer: Most children with speech-language impairments have intellectual deficits. Although many children who have mental retardation have speech-language impairments, most children with specific speech-language impairments have nonverbal intelligence within normal limits.

Screening and Early Assessment of Speech-Language Disorders

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends ongoing surveillance and periodic use of broad-band screening measures at all well-visits. Table 3 provides information on a number of tools that have high levels of accuracy in detecting speech-language problems and other disabilities. All included measures were standardized on national samples, proven to be reliable, and validated against a range of measures. When used, referral rates to early intervention programs rise to meet prevalence.[36] In the absence of accurate measures, most providers rely on informal milestone checklists. These lack criteria and are probably the leading reason why only about 1 in 4 children with disabilities of any kind are referred for needed assistance.

Table 3

Developmental-Behavioral Screens for Young Children

Age Range

Description

Scoring

Accuracy

Time Frame/Costs

Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status (PEDS) (2002), Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, Ltd., 1013 Austin Court, Nolensville TN 37135; phone: 615-776-4121 fax: 615-776-4119; http://www.pedstest.com ($30.00)PEDS is also available online together with the Modified Checklist of Autism in Toddlers for electronic records: contact. gro.htaperof@troppussdep

Birth to 8 years

10 questions eliciting parents' concerns in English, Spanish, Vietnamese, Somali, Arabic, and many other languages. Written at the 5th grade level. Determines when to refer, provide a second screen, provide patient education, or monitor development, behavior/emotional, and academic progress. Provides longitudinal surveillance and triage.

Identifies children as low, moderate, or high risk for various kinds of disabilities and delays

Sensitivity ranges from 74% to 79% and specificity ranges from 70% to 80% across age levels

About 2 minutes (if interview needed) Print materials = ∼$0.31 Admin. = ∼$0.88 Total = ∼$1.19

Ages and Stages Questionnaire (formerly Infant Monitoring System) (2004), Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Inc., PO Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285; phone: 1-800-638-3775 ($199) http://www.pbrookes.com/ For screening mental/health/behavioral problems, there is also the ASQ: Social Emotional, which works like the ASQ.

4-60 months

Parents indicate children's developmental skills on 25-35 items (4-5 pages) using a different form for each well visit. Reading level varies across items from 3rd to 12th grade. Can be used in mass mail-outs for child-find programs. Available in English, Spanish, French, and Korean.

Single pass/fail score for developmental status

Sensitivity ranges from 70% to 90% at all ages except the 4-month level. Specificity ranges from 76% to 91%

About 15 minutes (if interview needed) Materials = ∼$0.40 Admin. = ∼$4.20 Total = ∼$4.60

Infant-Toddler Checklist for Language and Communication (1998). Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD, 21285; phone 1-800-638-3775. (Part of CSBS-DP, http://www.pbrookes.com/) ($99.95 w/CD-ROM)

6-24 months

Parents complete the Checklist's 24 multiple-choice questions in English. Reading level is 6th grade. Based on screening for delays in language development as the first evident symptom that a child is not developing typically. Does not screen for motor milestones. The Checklist is copyrighted but remains free for use at the Brookes Web site although the factor scoring system is complicated and requires purchase of the CD-ROM.

Manual table of cut-off scores at 1.25 standard deviations below the mean O0052, an optional scoring CD-ROM

Sensitivity is 78%; specificity is 84%.

About 5 to 10 minutes Materials = ∼$0.20 Admin. = ∼$3.40 Total = ∼$3.60

PEDS- Developmental Milestones (PEDS-DM) (2007), Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, Ltd., 1013 Austin Court, Nolensville TN 37135; phone: 615-776-4121; fax: 615-776-4119 ($275) http://www.pedstest.com

0-8 years

PEDS-DM consists of 6-8 items at each age level (spanning the well visit schedule). Each item taps a different domain (fine/gross motor, self-help, academics, expressive/receptive language, social-emotional). Items are administered by parents or professionals. Forms are laminated and marked with a grease pencil. It can be used to complement PEDS or stand alone. Administered by parent report or directly. Written at the 2nd grade level. A longitudinal score form tracks performance. Supplemental measures also include the M-CHAT, Family Psychosocial Screen, PSC-17, the SWILS, the Vanderbilt, and a measure of parent-child interactions. An Assessment Level version is available for NICU follow-up and early intervention programs.

Cutoffs tied to performance above and below the 16th percentile for each item and its domain. On the Assessment Level, age equivalent scores are produced and enable users to compute percentage of delays.

Sensitivity ranges from 75% to 87%; specificity ranges from 71% to 88% for performance in each domain. Sensitivity ranges from 70% to 94%; specificity ranges from 77% to 93% across age levels.

About 3-5 minutes Materials = ∼.$0.02 Admin. = ∼$1.00 Total = ∼$1.02

Screens for Older Children

Pediatric Symptom Checklist. Jellinek MS, Murphy JM, Robinson J, et al. Pediatric Symptom Checklist: Screening school age children for academic and psychosocial dysfunction. Journal of Pediatrics, 1988;112:201-209 (the test is included in the article). Also can be freely downloaded at http://psc.partners.org/ or with factor scores at www.pedstest.com. The Pictorial PSC, useful with low-income Spanish speaking families, is included in PEDS: Developmental Milestones ( www.pedstest.com).

4-16 years

35 short statements of problem behaviors including both externalizing (conduct) and internalizing (depression, anxiety, adjustment, etc.) Ratings of never, sometimes, or often are assigned a value of 0,1, or 2. Scores totaling 28 or more suggest referrals. Factor scores identify attentional, internalizing, and externalizing problems. Factor scoring is available for download at: http://www.pedstest.com/links/resources.html

Single refer/nonrefer score

All but one study showed high sensitivity (80% to 95%) but somewhat scattered specificity (68% - 100%).

About 7 minutes (if interview needed) Materials = ∼$0.10 Admin. = ∼$2.38 Total = ∼$2.48

Safety Word Inventory and Literacy Screener (SWILS). Glascoe FP. Clinical Pediatrics, 2002. Items courtesy of Curriculum Associates, Inc. The SWILS can be freely downloaded at: http://www.pedstest.com/ and is included in PEDS: Developmental Milestones

6-14 years

Children are asked to read 29 common safety words (eg, High Voltage, Wait, Poison) aloud. The number of correctly read words is compared to a cutoff score. Results predict performance in math, written language, and a range of reading skills. Test content may serve as a springboard to injury prevention counseling.

Single cutoff score indicating the need for a referral

78% to 84% sensitivity and specificity across all ages

About 7 minutes (if interview needed) Materials = ∼$0.30 Admin. = ∼$2.38 Total = ∼$2.68

Family and Psychosocial Screens

Family Psychosocial Screening. Kemper KJ, Kelleher KJ. Family psychosocial screening: instruments and techniques. Ambulatory Child Health. 1996;4:325-339. The measures are included in the article and downloadable at http://www.pedstest.com (included in the PEDS: Developmental Milestones).

Screens parents and best used along with the above screens

A 2-page clinic intake form that identifies psychosocial risk factors associated with developmental problems including: a 4-item measure of parental history of physical abuse as a child; (2) a 6-item measure of parental substance abuse; and (3) a 3-item measure of maternal depression.

Refer/nonrefer scores for each risk factor. Also has guides to referring and resource lists.

All studies showed sensitivity and specificity to larger inventories greater than 90%

About 15 minutes (if interview needed) Materials = ∼$0.20 Admin. = ∼$4.20 Total = ∼$4.40

The first column in Table 3 provides publication information and the cost of purchasing a specimen set. The "Description" column provides information on alternative ways, if available, to administer measures (eg, waiting rooms). The "Accuracy" column shows the percentage of patients with and without problems identified correctly. The "Time Frame/Costs" column shows the costs of materials per visit along with the costs of professional time (using an average salary of $50 per hour) needed to administer and interpret each measure. Time/cost estimates do not include expenses associated with referring. For parent report tools, administration time reflects not only scoring of test results, but also the relationship between each test's reading level and the percentage of parents with less than a high school education (who may or may not be able to complete measures in waiting rooms due to literacy problems and will need interview administrations).

Even when screens are deployed, it is nevertheless helpful to complement these brief measures with clinical observation. The brevity of screens useful for primary care means that some skills may not be captured. For example, at any given age range, a brief screen may not present articulation items, measure ability to repeat a story, describe daily events, ask questions, or engage in conversation, etc. The value in routinely administering validated, accurate screening tools, however, is essential to improving currently problematic and extremely low rates of early detection on the part of primary healthcare providers.

Table 4 describes some major language developmental milestones in the prelinguistic (birth to 1 year) and linguistic period (1 year and beyond).[37, 38] It is important to note that there are wide variations in the speed (and style) with which typically developing children acquire language skills.

Table 4

Prelinguistic Period (birth - 1 year)*

Language Precursors

9-10 months

Intentional communication (eg, as seen in the ability to make eye contact with a partner while gesturing or vocalizing)

Joint attention (eg, as seen in the ability to alternate gaze between an object and partner)

Early gestures (eg, reaching, pointing)

Linguistic period Language Milestone

Providers are reminded that these indicators are an aid to early detection but do not substitute for quality measurement. See Table 3 for a list of screening measures with proven accuracy.

Screening for Other Potential Contributors to Speech-Language Deficits

Another critical avenue for exploration into possible contributors to speech-language deficits is psychosocial risk. Parents who are depressed and/or have housing or food instability have children more likely to have language problems, perhaps because parents lack the energy and freedom from preoccupations to engage in the kinds of language-mediated social interactions known to support optimal child language development. Some parents are not aware of positive parenting practices that promote development, especially language skills (eg, talking with and reading to their child, creating opportunities for sustained dialogue, responding contingently to a child's initiations). Detecting and intervening when psychosocial risk factors, including abuse and neglect, are present has the potential to prevent language problems from developing. Screens for psychosocial risk factors including depression and parent-child interactions are widely available and include the Family Psychosocial Screen and the Brigance Parent-Child Interactions Scale. Both are included in PEDS: Developmental Milestones[39] as supplementary measures helpful for surveillance and offer evidence-based compliance with recommendations in early detection from the American Academy of Pediatrics.[40], Many other screens, such as the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, include a background information questionnaire that captures common psychosocial risk factors.[41]

Screening Older Children

With school-age children, obtaining and reviewing group achievement test scores can help reveal undiagnosed language deficits. Such children typically have weaknesses in general information (eg, science, social studies knowledge), problems with reading comprehension, and sometimes also problems with math concepts. Table 3 also includes screens suitable for primary care professionals working with children aged 8 years and older.

For both preschoolers and school-age children, broad-band screens (or review of group achievement test results) should be deployed first and serve as a guide to the selection of narrow-band instruments. For example, attentional deficits can be due to a range of conditions such as language impairment, learning disabilities, and mental health problems such as depression. The optimal approach is to administer a broad developmental or academic screen along with a measure such as the Pediatric Symptom Checklist (which discriminates mental health from attentional difficulties). Only afterward and as suggested by the results of broad-band measures should a narrowly focused tool such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Rating Scale be administered. Making sure that other conditions are treated first or at least concomitantly with ADHD is essential.

Billing and Coding for Screening

Primary care providers can use the - 25 modifier to their preventive service code (to indicate that stand-alone services were offered and then use 96110 times the number of screens administered, eg, 96110 X 2. For insurers not accepting units, the distinct procedural service of each screen is best represented with the - 59 modifier appended to each additional unit of 96110.

In 2005, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services published a total relative value unit (RVU) of 0.36 for 96110, which amounts to a Medicare payment of $13.64. None of this can guarantee that a valid claim will be accepted, so the American Academy of Pediatrics is willing to help with denied claims via their Coding Hotline: 800-433-9016, x4022, or at .gro.paa@eniltohgnidocpaa RVUs do not cover physician time, so making use of office staff and parent-report tools is essential.

Referrals and Other Interventions

Once suspicion exists that a child may have a speech-language impairment, referral to early intervention or to the public schools (depending on age) is the first step. These programs offer intervention by speech-language pathologists. If sufficient quantity is not available, referrals can also be made to private therapy services, which may be covered by the patients' insurance. If there appear to be underlying medical conditions, assessment by other disciplines, such as developmental-behavioral or neurodevelopmental pediatrics, is important.

For families with psychosocial risk factors, developmental promotion is essential as is careful monitoring of progress. If brief advice and information handouts are not effective and particularly if children have delays not sufficiently great as to qualify for services, then parent training, quality day care, Head Start, after-school tutoring, and private speech-language therapy should be recommended. Table 5 shows a list of professional development and referral resources. Table 6 provides a list of resources and information for parents.

Table 6

ASHA Websites

Content

Books

Apel K, Masterson J (2001). Beyond Baby Talk. American Speech and Language Association. http://asha.org/public/beyond_baby_talk.htm

This book is designed to answer parents' questions about their child's speech and language development and describes speech and language development during infancy and the toddler and preschool years.

Components of a Diagnostic Evaluation of Speech-Language Impairment and the Nature of Interventions

Although screening tools for speech-language often identify those children who have speech-language impairments, a screening is not a diagnostic evaluation and only suggests a child requires a more comprehensive assessment. There are several goals in a diagnostic assessment, including verifying that a speech-language impairment exists, describing the strengths and challenges of the child's speech and language, evaluating the severity of the problem, ascertaining the etiology, determining recommendations for a treatment plan, and providing a prognosis.[6] Assessment requires obtaining a sample of communication skills across settings through a number of procedures. It is critical to collect information not only from standardized, formal tools but also to gather more authentic, real-life information to facilitate meaningful and accurate decisions. Typically, case history information, parent interviews, checklists from other providers, systematic observation, hearing screening, and examination of the speech mechanism is included.[6] Formal norm-referenced tests are used to assess articulation, phonology, grammatical understanding and production, and pragmatic language use. The collection of data from the authentic assessment tools and the formal measures provide a comprehensive picture of the speech-language needs of a young child with a communication impairment.

All of the following are true in the assessment of a young child with speech-language impairments except:

Answer: Clinical judgment is most appropriate for determining the severity of a child's speech-language impairment. Objective criteria are important to ensure consistency in the assessment of severity.

Intervention Approaches and Outcomes

The complexity of impairments in speech and language requires a variety of intervention approaches that can address deficits in language form (syntax, phonology, morphology), language content (semantics), and language use (pragmatics) as well as speech and voice production. Further, intervention for young children may involve not just the speech-language pathologist but also care providers and peers.

The ultimate goal of intervention is to increase a child's success in using language to communicate his or her intent, respond to the intent of others, and participate in reciprocal interactions. The speech and language targets vary for each child depending on the context and aspects of communication affected. Targets may or may not follow a strict developmental approach. Sometimes a more functional approach is appropriate, supporting communication at the point of frustration and breakdown.[6] Intervention targets should consider the family's desired outcomes for their child's communication. Targets should be developmentally appropriate and meaningful to the child.

Several teaching methods are used to support the speech and language of children. Modeling is a typical intervention strategy that provides focused stimulation on the speech or language targets selected for an individual child. Cueing is another frequently used technique that includes direct and indirect verbal cues (eg, asking a child to imitate a sound, word, or utterance) or nonverbal cues (eg, giving a child a jar with a desired item that can't be opened without help). In addition, responding to a child's communication efforts through reinforcement or corrective feedback (eg, "Remember to say the ending sound /t/ so we know you mean the word 'boat'") is frequently used to facilitate effective communication.[6]

Case Studies

Case 1

Bobby [pseudonym] is a 7-year-old boy whom you have seen in your office for a number of years. He comes to you today for his annual check-up. Bobby is enrolled in the second grade. His mother is concerned because Bobby's teachers have noted difficulties in his ability to learn to read. Specifically, Bobby's teachers say that he has difficulties with word recognition and reading comprehension. Bobby's mother indicates that this is consistent with her own observations that he seems to have trouble with understanding what is being said (eg, directions, questions) and storytelling. Moreover, she suspects that Bobby's vocabulary is less well developed compared with his peers. She also describes frequent errors in how he formulates sentences such as omitting possessives (eg, "Sam dog" instead of "Sam's dog") and verbs (eg, "He cooking" instead of "He is cooking") that she fears are atypical. Bobby's nonverbal IQ is in the typical range.

Case Studies

Case 2

Darius [pseudonym] is a 5-year-old African American boy whom you are meeting today for the first time. He and his mother have recently moved to your area and she has brought him to you because he seems to be developing a nasty cough. When talking with Darius, you notice that he is extremely difficult to understand. Darius is a speaker of African American English; however, even with young speakers of this dialect, you have never had such difficulty understanding and communicating effectively. You learn that he and his parents have just moved from an impoverished community in South Carolina where he attended an age-appropriate class in a school in which approximately 85% of his classmates were black, to a school district in your area that almost entirely comprises white administrators, staff, and students. His mother further reports that Darius's new teachers have expressed concerns about his language. They say he is hard to understand, has a limited vocabulary, cannot master letter-sound correspondences, and has trouble listening to and understanding others.

Case Studies

Case 3

You have been Sam's [pseudonym] primary care physician since he was born. He is now 18 months old and comes to you for his annual flu shot. During this visit, his mother expresses concerns about his speech and language development. More specifically, she reports he is "not talking like other kids his age" and uses repeated vocalizations (eg, "eh eh eh eh" while pointing) to communicate. Very recently, Sam has begun to use some words which are often paired with a gesture (eg, "Daddy" while pointing or "up" while raising hands to be picked up). You notice during your visit that Sam is a social and attentive child. He looks at other people and follows their eye gaze to distal objects. He also seems to understand the speech that his mother directs to him and he can easily carry out 2-step commands (eg, "Pick up the cup and sit next to me, please"). Sam's mother is aware of no immediate or extended family members who have ever had a speech or language impairment. Sam has no history of ear infection, and a recent hearing screen indicated hearing in the normal range.

Case Studies

Case 4

Theresa [pseudonym] is a 3-year-old female whom you have seen in your office regularly since her birth. She comes to you today for her annual check-up. During her visit, you observe that Theresa is precocious in her language development. Indeed, her mother reports that she has always been a "great talker" and that she began to speak in well-formed utterances at age 18 months. During this visit, you notice a number of disfluencies in Theresa's speech. At one point, she repeats a word 3 times before getting the rest of the sentence out (ie, "I see... see... see a book with a clown"). Theresa's mother states that these kinds of disfluencies began about 1 month ago and, although she characterizes them as relatively infrequent, she has questions about whether this kind of speech is normal.

Answer: All of the above.

Contributor Information

Patricia A. Prelock, Department of Communication Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont.

Tiffany Hutchins, Department of Communication Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont.

Frances P. Glascoe, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.

References

10. Miller JF, Chapman R, MacKenzie H. Individual differences in the language acquisition of mentally retarded children. Proceedings of the 2nd Wisconsin Symposium Research Child Language; Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin; 1981. [ Google Scholar]

Articles from The Medscape Journal of Medicine are provided here courtesy of WebMD/Medscape Health Network

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Speech-Language Impairment: How to Identify the Most Common and Least Diagnosed Disability of Childhood

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Speech-language problems are the most common disability of childhood yet they are the least well detected, particularly in primary care settings. The goal of this article is to: (1) define the nature of speech-language problems, their causes, and consequences; (2) facilitate early recognition by healthcare providers via accurate screening and surveillance measures suitable for busy clinics; and (3) describe the referral and intervention process.

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Can students with disabilities learn a second language? 

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Can students with disabilities learn a second language? 

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Video interview--ASHA

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Can Special Needs Children be Bilingual?

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ASHA Information about ELs identified with speech disability 

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ASHA Information about ELs identified with speech disability 

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The goal of ASHA's Practice Portal is to facilitate clinical decision making and increase practice efficiency for audiologists, speech-language pathologists, and assistants by providing resources on clinical and professional topics and linking to available evidence. Learn more about our content development process.

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ASHA's Practice Portal assists audiologists and speech-language pathologists in their day-to-day practices by making it easier to find the best available evidence and expertise in patient care, identify resources that have been vetted for relevance and credibility, and increase practice efficiency.

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Exploring Over and Under-Identification of ELs in Special Education from Colorin Colorado 

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Exploring Over and Under-Identification of ELs in Special Education from Colorin Colorado 

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Administrators play an important role in shaping the policies and procedures for identifying the language and academic needs of English language learners (ELLs), particularly those that might have disabilities. In this excerpt from Chapter 7 of Transforming Schools for English Learners: A Comprehensive Framework for School Leaders, Debbie Zacarian explains the trends of over- and under-identification of ELLs with disabilities and provides two related case studies.

Student Case Studies

Case Scenario 1: Carlos

Carlos enrolled in Mrs. Monahan's third-grade classroom during the spring term. Prior to enrolling, he had attended school in a neighboring city for less than a year and been referred for a special education evaluation because of his poor academic progress. Prior to that time, Carlos had had limited prior schooling in his home country as his parents could not afford to pay for the education that was available to him. When he enrolled in Mrs. Monahan's class, Carlos was tested to formally determine the type of learning disability that he had. The testing was conducted in English, as was the family and social history interview with his parents. The interview was conducted by the school's guidance counselor, who noted that Carlos's parents were unable to answer many of the questions "in full."

After the testing process was completed, a meeting was held with his parents to review the results of the special education evaluation. The time allotted for the meeting was the same as it was for all special education evaluation meetings. In attendance were the school psychologist, special educator, guidance counselor, Carlos's teacher, and a translator employed by the school to translate the meeting. The school psychologist and special educator confirmed what they had suspected, that Carlos had a language learning disability. During their explanation of the test findings, they looked directly at the translator and made very little eye contact with Carlos's parents.

One of the services that they recommended was for Carlos to receive instruction from a special educator in lieu of ESL classes because they thought it would be a more effective way for him to learn the compensatory skills that he needed to cope with his disability. Carlos's parents were respectful of the school's findings and recommendations. They felt out of place at the meeting, as they did not really understand most of the technical language that was being used. They politely nodded in agreement with all that was stated and recommended.

Case Scenario 2: Abad

When Abad enrolled in the third grade in America, he did so after having been enrolled in school in his native country. In his native country, while he spoke Arabic at home and was instructed in Arabic, he had had a good deal of difficulty in school and often did not comprehend what was being taught. His teachers and parents had been concerned about his academic progress and that he might have a language delay. While Abad was a very well-behaved child, he struggled in school and often came home crying in frustration.

When he moved to the United States, his parents continued to be concerned about his academic progress. When they expressed their concerns to his teacher, she responded that it was important to give Abad time to learn English. Thinking that his teacher knew the right thing to do, his parents did not continue to express their concerns or pursue a referral. Rather, they waited and waited and waited. By the end of his first year in America, Abad was failing his classes miserably. However, his teacher continued to believe that his failure was due to his lack of English.

What Are Some of the Nation's Trends Regarding English Language Learners and Special Education?

In the United States, there is growing concern about over-identifying and under-identifying English learners (ELs) with disabilities (Artiles & Ortiz, 2002; Hamayan, Marler, Sanchez-Lopez, & Damico, 2007). In some schools, when ELs don't seem to be making the same academic progress as their peers or learning English rapidly, they are referred for a special education evaluation. The dilemma of overidentifying students, such as in the case of Carlos, leads to a high and disproportionate number of culturally and linguistically diverse learners being referred for a special education evaluation and, ultimately, diagnosed with a learning disability. Overrepresentation is a chronic issue that requires our attention.

On many levels, this is likely occurring due to educators' lack of training, familiarity, and preparedness to teach diverse populations. That is, students who are "different" from their teachers are all too often regarded as having disabilities. The educational needs of ELs require that we understand the diversity among our student populations and plan and deliver instruction that is tailored for the individual needs of this group (Artiles & Ortiz, 2002; Haager, Klingner, & Vaughn, 2007; Haynes & Zacarian, 2010). Until this is done, it is likely that we will continue to overidentify a large number of students as having disabilities when they do not.

Simultaneously, some schools fear that they might be referring ELs too quickly and that time is needed for a student to learn English before a special education referral is made and completed. This "wait till the student fails" and "stall for time" approach, as seen in the case of Abad, can prevent the interventions that are needed from occurring (Fuchs, Mock, Morgan, & Young, 2003). The extent to which ELs are underidentified cannot be minimized. Some schools stall the process for such a long period of time that when the referral and identification process finally occurs, it is too late to provide the types of interventions that would have helped the student the most effectively, if at all (Esparza Brown & Doolittle, 2008).

Thus, the pendulum swings from one extreme to the other and rarely stops in a balanced, "just right" position. The process needed to create a more effective means for identifying ELs with disabilities and, more important, for providing an instructional program that is effective for all ELs requires leaders to address the disproportionate representation of ELs in special education by using a multistep scale of response commonly referred to as Response to Intervention (RTI). Before moving into a discussion about RTI, however, it is important to understand the main law pertaining to students with disabilities and the means by which schools gather data about the following:

effectiveness of school programming for the general population of ELs (i.e., the effectiveness of the English language education program as a whole)

ELs who struggle to learn and are subsequently referred for a special education evaluation

ELs who are diagnosed with disabilities

Citations

Transforming Schools for English Learners: A Framework for School Leaders. (2011). Zacarian, Debbie. Chapter 7: Identifying and Working With English Learners With Learning Differences and Learning Disabilities. Corwin: Thousand Oaks, CA. pp. 129-146.

References

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (1985). Clinical management of communicatively handicapped minority language populations [Position Statement]. Retrieved December 23, 2010, from http://www.asha.org/docs/html/PS1985-00219.html

Artiles, A., & Ortiz. A. (Eds.). (2002). English language learners with special education needs: Assessment, identification, and instruction. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Artiles, A. J., Trent, S. C., & Palmer, J. (2004). Culturally diverse students in special education: Legacies and prospects. In J. A. Banks & C. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 716-735). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Baca, L. (1990) Theory and practice in bilingual/cross cultural special education: Major issues and implications for research, practice, and policy. In Proceedings of the First Research Symposium on Limited English Proficient Student Issues (pp. 247-280). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Affairs. Retrieved May 17, 2010: http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/files/rcd/BE018297/1st_Symposium_Theory.pdf

Donovan, S., & Cross, C. (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Esparza Brown, J., & Doolittle, J. (2008). A cultural, linguistic, and ecological framework for response to intervention with English language learners. Tempe, AZ: National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems.

Fuchs, D., Mock, D., Morgan, P. L., & Young, C. L. (2003). Responsiveness-to-intervention: Definitions, evidence, and implications for the learning disabilities construct. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18(3), 157-171.

Haager, D., Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (Eds.). (2007). Validated reading practices for three tiers of intervention. Baltimore: Brookes.

Hamayan, E., Marler, B., Sanchez Lopez, C., & Damico, J. (2007). Special education considerations for English language learners: Delivering a continuum of services. Philadelphia: Caslon.

Haynes, J., & Zacarian, D. (2010). Teaching English language learners across the content areas. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Hoover, J., Klingner, J., Baca, L., & Patton, J. (2007). Methods for teaching culturally and linguistically diverse exceptional learners. New York: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Klingner, J. K., & Edwards, P. A. (2006). Cultural considerations with response to intervention models. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 108-117.

National Center on Response to Intervention. (2010). Essential components of RTI: A closer look at response to intervention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Response to Intervention. Retrieved December 23, 2010, from http://www.rti4success.org/images/stories/pdfs/rtiessentialcomponents_042710.pdf

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (2009). Categories of disabilities under IDEA. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved December 23, 2010, from http://www.nichcy.org/disabilities/categories/pages

Reprints

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