# data[].attributes.body
One of the oldest and most celebrated forms of theatre in ancient Japan was Kabuki, which employed elements of miming, acting, vocal performance, costumes and makeup, and above all, dance. Something that set Kabuki apart from many other forms of theatre was that, where places like Ancient Greece performed more for the affluent, Kabuki was an art form intended for the masses. One of Kabuki's predecessors, Bugaku, the oldest known form of performance in Japan, is still performed in some temples today, and involves slow, rhythmic dancing often employed for religious purposes.

# data[].attributes.body
During the Italian Renaissance there was a lot of economic growth that led to the beginnings of various types of entertainment. Italian theatre was primarily comprised of plays from the ancient Greek and Roman theatres as well as medieval theatre. The main style of drama that was performed in Italy during this time was known as Comedic delegate, otherwise known as  "the comedy of professional artists". The comedy style used in Italy at this time was known as slapstick or farce. This style highlighted pain and misfortune occurring to the actors. Italian theatre also held a strong sense of morale.
-Nathaniel Lane

# data[].attributes.body
Ahe Arawaks art form was mostly crafts. They built figurines, and decorative face paint was for religious purposes, but was also their creative expression.

# data[].attributes.body
French theater history dates back to the 12th century. This was a a transformative time because they were performing theater not just for religious or educational purpose but also entertainment. It originally was in latin.

# data[].attributes.body
Indian theatre began around the 15th century BC. Text known as Rigveda - a collection of hymns, charms, and spells related to Hinduism discussing cosmology, rites, rituals, and deities - provides evidences of plays happening during Yagya ceremonies, which were Hindu rituals done in front of a “sacred” fire. There is evidence of monologues and dialogues done in a religious context primarily.

# data[].attributes.body
Indian theatre began around the 15th century BC. Text known as Rigveda - a collection of hymns, charms, and spells related to the Hinduism discussing cosmology, rites, rituals, and deities - provides evidences of plays happening during Yagya ceremonies, which were Hindu rituals done in front of a “sacred” fire. There is evidence of monologues and dialogues done in a religious in context primarily.

# data[].attributes.body
A ancient form of human expression and symbolism dates back to 60-80,000 years ago in the form of Rock art. This art form was very common in South Africa and much of it is still being discovered today. Archeologists say theses abstract representations are evidential of symbolic thought and language as part of our instinctual human behavior. African rock art would be performed by painting and engraving on stone, bone, ochre and even ostrich eggshells. The would primarily perform rock art to record historical events, tell stories and to help enact rituals.

Hays, Jeffrey. “African Rock Art and Painting.” Facts and Details, https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub361/item1464.html.

# data[].attributes.body
A ancient form of human expression and symbolism dates back to 60-80,000 years ago in the form of Rock art. This art form was very common in South Africa and much of it is still being discovered today. Archeologists say theses abstract representations are evidential of symbolic thought and language as part of our instinctual human behavior. African rock art would be performed by painting and engraving on stone, bone, ochre and even ostrich eggshells. The would primarily perform rock art to record historical events, tell stories and to help enact rituals.

Hays, Jeffrey. “African Rock Art and Painting.” Facts and Details, https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub361/item1464.html.

# data[].attributes.body
As early as the Paleolithic, the San - a people group found in Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa - used the trance dance to heal, drive away evil spirits and summon rain, among other things.

The trance dance is an indigenous ritual that can take many different forms. According to some sources, it is the largest religious practice of the San and has also been constantly recorded through cave paintings (rock art). One of its most famous forms is the healing dance.

In the presence of the women of the community, who form a circle and clap and sing rhythmically, the healers of the community dance themselves into a trance with hyperventilation. They often wear rattles on their legs during this process. This procedure often goes on all night long and is usually associated with a lot of pain. Once the healers, who can be male or female, have reached the altered state of consciousness, healing power flows through them. They then transmit this to sick individuals through touch. Sometimes this is accomplished by first taking the disease out of the affected part of the body with a cry and throwing it into the air.

The trance dance is also used to banish bad moods such as anger and quarrels within the locality. Besides, this ritual is used to bring the rain. In the trance state, the rain animals are caught in the spirit, which then bring rain.

This special dance form is still practiced by the San today. This shows how well they were able to preserve their traditions by passing them on. Above all, the stone paintings, which are one of the oldest forms of storytelling, helped.

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-the-trance-dance-44077; https://artsandculture.google.com/story/-gXxnvHUJ2LNvA; https://54history.com/trance-dance-of-the-san-community/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A traditional San Bushmen trance dance at night in the Kalahari. As the dancing progresses we follow a healer as he enters trance. The film visualizes the spirit world into which he ascends and where he fights off evil threats to his community.

This film was made for Origins Centre at Wits University to illustrate the connection between hallucinations in trance and rock art. It shows in a space where the screen wraps around the visitor making them feel part of the experience.

# data[].attributes.body
"Through the Three Kingdoms (220-265) and Six Dynasties (2220589) periods there are hints of court acting establishments, and proof survives of the continued employment of court jesters. Puppets, originating from the Han dynasty my have been used in comic shows in the sixth century or earlier."

-Early Chinese Plays and Theater by William Dolby

"Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian contains a passage about Confucius (551–479 BC) explaining the Great Warrior Dance or Dawu Dance (Chinese: 大武舞; pinyin: Dàwǔ Wǔ), which told the story of King Wu of Zhou's overthrow of the Shang dynast" Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.body
The Inuit people have been performing since the dawn of time, specifically with a style of song called “Throat singing.” It not only entertained tribes during the long hours of the day, but it also kept bodies warm in the harsh Northern climate from the movements and the ensuing laughter. It’s a simple exercise but takes a long time to master. 2 people, usually women, face each other and use their belly, throat and diaphragm to create extremely large sounds. The participants will then match each other’s rhythm. Throat singing was shamed in the Inuit culture by 20th century Christian missionaries, almost killing the tradition entirely. It’s being kept alive and beginning to make a resurgence, however, in large part due to high-profile Throat singers like Shina Novaling.

Sources: https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210414-a-revival-of-indigenous-throat-singing

# data[].attributes.body
The concept of tragedy and comedy in storytelling both seem to have originated in Greece, and from what I've read, the beginnings of Greek storytelling can be traced back to the archaic period (around 6th century BC) and was in the forms of poems that were intended to be sung or recited. The article I read stated that they developed poetry "before making use of writing for literary purposes”,  which is really fascinating to me. The lyric poetry was often myths, which were a mix of history, folktale, and religious speculation, however the myths weren't concrete so different poets had the freedom to change aspects of the story to serve what they wanted to portray. One of the earliest and most famous of these are Homer's The Odyssey and Iliad. From this came the beginnings of live theatre performances in which people would act out these epics and lyric poems. This was usually done on a hill, and as theatre grew, so did the stages and these gatherings on hills is what birthed the modern amphitheatre style stage.

# data[].attributes.body
The Haka is a New Zealand dance that has been around for many centuries and is connected to Māori heritage. It was originally performed as a war dance to intimidate other tribes. They would stick out their tongues, cry and grunt. All to a rhythm. It also represents community and strength, so you may see one of these dances performed at a wedding or funeral.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
EMOTIONAL WEDDING HAKA (Original Video) HD

# data[].attributes.body
For the Aztec people, music and performances were a significant part of culture, not to mention, a sacred part of culture. They worshiped many different gods and many of their songs commemorated them. In addition, their songs were a form of oral storytelling, many telling stories of what their gods had achieved.They welcomed the changing of the seasons and worshiped their deities through music.
The Aztec language, Nahuatl, is a highly poetic and their songs often were written in symbolism that isn’t easily translated to English.
A few of the significant Aztec types of songs are:
- Teocuicatl: songs about their gods
- Yaocuicatl: songs of war
- Xochicuicatl: poetic songs, or flower songs.

Sources:https://study.com/academy/lesson/central-south-american-theatre-history-overview.html
http://www.aztec-history.com/aztec-music.html

# data[].attributes.body
For the Aztec people, music and performances were a significant part of culture, not to mention, a sacred part of culture. They worshiped many different gods and many of their songs commemorated them. In addition, their songs were a form of oral storytelling, many telling stories of what their gods had achieved.They welcomed the changing of the seasons and worshiped their deities through music.

The Aztec language, Nahuatl, is a highly poetic and their songs often were written in symbolism that isn’t easily translated to English.
A few of the significant Aztec types of songs are:
- Teocuicatl: songs about their gods
- Yaocuicatl: songs of war
- Xochicuicatl: poetic songs, or flower songs.

Sources: https://study.com/academy/lesson/central-south-american-theatre-history-overview.html
http://www.aztec-history.com/aztec-music.html

# data[].attributes.body
Another thing I discovered was the long time use of masks reminiscent of Commedia dell'arte. The mask above is from 1935 but it is said that, "The mask itself is one the specialist describes as ‘a very classic Yoruba style. It would have been used in a Gelede  performance, a ritual display featuring masked dancers and music that was intended to amuse but also to educate and inspire worship." Dance, music, amusement, education and inspiration. All things that to me clearly point to dramatic expression, one that in this case stems from a history of ritual performances of all kinds.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Bruno Claessens, Head of African and Oceanic art at Christie's, with a mask from the Republic of Benin once owned by a French Cubist, shown at the first MoMA exhibition of African art in 1935, and now being offered at auction in Paris on 10 April

Many Christie's specialists who work with paintings routinely look at the back of frames for labels that can provide clues to provenance or exhibition history. 'That reflex is much less common for an African art expert,' explains Bruno Claessens, Christie's European Head of African and Oceanic Art.

'When I was appraising a private collection in Paris last month, in a beautiful apartment filled with art, this piece - a vibrant polychrome mask from the Republic of Benin - immediately caught my eye,' Claessens says. 'I lifted it from its base to feel the weight of the wood and to check for signs that it had previously been worn. Intuitively I also examined the inside of the mask, and to my amazement I discovered several old paper labels stuck to the wood.'

One of these, an old French customs stamp, was proof that the mask had at one point left the country for an exhibition. Finding that stamp was a real 'eureka moment', Claessens says, 'because it was proof that the mask had not always been in France, and had had a long life before it arrived in this collection in Paris.'

The label of the shipping company that transported it (Poittier, from St. Ouen) was even more telling. Although the label was partly damaged, Claessens was able to decipher on it the words 'A. Lhote - Exp. Art Négre - New York.' This was a significant discovery, for it revealed that at the time of its shipment to New York, the mask was owned by French Cubist painter André Lhote (1885-1962), who had begun acquiring African masks in 1906.

What's more, Claessens knew that in the first decades of the 20th century, only a few African art exhibitions had been organised in New York. The 'Exp. Art Négre' reference thus quickly brought to mind the Museum of Modern Art's much acclaimed 1935 exhibition African Negro Art. Checking the exhibition's extremely rare, un-illustrated catalogue, which listed all 500 works in the show, Claessens discovered this mask, listed as lot #242: the 'Polychrome mask - Dahomey - Coll. André Lhote, Paris.' (Dahomey being the kingdom that existed in present-day Benin from around 1600-1900.)

'It had a long life in Africa, impressed crowds at the first major exhibition of African art in New York, and was immortalised by one of America's most important photographers'

'The 1935 exhibition was key because, rather than presenting these works in an ethnographic museum, as was the usual practice at the time, here we had masks and other pieces exhibited in an art museum. And not just any art museum, but the Museum of Modern Art,' the specialist explains. 'It was a real game changer, because from that moment on people started looking at these works as art and started to appreciate their sculptural qualities.'

What's more, most of the objects exhibited in the African Negro Art exhibition - including this mask - were photographed by Walker Evans, the pioneering American photographer who not long afterwards would travel throughout the country documenting the effects of the Great Depression. 'Evans' photos from this exhibition are very well-known, and are already valuable and well-collected,' explains Claessens.

This mask therefore represents an extremely exciting rediscovery: 'Not only did it have a long life in Africa, but once it left the continent it continued to impress crowds at the first major exhibition of African art in New York, and was immortalised by one of America's most important photographers.'

Further sleuthing would reveal that it was sold at auction in Paris in 1943, and acquired by well-known French publisher Jean Aubier. From Aubier it passed to Pierre Vérité (whose collection was offered in November 2017 at Christie's in Paris), and finally from the Vérité family to its current owner, who was unaware of its earlier provenance. Indeed, it was after the Vérité sale that the current owner approached Claessens to tell him that she had another piece, which once belonged to the Vérité family, and that he might like to see.

The mask itself is one the specialist describes as 'a very classic Yoruba style. It would have been used in a Gelede performance, a ritual display featuring masked dancers and music that was intended to amuse but also to educate and inspire worship. In particular, Gelede dances celebrated the power of mothers and female ancestors, and the important role of older women in the Yoruba community.'

Because the mask was intended for wear in these performances, it was carved from a very light wood. 'What you see here is just a fragment of the larger elaborate costume that would have been worn by a Gelede dancer,' the specialist explains.

The rediscovery of this Yoruba mask was a reminder of the key role that visual memory can play for a specialist. 'Whether in African art or in other categories, one of the things Christie's brings to the table is a vast mental encyclopaedia of all the iconic pieces we know from photographs and books,' says Claessens. 'The moment we view a collection these objects should immediately jump out. From there you just have to connect the dots and do the research to figure out where you've seen it before.'

When he explained the result of his investigating to the present owner, she was 'amazed, and very grateful'. All she had known was that the mask had once been used in the 1950s to illustrate an entry on African art in the Larousse encyclopaedia. She did not know that it had travelled to New York or been photographed by Walker Evans.

On 10 April, the Yoruba mask will be offered in the African, Oceanic and American Art sale at Christie's in Paris - and Claessens is keen to point out that this mask is a perfect example of African art being a category in which even a new collector can acquire exceptional pieces. 'You can still find great objects with a fantastic history at an affordable price,' he says.

Highlighted sale

Related feature

The mysterious Mezcala and 'the grandfather of chaos theory'

Read more

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
5 minutes with... A polychrome Yoruba mask | Christie's

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bruno Claessens, Head of African and Oceanic art at Christie's, with a mask from the Republic of Benin once owned by a French Cubist, shown at the first MoMA exhibition of African art in 1935, and now being offered at auction in Paris on 10 April Many Christie's specialists who work with paintings routinely look at the back of frames for labels that can provide clues to provenance or exhibition history.

# data[].attributes.body
I remembered watching this documentary on Netflix about markings that are still given today to children as young as newborns to 8 years old. It's super controversial but if you ask me quite dramatic. Granted it's not a "dramatic or theatrical" expression however the marks do tell a story. They can tell what tribe a person is from, what region they are from or things they have accomplished in their lives. Which brings me back to my first point, rituals. This is another ritual practice that is reflected in ancient and modern art from all over Africa.

# data[].attributes.body
When I found this I noticed something that was continually spoken about in articles I was finding was the use of body decoration. Which is used in a lot of rituals, again where dancing, music and spoken words were utilized. They often created circles around the ones performing the rituals. Side note: aren't rituals always "performed"?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Religion and expressive culture - Yoruba

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Religion and expressive culture - Yoruba Africa / Middle East

# data[].attributes.body
While exploring Yoruba history in arts and dramatic expression I found quite a few things. This article in particular talks in general about African culture and how their main dramatic expression was through rituals. These rituals involved drums, dancing, and words being spoken. While most rituals were very serious or spiritual from that there seemed to come a comedic aspect of this as well. With this being so general I wanted to dive deeper which I will in the next articles I post.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Roots of African Theatre Ritual and Orality in the Pre-Colonial Period

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ousmane Diakhaté** and Hansel Ndumbe Eyoh*** Theatre is one of the cultural elements that best exemplifies Africa. It is at the crossroads of the sacred and the profane, orality and the written wor…

# data[].attributes.body
Tino Hofer

There was written literature intended for performance in ancient Egypt. This site talks about how oral and written literature were created simultaneously; not, like it is usually taught, first orally, then written down. They both inspired each other.

"[...] ancient Egypt displays various relationships between written and oral literature. Works composed in writing were intended for performance [...]" (Miller II)

I find that interesting because I think that we have a big gap between a written and a spoken word today, compared to our ancestors in the bible, who were so familiar with a story that it wouldn't really matter if it was written down or not because it was basically one and the same.

Works Cited:
Miller II, Robert D. “Orality and Performance in Ancient Israel.” Open Edition Journals, 15 Apr. 2014, journals.openedition.org/rsr/1467.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Orality and Performance in Ancient Israel

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Biblical scholarship often speaks of “oral tradition” quite loosely, as if the concept is commonly and easily understood. We imagine a time when Israel was illiterate, before writing, when traditio...

# data[].attributes.body
Ancient Egypt is filled with a rich history. One of the major ways ancient Egyptians engaged in the arts was through dance. While much of the style of dancing is speculative, dance was a big part of Ancient Egypt’s culture. Depictions and drawing of dancers exist on largly tombs or murals, the first depictions dating back to before 3000 BC. Dances were performed for a variety of occasions, often in spiritual rituals specifically to worship their gods—Hathor, Ra, most notably—as well as funeral dances, rites of passage or even in hopes of producing magical effects.

# data[].attributes.body
Unsurprisingly, given its deep history, China had various forms of dancing / performance going back almost two thousand years BC (and that's just that we know of). Dance was and in many ways still is, at the core of a lot (if not most) of their dramatic expression. Like a lot of other cultures, dances initially seemed to be mostly ritualistic / religious in nature, but during the one thousand years directly before the change from BC to AD there was a split between "Yayue" dancing - more formal, in courts and temples and wound up in Confucianism and approved by priests of Confucianism, and more popular, comedic, and chaotic dance forms that happened out in the streets and with the broader public.

During this 1000 years, one of the most recognizable of Chinese dance forms and characteristics developed, the "long sleeve dances" that have been built upon and kept and are still being performed. You can see a clip attached.

# data[].attributes.body
Druids were an educated group within the Celtic people, getting their name from the Gaelic word "doire", which means "oak tree". A symbol of wisdom. Druids' roles' in ancient celtic times were something like a priest and teacher and philosopher. They held great power in society and also acted as judge in some instances. As in many cultures, this kind of religious group shared tradition and story with its people. Nothing was written down, they shared their traditions orally and the stories of the druids continued to be passed on for generations to come.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Roman mosaic depicting actors and an aulos player (House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii). 

# data[].attributes.body
Theater in ancient Rome which include theatrical practice and performance can be traced back to the 4th century BC. It was generally seperated in two genres of tragedy and comedy and was conveyed to the audience purely as a form of entertainment and control. When it came to the Romans' expectations of theatre "spectacle" became essential. During this time, it was safe to say that theater represented important aspects of Roman society.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Roman mosaic depicting actors and an aulos player (House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii).

# data[].attributes.body
Theater in ancient Rome which include theatrical practice and performance can be traced back to the 4th century BC. It was generally seperated in two genres of tragedy and comedy and was conveyed to the audience purely as a form of entertainment and control. When it came to the Romans' expectations of theatre "spectacle" became essential. During this time, it was safe to say that theater represented important aspects of Roman society.