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CEMT Assignment 3 Diagnose & viability of repair - Job Report

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link to our teams page

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Common rail operation & diagnostic booklet

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Who is likely to be affected

Businesses and individuals currently entitled to supply or use rebated gas oil (red diesel) and rebated biofuels.

General description of the measure

This measure introduces legislative changes through Finance Bill 2021 and subsequent secondary legislation to restrict the entitlement to use red diesel and rebated biofuels from April 2022 to the following qualifying purposes:

for vehicles and machinery used in agriculture, horticulture, fish farming and forestry. This includes allowing vehicles used for agriculture to be used for cutting verges and hedges, snow clearance and gritting roads

to propel passenger, freight or maintenance vehicles designed to run on rail tracks

for heating and electricity generation in non-commercial premises - this includes the heating of homes and buildings such as places of worship, hospitals and townhalls; off-grid power generation; and non-propulsion uses on permanently-moored houseboats

for maintaining community amateur sports clubs as well as golf courses (including activities such as ground maintenance, and the heating and lighting of clubhouses, changing rooms etc.)

as fuel for all marine craft refuelling and operating in the UK (including fishing and water freight industries), except for propelling private pleasure craft in Northern Ireland

for powering the machinery (including caravans) of travelling fairs and circuses

The measure will also extend fuel duty to biodiesel, bioblends and fuel substitutes used in heating, applying the rebated duty rate to non-commercial heating and the full rate of duty to commercial heating. Consequential changes to covering penalties for contravening restrictions on the use of rebated fuels will also be made. The legislation will provide for secondary legislation to enable HMRC to disapply its powers to seize vehicles or other machinery in certain circumstances.

Registered fuel suppliers that switch a fuel tank from red to white diesel will need to flush out the tank and supply lines until no trace of marked rebated fuel remains. This will help to ensure compliance and minimise the risk that white diesel that has had the full duty rate paid on it is contaminated with the red diesel marker.

Policy objective

In June 2019, the UK became the first major economy in the world to pass laws guaranteeing an end to its contribution to global warming by 2050. The target will require the UK to bring all greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050, compared with the previous target of at least an 80% reduction from 1990 levels. The government also launched in 2019 an ambitious new strategy to clean up the air and save lives, given air pollution is one of the biggest continuing threats to public health in the UK.

Red diesel is diesel used mainly for off-road purposes, such as to power bulldozers and cranes used in the construction industry, or to power drills for oil extraction. It accounts for around 15% of all the diesel used in the UK and is responsible for the production of nearly 14 million tonnes of carbon dioxide a year. Red diesel used in the construction and infrastructure building sectors was also estimated to have caused 7% of nitrogen oxide emissions and 8% of PM10 emissions (a type of particulate matter) in London in 2018.

At Budget 2020, the government therefore announced that it would remove the entitlement to use red diesel and rebated biodiesel from most sectors from April 2022 to help meet its climate change and air quality targets. The tax changes will ensure that most users of red diesel use fuel taxed at the standard rate for diesel from April 2022, like motorists, which more fairly reflects the harmful impact of the emissions they produce. Removing most red diesel entitlements will also help to ensure that the tax system incentivises users of polluting fuels like diesel to improve the energy efficiency of their vehicles and machinery, invest in cleaner alternatives, or just use less fuel.

Background to the measure

Motor and heating fuels are liable to fuel duty, with only fuel taxed at the full rate of fuel duty allowed to be used in road vehicles. Some oils and fuels are taxed at a lower (rebated) rate - historically because fuel duty was intended to be a tax on road vehicles. This includes gas oil (diesel), which is chemically marked and dyed to enable law enforcement agencies to identify it as rebated fuel and detect when the wrong sort of diesel is being used, providing a deterrent to fuel fraud. The colour of the dye means this fuel is called 'red diesel'. Gas oil intended for use in diesel engine road vehicles, otherwise known as 'white diesel' (because it has no marker or dye), has a fuel duty rate of 57.95 pence per litre (ppl). Red diesel is entitled to a rebate of 46.81ppl, giving it an effective duty rate of 11.14ppl.

At Budget 2020 the government announced that it was removing entitlement to use red diesel from most sectors, except for agriculture (as well as horticulture, forestry and fish farming), rail and non-commercial heating, from 1 April 2022.

The government consulted last summer to ensure that it had not overlooked any exceptional reasons why other sectors should be allowed to continue to use red diesel beyond April 2022. The outcome of this consultation is set out in the summary of responses to the consultation that has been published alongside Budget 2021.

At Budget 2021, the government announced its decision not to change the treatment of private pleasure craft in Great Britain, where they will continue to be able to use red diesel and pay their fuel supplier the difference between the red diesel rate and that for white diesel on the proportion they intend to use for propulsion. The government response to the summer 2020 consultation also announced that from no later than June this year private pleasure craft in Northern Ireland will have to use white diesel to propel their craft. This will achieve consistency with the 2019 judgment by the Court of Justice of the European Union and ensure the UK meets its international obligations under the terms of the Northern Ireland Protocol to the Withdrawal Agreement. It will also align with fuel use by private pleasure craft in the Republic of Ireland, which should make it simpler for private pleasure craft users to access the fuel they need if they sail between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland (and vice versa).

Alongside that change, the government will introduce a new relief scheme under which private pleasure craft users in Northern Ireland will be able to claim a relief for the proportion of their fuel that will be used for non-propulsion, meaning they will not pay a higher rate of duty than they currently do on this fuel. The changes relating to the taxation of diesel used in private pleasure craft in Northern Ireland will be enacted in separate legislation and a Tax Information and Impact Note (TIIN) will be published for that measure alongside secondary legislation.

Detailed proposal

The measure will have effect in relation to any red diesel used from 1 April 2022.

Current law

The Hydrocarbon Oil Duties Act 1979 (HODA) is the UK primary legislation on the taxation of hydrocarbon oils, including defining the different types of oils, excise duty charge, the rebate for heavy oils and associated penalties for misuse of rebated oils. It provides a rebate on heavy oils but this rebate is not allowed for any oil that will be used as fuel for a 'road vehicle'.

Road vehicles are defined as any vehicle constructed or designed for use on roads, other than any 'excepted vehicles'. They are currently not allowed to use red diesel and rebated biodiesel in any circumstances, unless they are 'excepted vehicles' as defined in Schedule 1 to the Act. These excepted vehicles include various agricultural vehicles and specialist vehicles, such as those used in construction, subject to particular conditions on their specification and use. Road vehicles that are not excepted vehicles must use fully duty paid petrol or diesel at all times.

Biodiesel, bioblends and fuel substitutes are subject to duty if set aside for a chargeable use and rebates are provided for in specified circumstances. However, heating is not a chargeable use for these fuels.

The current duty treatment for heavy oils, biodiesel and bioblends is as follows (all rates shown in ppl):

Non-rebated

Rebated

Used in an excepted vehicle or other off-road engine

Used in heating

Finance Act 2020 made changes to HODA which have not yet been commenced. It amended sections 12 and 14E to disallow the rebates that apply to diesel, biodiesel and bioblend that are not used for road vehicles on the fuel used for propelling private pleasure craft. It replaced section 14F to create new penalties for using marked fuel for propelling a private pleasure craft similar to those that exist when marked fuel is used in road vehicles. It also made consequential amendments to sections 6AB, 13ZB, 14A, 14B, 14C, 20AAA, 24 and 27 and Schedules 4 and 5, including to give HMRC powers to take samples. Finance Act 2020 provided for all changes relating to private pleasure craft to be brought into force on a day appointed in secondary legislation either in the UK as a whole or in a more limited area of the UK.

There is extensive secondary legislation relating to fuel duty, with around 15 statutory instruments which are relevant to rebated fuels.

Proposed revisions

Finance Bill 2021 will amend HODA to make the changes outlined below:

changes will be made to sections 12 and 27 to replace references to 'road vehicles' with references to 'excepted machines'. A new Schedule 1A will replace Schedule 1 and this will specify which vehicles and machines are 'excepted machines'. These machines will be defined by reference to the type of machine and the purposes for which they are being used. Only 'excepted machines' will be able to use red diesel and rebated biodiesel. Numerous references to road vehicles throughout HODA will be amended so that they apply instead to 'excepted machines'

changes will be made to sections 6AA and 6A to make heating a chargeable use for biodiesel, bioblends and other fuel substitutes and provide for rebated rates when used in non-commercial heating

changes will be made to sections 13, 13ZB, 13AA, 13AB, and 14A to 14D to update the legislation covering restrictions on use of rebated fuels and penalties for contravening these restrictions, so that the restrictions and penalties can apply where necessary following the changes in entitlement to use these fuels

consequential amendments will be made to other sections and Schedules of HODA.

In relation to private pleasure craft, Finance Bill 2021 provides for alternative changes to be made to some of the sections amended by Finance Act 2020, depending on whether those amendments have been commenced by the time the Finance Bill comes into force.

The legislation provides that Treasury may make regulations to cover, among other things, transitional provisions. Regulations under this power will enable HMRC to disapply seizure powers where a vehicle or machine is one which has lost entitlement as a result of the change of legislation and certain conditions are met. The fuel remaining in the vehicle, machine, appliance or heating system must have been taken in for a permitted purpose before a change of law (and still being used for the same purpose); and residual traces of marker remaining must be from legitimate fuelling and use before the change of law.

The duty position after these changes will be as follows (all rates shown in ppl):

Non-rebated

Rebated

Used in an excepted vehicle, machine or appliance, other than for heating

Used in an excepted heating machine

Secondary legislation will be laid before Parliament in early 2022 to make the necessary consequential amendments to the relevant statutory instruments referred to above.

Summary of impacts

Exchequer impact (£m)

These figures are set out in Table 2.2 of Budget 2021 as "Red Diesel: remove relief for sectors other than rail, home heating and agriculture" and have been certified by the Office for Budget Responsibility. More details can be found in the policy costings document published alongside Budget 2020.

These figures are set out in Table 2.1 of Budget 2021 as "Red diesel exemptions" and have been certified by the Office for Budget Responsibility. More details can be found in the policy costings document published alongside Budget 2021.

Economic impact

This measure is not expected to have any significant macroeconomic impacts.

Impact on individuals, households and families

The impact of this measure on individuals or households is expected to be minimal because where the government felt that removing entitlements could materially impact on the prices of goods and services households consume (such as heating or sports), entitlement to use red diesel has been maintained.

If individuals or households consume red diesel directly and are not covered by the continued entitlements, they will face increased costs which could impact individuals and their families as they may have less disposable income. Some individuals could be more affected than others depending on their income levels and family circumstances - this will depend on their fuel usage.

Customer experience of those affected by this measure could be negatively impacted where costs increase.

Equalities impacts

HMRC does not hold equalities information on current users of rebated fuels but no equality impacts were raised as part of the consultation, so this measure is not expected to have adverse impacts on any groups sharing protected characteristics under the Equality Act 2010.C

Impact on business including civil society organisations

This measure is expected to have a negligible administrative impact on those businesses and civil society organisations that will lose their entitlement to use red diesel and will need to switch to white diesel, although it will increase their fuel costs. This will include sectors, for example, such as construction, mining and quarrying, ports, manufacturing (e.g. ceramics, steel, timber), haulage (for transport refrigeration units on lorries), road maintenance, airport operations, oil and gas extraction, plant hire, logistics and waste management. Whilst these businesses will need to pay the full duty rate for using white diesel, this measure is expected to incentivise these rebated fuel users to seek to use greener alternatives or use less fuel.

One-off costs will include familiarisation with the changes for those sectors no longer entitled, including costs in running down or removing red diesel and rebated biofuels from vehicles, machinery and storage tanks, and possibly from selling back any excess red diesel stock to fuel suppliers. There are also likely to be costs associated with sourcing other alternative fuels for those sectors no longer allowed to use rebated fuels.

There will be other one-off costs for some fuel suppliers (Registered Dealers in Controlled Oils or RDCOs) who will no longer have customers to sell red diesel fuel to and will therefore need to decommission fuel tanks currently storing red diesel or flush out these tanks if being reallocated for white diesel to ensure compliance. However, the government anticipates that many fuel suppliers will continue to sell red diesel and white diesel to customers. These fuel suppliers could see a continuing saving as they will need to record information for fewer rebated fuel users.

There are not expected to be any continuing costs.

Customer experience could be negatively impacted in the short-term given the work businesses and civil society organisations will need to undertake to switch to white diesel.  Customer experience could see an improvement in future because business administrative burdens would be reduced for fuel suppliers, as there would be a reduction in the need to collect and report data to HMRC and collect and remit tax to HMRC.

HMRC will aim to reduce some of these familiarisation costs by carrying out further pre-implementation publicity to make businesses aware of the changes, including providing guidance to support businesses to ensure they comply with the new rules. HMRC will also allow some latitude to businesses during the transition to help them. So that businesses can use up red diesel taken in before the change, for example, HMRC will have the ability to disapply the liability to seizure of fuel where they can be satisfied that the user has not taken red diesel into the fuel system after the change in rules for usage.

Operational impact (£m) (HMRC or other)

There are no significant operational impacts for HMRC. The reduction in legitimate red diesel usage by around three quarters should reduce the level of illegitimate use of red diesel overall because it will be harder to obtain this for deliberate misuse in road vehicles. This measure may lead to a switch between different fuel frauds, in which case HMRC will reprioritise existing resources.

The changes to HMRC processes, systems and websites as a result of this measure will be negligible.

It is possible that this measure may initially lead to a small increase in the number of appeals to tax and duty tribunals. Although the existing criminal offences and civil penalties for misuse of rebated fuels will remain largely unchanged, as fewer people will now be able to use rebated fuels, more people could commit an offence or become liable to a civil penalty and might appeal this penalty or the seizure of any fuels by HMRC. As the supply of rebated fuels will remain strictly controlled, there is likely to be only a small impact, most likely just after the change in entitlement to use rebated fuels comes into effect.

The supply of rebated fuels is restricted to businesses in the RDCO scheme. There are currently around 3,000 such businesses in the UK. There could be some more tribunal appeals if businesses that commit a criminal offence or receive a civil penalty have their RDCO status removed and appeal against this, though numbers are likely to be very small.

Other impacts

Removing most red diesel entitlements will help to ensure that the tax system incentivises users of polluting fuels like diesel to improve the energy efficiency of their vehicles and machinery, invest in cleaner alternatives, or just use less fuel. These tax changes should therefore have a positive impact on carbon emissions and air quality.

The Ministry of Justice are content there would be negligible extra costs on the justice system arising from any prohibition.

Other impacts have been considered and none has been identified.

Monitoring and evaluation

This measure will be monitored through information collected from fuel duty receipts of red diesel and white diesel, which will help to evaluate trends in fuel usage, and by communicating with affected sectors no longer entitled to use these rebated fuels as well as developers of greener alternatives.

Further advice

Read guidance about changes to rebated fuel entitlements from 1 April 2022 for more information. If you have any questions about these changes, contact the Red Diesel Entitlement Policy Team by email: reddieselentitlement@hmrc.gov.uk.

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Reform of red diesel and other rebated fuels entitlement

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Businesses and individuals currently entitled to supply or use rebated gas oil (red diesel) and rebated biofuels. This measure introduces legislative changes through Finance Bill 2021 and subsequent secondary legislation to restrict the entitlement to use red diesel and rebated biofuels from April 2022 to the following qualifying purposes: for vehicles and machinery used in agriculture, horticulture, fish farming and forestry.

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Crown HVO Fuel (Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil Fuel) - Reduce up to 90% of Net CO₂ Emissions

Global warming is everyone's business. But what can businesses do to help? We all have a responsibility to reduce our local emissions - and Crown HVO fuel is invaluable in doing so.

Simply switch your fossil fuel for Crown HVO and you will reduce your net CO ₂ greenhouse gas emissions by up to 90% right away.
Crown HVO fuel is available for delivery across the UK within 48 hours of order. We also offer flexible trial packages which include a sustainable fuel station loan. Call us on 0330 123 1444 to discuss the various options available.

Change is coming, so why not lead the way with Crown HVO fuel?

Crown HVO fuel offers a fast and simple step towards "net zero" rather than the leap needed for electrification. With a large number of OEM approvals, HVO can used without changes to infrastructure or capital expenditure, removing cost barriers and enabling a practical step towards decarbonisation. Make the right choice and switch to an advanced renewable diesel fuel today.

As one of the largest distributors of Crown HVO fuel in the country, we can supply HVO to wherever you are, with some of the quickest delivery times in the industry. Find out more about the paraffinic diesel and start reducing your environmental footprint right away and call us today on 0330 123 1444.

What's more, by using Crown HVO fuel in your business, you will:

Improve your brand image and reputation

Make your business more attractive to potential partners and investors

Gain supplier chain value

See year-on-year improvement in annual CSR reporting

Be doing your bit for the environment!

For every 1,000 litres of diesel burned, you will produce 3.6 tonnes of greenhouse gas CO ₂, compared to just 195kg GHG CO ₂ for every 1,000 litres of HVO burned.

Crown HVO fuel OEM approvals

Heavy Duty Road Vehicles

Passenger Cars

Non-Road Vehicles

To check that your model of heavy-duty road vehicle, passenger car or non-road vehicle can use Crown HVO, please check your handbook or contact the manufacturer.

In the two months our wagons have been running on HVO, we have been very impressed with the performance, with no change in the miles per gallon of the vehicles, while refueling has also been made simple through our onsite HVO tank supplied and regularly stocked by Crown Oil.
David McCreath, TRANSPORT MANAGER, Simpsons Malt

Discover what else our customers have said about using HVO in their business and visit our alternative fuels, customer case studies page.

Our Goal: "To be the number one supplier of advanced liquid renewable fuels to the UK market"

Benefits of HVO fuel

Up to 90% reduction in net CO₂ greenhouse emissions: significantly better for the environment than regular diesel or biodiesel

Renewable, sustainable and 100% biodegradable: synthesised from waste fats and vegetable oils

Reduces notifiable particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions: improved air quality

Drop-in replacement for regular diesel & gas oil: meets EN15940 standard for paraffinic fuels and Fuel Quality Directive 2009/30/EC Annex II. A wide range of OEM approvals means it can often be used without needing engine and machinery modification

Excellent cold-weather performance: higher cetane number (up to 90) and low cloud point (-32OC) provides better starting performance, clean combustion and less chance of waxing in extreme temperatures

High flashpoint: improved safety, storage and handling compared to regular diesel

Reduced need for regular testing: impurities are removed during the production process, eliminating the key factors for fuel degradation and increasing shelf life to around 10 years

Certified by the ISCC: all raw materials are audited and checked to ensure integrity of product

Interested in trialling HVO fuel? Find out about our sustainable fuel stations

We're proud to offer CrownCube fuel stations to ensure the safe storage of your alternative fuels. The tanks come in either 5,300-litre, 10,000 litre or 20,000-litre capacity and offer superior security for stationary fuelling. Featuring a full-height lockable cabinet and secure hose access, these bulk storage units are perfect for long-term projects. With a 110% bunded design that complies with BS799 Part 5, the CrownCube ensures an environmentally safe solution for bulk fuel storage.

We can also offer a flexible trial package which includes a sustainable fuel station loan. Call us today on 0330 107 1329 to discuss the various options available.

Features

Shutter access door - high-security locking system to protect your liquid assets

110% bunded - environmentally safe outer tank can hold all contents from the inner tank to prevent leaking

Access hatch - easy maintenance and access to the inner tank

Lifting eyes - ensures easy handling (empty only) and positioning onsite

Safe solution - tried and tested approved storage to keep your fuel safe outdoors

Pump cabinet - 600mm depth for easy install of pumps and accessories

What is HVO fuel?

Crown HVO (hydrotreated vegetable oil) is a premium, high quality diesel fuel made from renewable, sustainable raw materials - all which do not release any new CO ₂ into the atmosphere.

HVO is part of the paraffinic family of fuels which are stable, renewable, sustainable and high quality, making it perfectly suited for a wide range of applications including vehicles, generators and industrial power systems.

HVO meets EN 15940 standards and Fuel Quality Directive 2009/30/EC Annex II so can be used as a direct, drop-in alternative to mineral diesel without modifications to infrastructure or high initial investments. Simply place an order of Crown HVO fuel today and start reducing your CO ₂ emissions right away.

The feedstocks used to manufacture Crown HVO are 100% waste, drawn from primary sources which have bypassed damage to the environment, natural ecosystem and the drive for global deforestation. All raw materials are checked and verified, and the fuel's credentials audited by the Department for Transport (DFT) to ensure both sustainability and product integrity are certified.

HVO meets bio content requirements with no FAME included and, to that point, avoids the instability and operability issues seen by many low blend diesel fuels and high blend biofuels.

For more information on Crown HVO fuel, visit our HVO Fuel FAQ page where we delve into the advanced renewable diesel fuel further.

What is the price of HVO fuel?

The true unit cost of HVO fuel is higher than regular diesel, at around 10-15% more in the price per litre, which is understandably the debating point when considering a new fuel, and rightly so with many red diesel users facing a 46ppl increase in April 2022. But when you consider the bigger picture, the cost of ownership can be greatly reduced when using HVO and moving to it is by far the quickest and cheapest way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions:

No large upfront costs or modifications needed to switch existing equipment can be used to store, distribute and run on HVO

Reduced need for regular testing (FAME and ester-free fuel)

Can be stored year-round with no need for seasonal stock replacements

Average 10% reduction in AdBlue consumption

Reduced storage costs - up to 10 year shelf life

Crown HVO versus standard diesel

We enlisted the help of fully independent test house, Applied Emissions, to help us carry out an experiment to test Crown HVO's chemical output when compared to standard diesel.

Watch the video here to find out more and to see the results:
If you're looking for a bulk supplier of the clean-burning, environmentally-friendly alternative to mineral diesel, with the added benefit of a significantly longer shelf life, get in touch with our HVO experts today by calling 0330 123 1444 for a HVO fuel quote.

HVO fuel process: HVO vs FAME biodiesel

Crown HVO is the cleanest fuel on the market thanks to the HVO production process which uses a highly controlled hydrogenation and isomerisation process to remove impurities from the fuel. Once treated, the result is a consistent, quality, paraffinic product that operates in exactly the same way as diesel, but with considerable less chance of fuel degradation. Using Crown HVO therefore allows you to store it for up to 10 years, compared to just 1 year for regular diesel products.

One of the main hurdles that biodiesel and gas oil producers have been trying to overcome is the stability of their fuel and HVO fuel solves that issue, as it's FAME-free. Regular biodiesel (FAME) is a mixture of fatty acid methyl esters with varying degrees of unsaturation which are susceptible to oxidation. In addition, gas oil has seen an increase in FAME content, which has led to an increase in logistical problems, particularly with their fuel filters.

FAME absorbs atmospheric moisture, which increases the risk of microbial attack over time. This is why FAME biodiesel and gas oil have to be closely monitored to ensure it's still usable. Because the HVO production process removes unsaturation and contaminants resulting in a pure hydrocarbon fuel, it is much more stable and likely to last longer in the tank than conventional biodiesel and gas oil.

How does HVO fuel compare to other fuels?

In a large number of areas, HVO is actually superior to other forms of fuel - be it fossil-fuel or biofuels.

The table below compares the different characteristics of HVO fuel, FAME, and regular diesel. The advantages of HVO fuel speak for themselves.

What are the benefits of HVO fuel bought from Crown Oil?

We're a trusted, family-run HVO fuel supplier - With over 70 years' experience supplying fuels and lubricants, our friendly service and efficient deliveries have made us the no.1 choice for businesses throughout the UK

We're on a mission to become the UK's leading alternative fuels supplier - we a number of environmental initiatives in place to reduce our emissions

Standard 24 - 48-hour delivery - We offer a range of delivery options to ensure you never have to wait for that sorely needed HVO delivery, or even worse, experience business downtime

National coverage across the UK - We really will deliver your HVO fuel to wherever you are; with fuel depots all over the UK, we have some of the quickest delivery times in the industry

High-quality fuel, stored on-site - Due to storing our HVO fuel on-site, we are able to deliver our fuel within our usual 24 - 48-hours.

Bulk HVO quantities - To enable you to make bigger savings in the long run, we can provide bulk deliveries from 36,000 litres and more, made possible with our fleet of tankers

Flexible payment terms - Business customer? We offer some of the most flexible payment terms in the industry to suit your budget and schedule

Affordable prices - With our vast buying power, you're guaranteed a great price for your HVO fuel all year round

Unrivalled customer service - From our dedicated Account Managers to our friendly delivery drivers, our service is famously professional yet personal

Free Fuel Management Service - We understand how busy your lives can be when running a business. Simply opt-in when ordering your red diesel and we'll monitor your usage and provide top-ups when required

Our own fleet is now run on HVO fuel

We're proud to announce that our entire fleet is now run on HVO fuel and predict a saving of 3080 tonnes of CO2 every year which is equivalent to driving around the Earth 51 times!
If you would like to learn more about Crown HVO fuel or to request a quote for a competitive price from a trusted HVO fuel UK supplier, call our HVO experts today on 0330 123 1444.
* Crown Oil HVO fuel complies with BS EN 15940 being the British Standard for paraffinic diesel fuel which is a new generation of cleaner transport fuel for use in road vehicles. If your vehicle is still within the manufacturer`s warranty or if you have taken out mechanical breakdown insurance, we recommend you check with the manufacturer or insurer that use of our product will not affect your cover. We cannot be held responsible for any issues with your vehicle connected to its age or pre-existing condition.

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Global warming is everyone's business. But what can businesses do to help? We all have a responsibility to reduce our local emissions - and Crown HVO fuel is invaluable in doing so. Simply switch your fossil fuel for Crown HVO and you will reduce your net CO 2 greenhouse gas emissions by up to 90% right away.

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Center for Research and Technology Hellas, Chemical Process & Energy Resources Institute, Thessaloniki, Greece

Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

Neste Corporation, Espoo, Finland

In the coming years, the application of paraffinic biofuels, such as Hydrotreated Vegetable Oils (HVO), in the transportation sector is expected to increase. However, as the composition of HVO is different compared to conventional diesel, the engine optimized for conventional fuel cannot take full advantage of the HVO beneficial properties. Suitable adjustment of a number of engine parameters, if not complete engine re-calibration, will enable the full exploitation of such fuels' potential for lower exhaust emissions and reduced fuel consumption. In the present work, the emission characteristics of HVO fuel in a light-duty Euro 5 diesel engine have been studied, under steady-state operation, as well as during the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). The study was expanded to the investigation of exhaust emissions under modified Main Injection Timing (MIT) and EGR rate. The NEXBTL fuel, produced by Neste, was considered in the study and was compared with conventional market diesel. Emissions of nitric oxides (NO x), soot, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO ₂), and hydrocarbons (HC) were studied. At default MIT and EGR settings the use of HVO resulted in a significant reduction of all regulated emissions. In addition, it was observed that the adjustment of MIT and EGR can enhance the exploitation of HVO potential for emissions reduction, highlighting the differences with the conventional diesel fuel.

Introduction

The increasing demand on fossil fuels, the rising price of crude oil and the necessity of reducing greenhouse gas emissions have led to a substantial effort to develop alternative energy sources. Biofuels have attracted considerable attention during the past decade as renewable, biodegradable and non-toxic fuels. The European regulation of 2009 (directive 2009/28/EC) introduced new targets for European Union members. In particular, each member state shall ensure that the share of energy from renewable sources in all forms of transport in 2020 is at least 10% of the total energy consumption. Since the introduction of other renewable energy sources in road transport is rather difficult to be achieved at short term without shifting to alternative powertrains (e.g., hybrids, fuel cells etc.), it is expected that the goal set by the new regulation will be mainly met through extensive use of biofuels ( Rakopoulos et al., 2006; Kousoulidou et al., 2012). Nowadays, the most widely used first-generation biofuels are FAME, more usually stated as biodiesel, and bioethanol. Biodiesel is the most commonly used biofuel in Europe, as it holds the 79.7% of total biofuel consumption ( EurObserv'ER, 2015). Although diesel exhaust gasses are carcinogenic, however, Europe's roads remain dominated by diesel cars due to past decisions in favor of this technology. As concessions given by the EU Parliament allow the car manufacturers lead-time until 2020 to bring down the official diesel NO x emissions, this dominance is not expected to end on the short-term ( Hooftman et al., 2018). Therefore, it is expected that biodiesel will continue to play a critical role in European market of biofuels.

Biodiesel can be produced from different types of raw vegetable oils from energy crops, used frying oils or animal fats using the conventional transesterification technology. It presents many benefits, such as higher cetane number, good lubricity, higher flash point, and no sulfur or aromatics ( Kousoulidou et al., 2009). On the other hand, it has a series of effects on environment and urban air quality. Firstly, it has been observed that FAME usage on light-duty diesel engines and vehicles increases NO x emissions during both steady-state and transient operating conditions ( George et al., 2007; Rakopoulos et al., 2008; Fontaras et al., 2009; Kousoulidou et al., 2010, 2012; Giakoumis et al., 2012). In the same direction, fuel consumption has also shown an increase due to FAME's lower energy content ( Armas et al., 2013). However, it has been found that biodiesel usage on diesel engines leads to substantial reductions of particulate matter (PM) ( Graboski and McCormick, 1998), carbon monoxide (CO), and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) ( Karavalakis et al., 2009; Giakoumis et al., 2012). As far as engine operation is concerned, biodiesel has been associated with a deterioration of engine cold operability due to its higher viscosity, and relatively high CP and CFPP, that may affect injection performance and cold-start properties. Despite the several advantages, biodiesel has not met the expectations for green and environmentally friendly substitute for conventional diesel fuel. High feedstock cost and the competition with food sources, inferior storage and oxidation stability, lower calorific value, inferior low temperature operability and higher NO x emissions are some of the disadvantages that makes it less competitive fuel ( Soo-Young, 2014).

As a result, second generation biofuels have been developed to overcome the limitations of their first-generation counterparts. They are produced from new innovative processes and a wider range of sources of raw materials. Promising second generation biofuels for diesel engines are dimethylether (DME), paraffinic diesels such as Fischer-Tropsch (FT) diesel and hydrotreated vegetable or waste cooking oils (HVOs or HWCOs) ( Kousoulidou et al., 2014). Dimethylether is a gaseous compound at room temperature so it requires new storage techniques, new fuel delivery systems, and engine modifications ( Semelsberger et al., 2006). Fischer-Tropsch diesel is a high quality and clean paraffinic fuel which can be produced from coal, natural gas, or biomass through Fischer-Tropsch synthetic processes, while no engine modifications are required. It is similar to fossil diesel regarding energy content, density, viscosity and flash point; however, it is characterized by higher cetane number and near-zero sulfur and aromatic content ( Huang et al., 2008; Bezergianni and Dimitriadis, 2013). According to the open literature, several experiments have shown that FT diesel on light- and heavy-duty engines generally reduces exhaust emissions. For example, Alleman and McCormick (2003) found that FT diesel usage on a light-duty engine causes a significant reduction of all regulated emissions. Furthermore, Huang et al. (2008) reported that CO, HC, NO x, and smoke emissions from an unmodified diesel engine operating on FT diesel were lower when compared with those of conventional diesel fuel operation. In conclusion, a significant disadvantage is that the production costs of FT diesel from biomass feedstock are not competitive enough with conventional diesel prices to enable commercial production ( Happonen et al., 2012).

Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) is a paraffinic bio-based liquid fuel originating from many kinds of vegetable oils, such as rapeseed, sunflower, soybean, and palm oil, as well as animal fats ( Aatola et al., 2008). It can be used in conventional diesel engines, pure or blended with fossil diesel (petrodiesel). Although largely unproven, HVO substitutes directly petrodiesel or blend in any proportion with it, without modification of CI engines ( Soo-Young, 2014). As it has been mentioned for biodiesel, vegetable feedstocks compete with food production. Therefore, alternative non-food oils such as jatropha and algae oil as well as waste cooking oils will receive greater attention in near future so as to be able to replace a significant portion of fossil-based diesel ( Kousoulidou et al., 2014).

Catalytic hydroprocessing of vegetable oils, animal fats, or waste cooking oils has been used as an alternative process to transesterification for producing biofuels. To obtain the HVO, the triglyceride of the feedstock is hydrogenated in the first step and broken down into various intermediates, mainly monoglycerides, diglycerides, and carboxylic acids. These intermediates are then converted into alkanes by three different pathways: (i) Hydrogenation, (ii) Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), and Hydrodecarboxylation (HDC) ( Soo-Young, 2014). The conversion that occurs through these three reactions creates hydrocarbons similar to existing diesel fuel components ( Mikkonen et al., 2012). This technology is a modern way to produce high-quality bio-based diesel fuels without compromising fuel logistics, engines, or exhaust after-treatment devices.

HVOs (or HWCOs) are straight chain paraffinic hydrocarbons with the chemical structure C nH 2n+2, free of sulfur and aromatics ( Aatola et al., 2008). Storage stability of these fuels is good and water solubility low, while their cetane number is very high. Although cetane number is considered a quality indicator of diesel fuels, the high difference between the cetane numbers of conventional diesel fuel and HVO would require some adjustments in the engine control to compensate for the fuel igniting earlier in the cycle. The lubricity is very low due to the absence of sulfur (and oxygen) compounds in the fuel, therefore, lubricating additive is required (as in conventional diesel) to protect the injection system ( Mikkonen et al., 2012). Moreover, the heating value per mass of HVO is higher due to the higher hydrogen content. Density is lower due to the paraffinic nature and the lower final boiling point. Regarding the cold flow properties, such as cloud point (CP) and cold filter plugging point (CFPP), these may also be different than those of diesel fuel depending highly on the feedstock and the reaction conditions that may lead to a certain yield of triglycerides ( Šimacek et al., 2010). The cold properties of these fuels can also be controlled to meet the local requirements by adjusting the severity of the process or by additional processing (e.g., isomerization; Lindfors, 2010). It is noteworthy that the fuel properties of HVOs are similar to the properties of gas-to-liquid (GTL) and biomass-to-liquid (BTL) diesel fuel produced by FT synthesis ( Kuronen et al., 2007; Aatola et al., 2008). In any case, the good fuel properties of HVOs or paraffinic synthetic fuels are necessary for their viable future, because fuel requirements set by legislation and fuel standards are becoming more stringent, due to new regulations for exhaust emissions, fuel economy, and on-board diagnostics.

Most of the studies available in the open literature have shown that paraffinic synthetic fuels or HVOs usually lead to exhaust emissions benefits and good engine performance. Substantial reductions in NO x, PM, CO, and HC emissions are reported with the use of HVOs on heavy-duty engines ( Rantanen et al., 2005; Kuronen et al., 2007; Aatola et al., 2008). The decrease of CO, HC, and PM emissions was dependent on the proportion of HVO in the blend. However, it should be pointed out that it was not possible to define any clear trends in NO x emissions of light-duty vehicles equipped with EGR. Kitano et al. (2005) has reported reduction of exhaust emissions of modern diesel engine using GTL fuel. A significant impact on engine-out PM, HC and CO emissions was observed, but only little effect on NO x emissions. Murtonen and Aakko-Saksa (2009) reported the emission results with biodiesel, HVO, FT diesel (GTL) and petrodiesel in three engines and five city busses. In most cases, all regulated emissions such as NO x, PM, CO and HC decreased with HVO and GTL fuel compared to petrodiesel, although NO x increases have also been observed. According to Mikkonen et al. (2012), where exhaust emission tests have been performed with 32 trucks and busses or their engines, and several passenger cars in vehicle and engine test beds, remarkable reductions of particulate mass, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions were noticed. It is also important that NO x emissions rather decreased or did not change. Soo-Young (2014) found that the use of HVO enables appreciable reductions in NO x, PM, HC, and CO emissions without any changes to the engine or its control in heavy-duty engines. However, the influence of HVO on NO x emission was not so clear because of various EGR-strategies. Kitano et al. (2005) noticed that for light-duty vehicles, the effect of GTL on NO x and PM results vary between cars. One EGR equipped car resulted in low PM emissions, but slight NO x emissions disadvantage for GTL, which was deemed to be due to lower EGR rate. Another car optimized for low NO x emissions showed significant reduction with GTL, but poor PM emissions performance. The use of such fuels leads to alterations of exhaust emissions of light-duty engines, where it seems that the actual effect of the GTL-diesel blends is much dependent on the operation mode ( Kitano et al., 2005). Different engine operating conditions may lead to opposite conclusions regarding the effect on NO x, PM, and smoke emissions ( Armas et al., 2013; Happonen et al., 2013). This remark should always be considered when comparing the effects of HVO fuel between heavy-duty and light-duty engines.

In general, most of the studies examined HVO on heavy-duty engines; as a result, there is insufficient data on light-duty engines of small passenger cars. Another observation is that in most cases, if not in all, HVO is examined under steady-state operation of the engine/vehicle and as a result there is lack of information during transient conditions, which are experienced for most of the operating life of a passenger car. Furthermore, HVO is investigated in existing engines only by changing the fuel. As HVO is a paraffinic fuel with different properties, due to its nature, the default settings of the engine are not optimum for its combustion. It is expected that, by careful interplay of engine settings, probably better exhaust emissions could be achieved. So far, there is limited knowledge on the effect of such fuels on emissions and it is clear that it should be investigated in depth because the demand on hydrotreated fuels is expected to increase further in the near future.

Taking all the above into consideration, the authors investigated experimentally the effect of HVO on exhaust emissions of a light-duty diesel engine equipped with common rail system and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). In the first part of the study, the effect of HVO under steady-state operation was examined in the whole operating map of the engine. In the second part, the effect of HVO during a driving cycle (NEDC) was studied. Finally, in the third part, different EGR valve positions and Main Injection Timing (MIT) adjustments were examined at selected steady-state operating points. It was shown that by careful interplay mainly of MIT, better trade-off between soot and NO x emissions could be achieved. The target was first to evaluate the effect of HVO on regulated emissions and secondly, to obtain some first indications on how to recalibrate a light-duty diesel engine in order to gain full advantage of HVO's properties.

Methodology

Fuel Properties

In the present work two fuels were examined. A commercial market diesel from a fuel station in Greece was used as a reference fuel and a 2nd generation HVO was selected as a paraffinic hydrogenated biofuel. The reference market diesel complies with the EN590 specifications (Automotive fuels - diesel - requirements and test methods, 2009) as a standard low sulfur fuel, typically containing 7% vol. FAME. The HVO fuel is a 2 nd generation paraffinic biofuel that was produced from two stage hydrotreatment of vegetable oil and it complies with EN 15940 standard for paraffinic diesel fuels. HVO fuel was provided by Neste Corporation in Finland with the brand name NEXBTL (Neste Corporation). The properties of both Market Diesel and HVO are presented in Table 1.

HVO is a paraffinic fuel with light hydrocarbons and for that reason its density is lower compared to that of market diesel. Due to the lower density, HVO is characterized by lower volumetric heating value compared to market diesel. On the other hand, HVO has higher heating value per mass unit compared to market diesel due to its higher H/C ratio. As HVO contains no oxygen, the oxidation stability is higher compared to market diesel, resulting in very good storage behavior. This fuel is fully paraffinic, and thus, the content of aromatics and sulfur is below the detectable limit. Finally, the high cetane number makes it a very good blending component for conventional diesel fuel in order to increase the cetane number or to produce premium diesel fuel grades.

Engine Setup and Control

The experimental work was conducted in the Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics (LAT), Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. The tests were conducted on a Euro 5 turbocharged diesel engine which is used in passenger cars. The basic technical characteristics of the engine are presented in Table 2. The engine is integrated into a fully automated test bed and it is coupled to an eddy current dynamometer, which is suitable for both steady-state and transient test applications. This installation is characterized by excellent speed and torque control stability, making possible the precise adjustment of the engine desired operating conditions. The control of the test bed and the recording of the data are performed by the AVL Puma software.

The measurements performed at the current work included fuel consumption and regulated pollutant emissions. Engine operating parameters were recorded from the ECU. Engine speed and torque were measured by the dynamometer with very high accuracy. Concerning fuel consumption, the AVL 735S fuel mass flow meter was used, which also measures fuel density. The latter measurement is important when alternative fuels are tested, which may have significantly different density compared to the conventional diesel. The regulated pollutant emissions considered in this paper, measured at the engine exhaust before any after treatment device, were carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO ₂), total hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NO x), and soot. The concentration of the gas components in the exhaust stream was measured using the AVL AMA i60. The specific analyzer uses the standard methods for gas detection, namely, non-dispersive infrared absorption for CO and CO ₂, flame ionization for HC, and chemiluminescence for NO x. Soot emissions were measured with the AVL Micro soot sensor. Table 3 summarizes the equipment used during the specific tests and provides the measuring accuracy of each device.

Experimental Protocol

At first the engine was tested with both fuels (market diesel and HVO) over its whole operating range in order to analyze the emission maps for both fuels. The measurements were performed in thermally stabilized steady-state operating points. The engine was initially started with market diesel fuel and warmed up for 30 min. Then the measurements with market diesel at all operating points were performed. If stable combustion was achieved (confirmed by the exhaust gas temperature measurement) the load was changed to the next consecutive point. In each operational point, engine was running for 15 min before measurements of the engine performance and exhaust emissions were taken. After the market diesel measurements, the same procedure was followed also for HVO fuel measurements. The exact operating points where the measurements were conducted are presented in Figure 1, while the pilot and main injection timing for diesel fuel for all operating points are presented in Table 6 in the Appendix. In the second phase of the study, the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) was tested with both fuels, and pollutant emissions were measured for both cold- and hot-start of the engine. Figure 2 presents the speed and torque profile of NEDC. Although this cycle has been replaced by WLTP in the type approval procedure, it still can be used for comparative evaluations of fuels.

On the third phase of the study, the effect of different main injection timing (MIT) and EGR settings was investigated. As it was already discussed in a previous section, the HVO fuel is characterized by different properties compared to market diesel, it has higher cetane number, higher heating value (per mass unit), no oxygen and sulfur content and no aromatics. It is obvious that the combustion of HVO would be different compared to that of market diesel affecting directly engine emissions. However, current engines are optimized for conventional diesel fuel, limiting the available data for operation on HVO. For this reason, an effort was made to examine the effect of EGR and MIT on engine performance and emissions, in order to gain full advantage of HVO fuel properties.

Main injection timing (MIT) and EGR effects were investigated at two steady-state points (1,500 rpm/70 Nm and 2,000 rpm/70 Nm). Three MIT strategies were investigated, i.e., at the default settings, at 5°CA advanced and at 5°CA retarded as presented in Tables 4, 5, while all the other operating parameters of the engine were kept constant. As far as the effect of EGR is concerned, three different settings were examined, i.e., the default one, a higher EGR rate and a lower EGR rate with all the other operating settings kept constant. The EGR rate was quantified with the EGR valve position data. Tables 4, 5 present the EGR rates that were examined. Finally, at each operating point, the engine speed and torque remained constant, independently of parameters variation, by adjusting accordingly the fuel supply. Therefore, the impact of each parameter on engine efficiency was also assessed.

Results and Discussion

Steady-State Conditions

In this section 40 steady-state operating points were studied with market diesel and HVO. A relative change of the measured emissions (NO x, Soot, CO ₂, CO, and HC), as well as volumetric and mass-based fuel consumption of the test engine was observed between the two fuels. However, it must be noted that during the operation, the engine parameters (such as injection timing, EGR etc.) were not locked to constant values. As a result, when the fuel changed from market diesel to HVO, some parameters of the engine also changed. The following figures (Figures 3- 7) present the percentage change of the examined parameters; positive values declare an increase of the relevant parameter with the use of HVO, while negative values refer to reduction.

Figure 3 presents the percentage change of volumetric (left diagram) and mass-based (right diagram) fuel consumption of the engine when using HVO, compared to market diesel. An increase of volumetric fuel consumption is observed with HVO in all operating points, ranging from 2 to 8%. This is due to the 6% lower density of HVO as compared to market diesel, confirmed also by previous research ( Erkkila et al., 2011). On the other hand, the higher mass-based heating value of HVO results in lower mass-based fuel consumption by 2-4%.

Nitric oxide (NO x) and soot emissions are the main pollutants of diesel engines. Figure 4 presents the effect of HVO on NO x emissions (left diagram). As observed in Figure 4, the effect of HVO on NO x emissions is not constant. It must be made clear that during measurements in four operating points the EGR valve position was not constant but varied with the fuel change affecting NO x emissions accordingly. The % changes of EGR are presented in Table 7 in the Appendix. More specifically at 2,000 rpm/100 Nm, 2,000 rpm/140 Nm, 2,500 rpm/140 Nm and at 3,000 rpm/140 Nm the changes of EGR were up to 35%, however in all the other operating points the EGR changes were less than 5%. Furthermore at 3,500 rpm and 3,800 rpm the EGR valve position was 0% for both fuels. As a result, the effect of HVO fuel on NO x emissions is comparable between the two fuels in the entire engine map with the exception of the four operating points that were described above. In order to eliminate the EGR effect, an engine model was also developed in AVL Boost software (2011) for the engine points of 2000 rpm/140 Nm and 2500 rpm/140 Nm. The results have shown a slightly decrease of NO x emissions (1.5%) with HVO fuel for these two points. According to Figure 4, in loads lower than 100 Nm where the EGR valve position was constant and similar for both fuels, at low engine speeds, HVO presents reduced NO x emissions by 5-10%, however at higher engine speeds (from 3,000 to 3,800 rpm, where EGR was 0% for both fuels), HVO results in increased NO x emissions by 5-10%. As far as full load is concerned, at low and high engine speeds HVO presents lower NO x emissions. Apart from EGR, a number of conflicting effects influence the formation of NO x. On the one side, the absence of oxygen and aromatics in HVO (Table 1) prevent NO x formation, since aromatic compounds have higher adiabatic flame temperature producing higher local combustion temperatures ( Glaude et al., 2010). On the other side, the very high cetane number of HVO (Table 1) may promote NO x formation, as it leads to a decrease of ignition delay, meaning that the start of combustion shifts earlier (well before the top dead center), resulting in earlier pressure and temperature rise. Overall, a clear conclusion concerning HVO effect on NO x emissions cannot be drawn, since a mixed effect is observed: in some operating points HVO presents lower NO x emissions, while in some others higher. This is the subject of further work of the present research team, combining experimental and simulation approaches.

Similar findings are reported in the open literature, where no appreciable reduction in NO x emissions has been observed for light-duty engines when running with HVO fuel. Rantanen et al. (2005), after testing the exhaust emissions of three cars running with HVO fuel, concluded that although HC and soot emissions were reduced, not clear reduction in NO x emissions was observed. Same results were also reported by Sugiyama et al. (2011), who mentioned that HVO can reduce HC and soot emissions due to high cetane number and zero aromatic content, but NO x emissions were similar with market diesel fuel. Pflaum et al. (2010), after conducting engine and vehicle testing with HVO, did not notice appreciable reduction in NO x emissions.

On the other hand, tests performed on heavy-duty engines have shown that NO x emissions in some cases can be lower with HVO fuel. Aatola et al. (2008) after testing HVO fuel in a turbocharged common-rail heavy-duty engine without EGR, observed reduction in NO x emissions. Similar findings have been reported by Hajbabaei et al. (2012) in two heavy-duty engines, as well as by Makinen et al. (2011) who examined 300 city busses with HVO and observed an average 10% reduction of NO x emissions. Such results indicate that in heavy-duty engines the positive effect of HVO, as concerns NO x emissions, may be more prominent.

The effect of HVO on soot emissions is presented in Figure 5. It is clear that this 2nd generation biofuel causes significant reduction in soot emissions in the whole engine operating range of up to 75%, a finding that comes in agreement with previous research ( Murtonen et al., 2009; Sugiyama et al., 2011). The reason is that HVO is an exclusively paraffinic fuel with higher H/C ratio, no aromatics, sulfur and other mineral impurities that are responsible for soot formation ( Rimkus et al., 2015).

Generally, CO and HC emissions are low in diesel engines ( Heywood, 1988). Figure 6 presents the effect of HVO on CO (left diagram) and HC (right diagram) emissions of the engine on the whole engine operating range. According to Figure 6, CO emissions are lower for HVO by up to 35%. Due to the lower ignition delay of HVO, the combustion time is longer favoring in that way the oxidation process of CO emissions. The same trend is also observed for HC emissions, which are reduced by 20-40% with the application of HVO. Unburned HC result from various reasons, including flame quenching, overmixing and undermixing ( Heywood, 1988). HVO is characterized by very high cetane number (Table 1), which reduces significantly the ignition delay, limiting the overmixing effect. Moreover, the lower density and the lower viscosity of HVO accelerate the mixture formation, reducing also the ignition delay. Pflaum et al. (2010), have found that a reduction of up to 50% in both CO and HC emissions can be achieved with HVO as compared to conventional diesel. Similar results were also observed by Kousoulidou et al. (2014) in a light-duty diesel engine running with HVO fuel.

Figure 7 presents the effect of HVO on CO ₂ emissions, where a small reduction by up to 6% is observed with HVO. These results come in agreement with the findings of Kuronen et al. (2007), Murtonen et al. (2009) and Rantanen et al. (2005). CO ₂ emissions represent well fuel consumption, which is reduced (in mass terms) with HVO, as already discussed in Figure 3. Further, the lower carbon content of HVO (resulting in higher H/C ratio), as shown in Table 1, resulting from the lighter hydrocarbon compounds of HVO as compared to conventional diesel, further contributes to the reduction of CO ₂ emissions.

Driving Cycle Operation-NEDC

At this part of the current experimental investigation, the effect of HVO fuel on emission characteristics of a diesel engine during the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) was examined. The evolution of cumulative mass of NO x, soot, CO, HC, and CO ₂ emissions, as well as the fuel consumption are depicted in Figure 8 for hot-start operation and in Figure 9 for cold-start operation. Results are presented in the form of cumulative mass instead of instantaneous concentration values in order for the differences between the two fuels to be better distinguished.

Figure 8. Evolution of cumulative mass of NO x, soot, HC, CO, CO ₂ emissions and fuel consumption during the hot-started NEDC for Market Diesel and HVO.

Figure 9. Evolution of cumulative mass of NO X, soot, HC, CO, CO ₂ emissions and fuel consumption during the cold-started NEDC for Market Diesel and HVO.

According to Figures 8, 9, HVO results in lower cumulative CO ₂ emissions during NEDC. More specifically, during the hot NEDC the total CO ₂ emissions for HVO were 1,146 g and for market diesel were 1,194 g, while during the cold NEDC these were 1,237 and 1,291 g respectively. CO ₂ emissions can be used as a first indication for fuel consumption (and, by that, for engine brake thermal efficiency, considering also the fuel's heating value), although a direct comparison can be made feasible only for fuels with the same carbon content, H/C ratio and not containing oxygen. The lower CO ₂ emissions for HVO fuel can be attributed to the lower C/H ratio by 24%, as compared to market diesel (Table 1). This is because HVO consists mainly of paraffins in the range of n-C15 to n-C18, while market diesel consists of hydrocarbons in the range of C9-C30.

Fuel consumption is another important factor for the car manufacturers. Figures 8, 9 present the evolution of cumulative mass-based fuel consumption for market diesel and HVO during the hot and cold NEDC, respectively. It is observed that there is a decrease of mass-based fuel consumption with HVO that comes from its higher heating value. More specifically, at the hot and cold NEDC the fuel consumption for HVO was 3 and 5%, respectively, lower compared to market diesel. The lower mass-based fuel consumption with HVO is also one of the reason for the lower CO ₂ emissions that were observed during NEDC measurements above. These findings come also in agreement with the results from the steady-state operation analyzed in previous section.

As far as CO and HC emissions are concerned, strong differences are observed between the two fuels for both the hot and cold NEDC. When the engine was running with HVO, the cumulative mass of CO over the NEDC was decreased by 33% for the hot start operation and 48% for the cold start operation. For HC emissions, the respective reductions were 25% for the hot start and 47% for the cold start operation, compared with the market diesel case. These results come in agreement with the results of Aatola et al. (2008), Kuronen et al. (2007) and Kousoulidou et al. (2014), who have also reported reductions in CO and HC emissions in a diesel engine when running with paraffinic fuels.

The effect of HVO fuel on NO x emissions during the NEDC is also shown in Figures 8, 9 for hot and cold start operation, respectively. It must be mentioned here that the EGR strategy during the NEDC remained the same for both fuels. It can be seen that there is a slight increase for HVO during both hot and cold start operation. This increase is 3% for hot start operation and 6% for cold start operation. However, based on the review of Gill et al. (2011), covering both light- and heavy-duty engines and vehicles, it was found that NO x emissions show a decreasing trend with paraffinic fuels in many cases. On the other hand, according to Mizushima et al. (2012), the higher H/C ratio of paraffinic fuel compared to market diesel causes an increase in flame temperature, which results in higher NO x emissions. In any case, NO x formation, which is primarily governed by local in-cylinder temperature, oxygen availability, and residence time of the gas inside a critical temperature window ( Heywood, 1988), depends on a variety of parameters, such as injection and EGR strategy, fuel properties, and spray characteristics. As a result, the final NO x concentration is a delicate balance among all these influences, and this is probably why a clear trend has not yet been established for light-duty diesel engines and cars fueled with paraffinic fuels ( Rantanen et al., 2005; Kousoulidou et al., 2014).

A different trend is observed for soot emissions, which are significantly reduced with the application of HVO. At the case of hot NEDC, the cumulative soot emissions are reduced from 394 mg for market diesel to 120 mg for the HVO fuel, while at the cold NEDC the respective reduction is from 505 mg for market diesel to 143 mg for HVO. As it was already mentioned, HVO is a paraffinic fuel with shorter molecular chain and higher H/C ratio, with almost zero aromatic, sulfur and other mineral impurities content, which enhance PM formation, factors that all contribute to lower soot emissions ( Rimkus et al., 2015).

Finally, the average thermal efficiency throughout the NEDC for both fuels is presented in Figure 10. The results show that during both cycles the average thermal efficiency receives similar values, 27 and 30% for cold and hot NEDC, respectively. According to Duckhan et al. (2014), HVO presents slightly higher energy efficiency which is attributed to its almost zero oxygen content while according to Aatola et al. (2008), HVO presents similar or slightly higher thermal efficiency probably due to the higher cetane number and, therefore, shorter ignition delay.

Effect of EGR and MIT

In the following paragraphs, the effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) and Main Injection Timing (MIT) on emissions of a diesel engine running with HVO fuel and market diesel is presented. All the results are presented for two steady-state operating points, at 1,500 rpm/70 Nm and at 2,000 rpm/70 Nm.

EGR Effect

The effect of EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) is quite significant and its influence on engine emissions has been widely studied. In internal combustion engines, EGR is a means for NO x emissions reduction. At this section, EGR effect on emission characteristics was examined, in order to explore the potential of the HVO fuel for further emission reduction. To this aim two steady-state operating points at 1,500 rpm 70 Nm and at 2,000 rpm/70 Nm were examined for both fuels, with three EGR valve positions being tested (Tables 4, 5).

In general, EGR directly influences in-cylinder temperature field and therefore represents a measure for emission control without injection system adaptation. Results of all regulated emissions for the different EGR settings for the two operating points are shown in Figures 11, 12, respectively. NO x emissions are favored from (a) high in-cylinder temperature, (b) oxygen availability, and (c) residence time at high temperatures. The role of EGR is to recirculate a part of exhaust gases in the combustion chamber, reducing both combustion temperatures and oxygen availability. For the operating points that are examined here, HVO presents similar NO x emissions compared to market diesel (Figures 11, 12). As expected, EGR increase results in lower NO x emissions for both fuels. From Figures 11, 12 it is observed that the EGR rate is slightly different between the two fuels in all three cases that were examined. Tables 4, 5 present the absolute values of EGR valve position in each case for both fuels. Factors contributing to lower NO x emissions with the HVO fuel is the zero oxygen and aromatic content of the fuel compared to market diesel.

Concerning soot emissions, the increase of EGR results in higher emissions for both fuels. As shown in Figures 11, 12, the HVO fuel produces lower soot emissions in all cases of EGR rate compared to market diesel, owing to its paraffinic nature and zero aromatic content. Although in higher EGR rate HVO exhibits lower soot emissions compared to market diesel, these are still higher compared to the ones of market diesel at the default EGR setting.

The effect of EGR on the trade-off between soot and NO x emissions for both fuels is presented in Figures 13, 14, for the two operating points examined here. The gray area is the target area where both NO x and soot emissions are lower compared to market diesel, with the default EGR setting of the engine. It can be observed that HVO produces lower soot and NO x emissions compared to market diesel, at the default EGR setting. According to Figures 13, 14, an increase of EGR reduces further NO x emissions, however higher soot emissions are experienced. It can be concluded, thus, that by changing solely the EGR rate a better trade-off between NO x and soot emissions cannot be achieved with the HVO fuel.

Similar profile with soot emissions also follow HC and CO emissions. In general, HC emissions are low for diesel engines; however, the use of HVO reduces them further compared to market diesel at default EGR setting. The effect of EGR rate for both fuels on HC and CO emissions is presented in Figures 11, 12. At higher EGR rate, the mixture heterogeneity increases, resulting in higher HC emissions, enhanced also by the prolonged ignition delay. However, in case of the HVO fuel, at higher EGR rate HC emissions remain at a lower level compared to market diesel at default EGR rate. This indicated that HVO provides the flexibility to increase the EGR rate without penalties on HC emissions. On the other hand, CO emissions are significantly higher for increased EGR for both fuels.

Further, the effect of EGR on CO ₂ emissions and fuel consumption is also depicted in Figures 11, 12. By comparing the two fuels, it is easily observed that HVO and market diesel presents almost similar CO ₂ emissions at default EGR rate. Furthermore, an increase of EGR rate results in higher CO ₂ emissions with similar trends for both fuels. Concerning mass fuel consumption, the fuel property that has the largest effect is heating value (per mass unit), which is higher for HVO, resulting in slightly lower fuel consumption. Figures 11, 12 also present the main injection timing of the engine for the various EGR rates for comparison purposes; it is obvious that MIT remained constant throughout these tests, not affecting engine performance and emissions.

Finally, Figures 15, 16 present the effect of EGR on thermal efficiency for both fuels. It is observed that HVO presents slightly higher thermal efficiency in all EGR cases compared to market diesel which comes in agreement with the results of other studies ( Aatola et al., 2008; Duckhan et al., 2014). The reason is the higher cetane number and the zero oxygen content of HVO fuel which results in the higher thermal efficiency at the current operating points (1,500 rpm/70 Nm and 2,000 rpm/70 Nm). However, this is not a general conclusion but characterize only the current operating points. As far as the effect of EGR is concerned, Figures 15, 16 show that the energy efficiency was slightly reduced with the increase of EGR for both fuels, which is expected as there is less fresh air available for combustion process ( Duckhan et al., 2014).

MIT Effect

Three different main injection timings (MIT) were examined, including the default setting, 5°CA advanced and 5°CA retarded for both fuels, at the same operating points of 1,500 rpm/70 Nm and 2,000 rpm/70 Nm. Figures 17, 18 present the effect of MIT on NO x, soot, CO ₂, CO, and HC emissions, as well as on mass fuel consumption (the negative values correspond to timings before TDC). Figures 19, 20 present the trade-off between NO x and soot emissions on different MIT settings.

In general, advanced MIT results in earlier start of combustion, leading to higher combustion pressure and temperature that promote NO x formation, independently of the fuel. The change of MIT has very similar effects on both fuels, as presented in Figures 17, 18, where not a clear difference between market diesel and the HVO fuel can be distinguished at 1,500 rpm (Figure 17). On the other hand, significant difference is observed at 2,000 rpm (Figure 18) with HVO to present lower NO x emissions in all cases.

As far as soot emissions are concerned, similar trends are observed for both fuels, however the absolute concentration of soot is much lower for HVO in all MIT settings. The main reasons for this observation have been already analyzed in previous sections. The most interesting findings are presented in Figures 19, 20, where the trade-off between NO x and soot emissions at different MIT for both fuels is shown. The gray area presents the target area where both soot and NO x emissions are lower compared to market diesel at the default MIT setting of the engine. It can be observed that in case of HVO at retarded MIT, although soot emissions are increased, they still remain at a lower level compared to market diesel at default MIT setting. This indicates that retardation of MIT with the HVO fuel can be a proper strategy in order to reduce NO x and soot emissions simultaneously.

The effect of MIT on HC and CO emissions is also presented in Figures 17, 18. It is observed that when the MIT is advanced, the trends of HC emissions are similar for both fuels. At the case of retarded MIT, HC emissions were significantly increased for market diesel, while they received only slightly higher values for HVO. In any case, the HVO fuel presents lower HC emissions in all MIT settings, compared to market diesel. Concerning CO concentration, again similar trends are observed for both fuels, with the HVO fuel producing lower CO emissions in all MIT settings.

Further, the effect of MIT on CO ₂ emissions and fuel consumption is also depicted in Figures 17, 18. As expected, when the MIT is advanced fuel consumption is reduced for both fuels, since higher pressures are developed during the combustion process. For the case of HVO, fuel consumption remains lower in all MIT settings, as compared to market diesel, owing to its higher heating value per mass unit. Regarding CO ₂ emissions, again at the case of HVO, these remain at lower levels for all MIT settings, as compared to market diesel, due to the lower carbon content of the HVO fuel, as well as due to the lower mass-based fuel consumption.

Based on the findings of this section, it is indicated that HVO offers the potential to reduce NO x and soot emissions simultaneously by modifying suitably the injection timing. Of course, this is a first indication and further research is under way by the current research group.

Finally, Figures 21, 22 present the effect of the MIT strategies on thermal efficiency for both fuels. As it was already discussed previously HVO presents higher thermal efficiency at the current operating points. As expected, thermal efficiency increases with advanced MIT and decreases with retarded MIT. Advanced injection timing results in higher in cylinder pressures and temperatures, while the opposite effect is experienced when the injection timing is retarded.

Summary and Conclusions

In the present work, a non-oxygenated bio-based fuel (HVO) of paraffinic nature was studied and compared with market diesel in a light-duty common rail Euro 5 engine. Exhaust emissions under steady-state operation and during the NEDC were evaluated. Furthermore, the effect of EGR and Main Injection Timing (MIT) on exhaust emissions at steady-state operation with both tested fuels was examined. The use of the HVO fuel enables appreciable reductions in soot, HC and CO emissions without any modification to the engine control. However, the effect of the HVO fuel on NO x emission is not clear.

The results have shown that retarding the injection timing may be a good option for reducing simultaneously NO x and soot emissions with the HVO fuel, since the penalty in soot is limited. Actually, soot emissions with the HVO fuel at retarded injection timing remain lower than the respective values with market diesel at default MIT setting, while the other emissions receive also lower values compared to market diesel. Of course, the fuel consumption penalty must be also considered, which, however, is lower for the HVO fuel. This does not seem to be the case with EGR, which was found to influence emissions in a similar manner for both fuels, with the penalty being lower for the HVO fuel at increased EGR rate, while NO x reduction did not present any appreciable difference between the two fuels. However, more studies have to be made in order to end up to general conclusions concerning the effect of EGR and injection strategy.

Author Contributions

ADimit worked on data processing and drafted the text of the paper. IN worked on the main part of experimental data processing. ADimar made the critical revision of the experimental results and the text of the paper. DK was responsible for the experimental activity. ZS had the overall management of the work and reviewed the paper. SB reviewed the paper. KL provided the HVO fuel and reviewed the paper.

Funding

The authors would like to acknowledge support of this work by the project Development of the Research Infrastructure Centre of Excellence for Future Vehicle Environmental Performance - FuVEP (MIS 5002370) which is implemented under the Action Reinforcement of the Research and Innovation Infrastructure, funded by the Operational Programme Competiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation (NSRF 2014-2020) and co-financed by Greece and the European Union (European Regional Development Fund).

Conflict of Interest Statement

KL was employed by company Neste Oil Corporation.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmech.2018.00007/full#supplementary-material

Abbreviations

BSFC, Brake Specific Fuel Consumption; BTL, Biomass-To-Liquid; CFPP, Cold Filter Plugging Point; CP, Cloud Point; CI, Compression Ignition; CO, Carbon Oxide; CO ₂, Carbon Dioxide; DME, Dimethyl ether; ECU, Electronic Control Unit; EGR, Exhaust Gas Recirculation; FAME, Free Fatty Methyl Esters; FT, Fischer-Tropsch; GTL, Gas-To-Liquid; HC, Hydrocarbons; HDC, Hydro-decarboxylation; HDO, Hydrodeoxygenation; HVO, Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil; HWCO, Hydrotreated Waste Cooking Oil; IT, Injection Timing; NEDC, New European Driving Cycle; NO x, Nitric Oxides; PM, Particulate Matter.

Footnotes

References

Aatola, H., Larmi, M., Sarjovaara, T., and Mikkonen, S. (2008). Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) as a Renewable Diesel Fuel: Trade-off between NO x, Particulate Emission, and Fuel Consumption of a Heavy-Duty Engine. SAE World Congress. Paper No. 2008-01-2500.

Lindfors, L. P. (2010). High Quality Transportation Fuels From Renewable Feedstock. Neste Corporation. XXIst World Energy Congress Montreal, Canada September 12-16.

Mizushima, N., Sato, S., Kawano, D., Saito, A., and Takada, Y. (2012). A Study on NO x Emission Characteristics When Using Biomass-Derived Diesel Alternative Fuels. SAE World Congress 2012, Paper 2012-01-1316.

Murtonen, T., and Aakko-Saksa, P. (2009). Alternative Fuels With Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles. VTTs Contribution. Julkaisija Utgivare Publisher, VTT Working Papers, 128, 109-117.
Google Scholar
Murtonen, T., Aakko-Saksa, P., Kuronen, M., Mikkonen, S., and Lehtoranta, K. (2009). Emissions With Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines and Vehicles Using FAME, HVO and GTL Fuels With and Without DOC+ POC Aftertreatment. SAE paper 2009-01-2693.

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Evaluation of a Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) and Effects on Emissions of a Passenger Car Diesel Engine

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In the coming years, the application of paraffinic biofuels, such as Hydrotreated Vegetable Oils (HVO), in the transportation sector is expected to increase. However, as the composition of HVO is different compared to conventional diesel, the engine optimized for conventional fuel cannot take full advantage of the HVO beneficial properties.

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Secret Life of Machines - Internal Combustion

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Secret Life of Machines - Internal Combustion

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The Secret Life of the Engine - remastered

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HVO biodiesel is now the fuel of choice for all machines at the Volvo CE Customer Center in Eskilstuna, Sweden. HVO is a form of renewable synthetic diesel, its acronym standing for 'hydrogen-treated vegetable oil'. Forming a small part in the company's journey towards a more sustainable future, HVO produces barely any trace of CO2. It's a clean form of fuel, while also remaining in-use performance comparable to regular diesel.

Unlike some other biofuels, HVO isn't particularly sensitive to low or high temperatures, or to exposure to sunlight. Also, due to the use of hydrogen in the production process, HVO has an impressive shelf life, compared to other biodiesel.

Using HVO means that Volvo can significantly reduce its CO2 emissions at the Customer Center, as well as demonstrating to guests how well the fuel works in practice.

A conversation with Karl Serneberg, Director of Marketing, Volvo CE, shed light on Volvo's eco-focused decision. "Not only does the fuel-in-use have a very low carbon footprint, we also looked at HVO from a total supply chain perspective, and source it from the closest possible producer, making the overall environmental impact even more positive," he said.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND

A key aspect of why HVO wasn't implemented sooner is due to availability. HVO is a relatively new fuel that wasn't widely available until recently, so establishing a consistent supply was paramount before proceeding with a full implementation.

Serneberg commented: "Volvo CE approves all of our machines to run on HVO. No special modifications to the engine are required, and they work just as efficiently on HVO as they do with regular diesel.

"We have been using HVO at the Customer Center since last summer. Before we could do that there were some practicalities to get sorted, for instance cleaning the oil tanks. Then, the first delivery of HVO was at the end of August, and we have been successfully running our machines at the Center on HVO ever since."

HVO is now more easily accessible for customers to source, and the difference in price compared to normal diesel is dropping. The fuel uses the same type of tanks and pumps, making the switch to this fuel almost unnoticeable to the customer.

THE FUTURE OF HVO FOR VOLVO

The use of HVO at the Customer Center is more than an 'eco trial' for Volvo CE. Machine demonstrations will continue to solely use HVO and its use will be highlighted in the presentations, thereby encouraging customers to become more eco-efficient in their own operations.

"Volvo strives to create a more sustainable world," Serneberg said. "It's all part of the bigger journey we are on, driving Volvo CE into a cleaner future and building the world we want to live in."

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Sustainability in focus when shifting to HVO fuel at Volvo CE Customer Center

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HVO biodiesel is now the fuel of choice for all machines at the Volvo CE Customer Center in Eskilstuna, Sweden. HVO is a form of renewable synthetic diesel, its acronym standing for 'hydrogen-treated vegetable oil'. Forming a small part in the company's journey towards a more sustainable future, HVO produces barely any trace of CO2.

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CPA Red Diesel FAQs and guidance - March 2022

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What is cetane and how does it impact combustion?

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As the piston rises in a diesel engine, air is compressed to very high pressures, which also generates temperatures capable of igniting diesel fuel. Therefore, combustion timing is controlled by when the diesel fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. In reality, the combustion does not start instantaneously.

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The cetane number (CN) is an indicator of the ignitibility of diesel fuels. It provides information about the ignition delay, i.e. the speed of self-ignition of diesel fuel when injected into hot air through the fuel injector. In an engine that works on the diesel principle, the cetane number is authoritative for describing the quality of the combustion process. Higher cetane numbers mean shorter ignition delay and at the same time a better performance of the diesel engine: The injected fuel burns more evenly and completely, which usually results in higher-quality exhaust air, especially with regard to soot, particulate matter and unburned hydrocarbons. The ignition properties of a fuel not only affect exhaust properties, but also the combustion noise. If the ignition delay is high, for example due to a low cetane number, most of the injected fuel burns explosively. This leads to the typical loud diesel combustion noise ("knocking").

The DIN 51773 standard describes how the cetane number is determined: The test fuel is burned in a specific test engine (BASF engine or CFR engine). A mixture of n-hexadecane (formerly cetane) and 1-methylnaphthalene is sought that has the same ignition quality in the same test engine as the fuel in question. Pure cetane is assigned the highest cetane number, i.e. 100 (most ignitable) and pure 1-methylnaphthalene the lowest cetane number 0 (least ignitable). The cetane number describes the percentage of cetane found in the mixture that corresponds to the ignition quality of the test fuel. So a fuel with a cetane number of 50 is exactly as ignitable as a mixture of 50% cetane and 50% 1-methylnaphthalene. Instead of 1-methylnaphthalene, heptamethylnonane (with a cetane number of 15) can also be used as the non-ignitable reference fuel.

The DIN EN 590 standard prescribes that a diesel fuel must have a cetane number of at least 51. But fuels can have higher values of 60 or in exceptional cases even 80. Such (usually more expensive) fuels can burn completely, even under unfavorable engine conditions (e.g. at high engine speeds). Because this means that no unburned or partially burned fuel components enter the exhaust, a higher exhaust gas quality is achieved. The cetane number a fuel needs to have for a given engine depends on the latter's construction type (compression ratio, geometry of the combustion chamber, arrangement of the injectors):

Large stationary diesel engines or engines that run slowly need diesel fuels with cetane numbers between 20 and 40,

Older diesel engines and older car engines require a cetane number above 40,

High-speed, modern diesel engines, especially vehicle engines, need cetane numbers above 52.

The cetane number of diesel fuel can be increased by mixing in certain additives such as tetranitromethane, amyl nitrate, acetone peroxide and 2-ethylhexyl nitrate. However, these additives increase the toxicity of the fuel. In winter, their addition may be necessary to provide sufficient fuel flowability even in heavy frost.

Biodiesel as a biofuel has a cetane number of 56-58, making it an excellent alternative to conventional diesel fuel. Unprocessed vegetable oils usually have low cetane numbers, burn incompletely, and are therefore a much poorer choice for diesel engines. "Gas-to-liquid" diesel, which is produced as a synthetic fuel from gases - such as natural gas or methane gas from biomass gasification - can have extremely high cetane numbers of 75 to 80. One reason for the high cetane numbers achieved by gas-to-liquid diesel is that such synthetic fuels contain no aromatics (cyclic compounds). Use of synthetic diesel could replace the sometimes toxic mix of additives that gives conventional diesel fuel higher cetane numbers.

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The cetane number (CN) is an indicator of the ignitibility of diesel fuels. It provides information about the ignition delay, i.e. the speed of self-ignition of diesel fuel when injected into hot air through the fuel injector. In an engine that works on the diesel principle, the cetane number is authoritative for describing the quality of the combustion process.

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What Cetane Value Does in Diesel Engines

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The cetane value of diesel fuel is a measure of the fuel’s delay of ignition time.

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Air conditioning and climate control systems

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Air conditioning and climate control systems

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AC Avalanche - Auto Air Conditioning 101 Made Easy

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Why R1234yf?

R1234yf meets the EU MAC Directive requirement to use a refrigerant gas with a GWP of less than 150 in new vehicles.

How is the EU MAC Directive relevant to R1234yf?

The EU Mobile Air Conditioning (MAC) Directive of 2006 aimed to introduce measures that limited
emissions of certain greenhouse gases from car air conditioning and reduce their impact on climate
change. From 2011, it stated that all new vehicle types had to be built using a refrigerant gas with a
GWP (Global Warming Potential) value below 150. From 2017 this ruling had to be rolled out across
all new vehicles. GWP is a measurement used to measure the potential impact of the gas if it is
released to the atmosphere.

R1234yf is the refrigerant that meets the EU MAC Directive requirement with a GWP of less than 1.
R1234yf is used in every single new car manufactured for the EU market from 2017.

Can I still use R134a?

Yes. R134a is a refrigerant that is still used in older vehicles and those vehicle models that weren't updated any time before 2017. There is still a need for R134a refrigerant when top ups or re-gassing is required, as R1234yf is not a retrofit option for these vehicles.

Why choose Climalife for Car Air Conditioning refrigerant gas?

Climalife is a key player in the distribution of low GWP refrigerants such as R1234yf and is already a recognised long term supplier of R134a to the automotive industry. Climalife has R1234yf readily available in 5kg or 11kg cylinders and continue to supply R134a. Climalife supply car air conditioning refrigerants via its nationwide distribution partners. Contact us for more details on 0117 980 2520.

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Climalife are recognised long term suppliers of R1234yf, R-134a and other Car Air Conditioning Refrigerants to the Automotive Industry. Visit www.climalife.co.uk/r1234yf for more information on R1234yf or call 0117 980 2520 for R1234yf and R134a stock details. Visit www.climalife.co.uk/r134a for R134a information.

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How the heck does A/C actually cool air? | SCIENCE GARAGE

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The coolant is one of those fluids that everyone ignores and ends up being forgotten and used for years and years in the car's cooling system. Not many know the importance of the different colors that are available today. Let's learn more."

The Different Colors of Coolant

If an engine is used without coolant (antifreeze), it can suffer extended damage especially during winter. In the summer time, cooling can be obtained using plain water in an emergency situation although not recommended much beyond this since it's much easier to boil over as well. Also in wintertime, water solidifies (freezes) and expands in volume which can crack your engine block, radiator and heater cores. This is the reason coolant is mixed with distilled water in a minimum 50/50 proportion. It lowers the freeze point of the coolant to protect it from freezing, even in the worst winter conditions. Coolant in the summer time works as an anti-boil and protects the system components from corrosion, which is a big deal especially with aluminum components.

What are the benefits of using coolant?

Has the role of helping the engine to cool in the summer time (it keeps the engine from boiling over). Also protects the engine from freezing during winter.

However, besides these well known benefits, there are also others worth mentioning:

Anti-corrosive. (The fluid will not attack the metals it comes in contact with and it won't destroy it over time)

Prevents deposits. (Prevents limestone deposits and others similar to it which could reduce the cooling system's efficiency)

Anti-foam. (Coolant has special additives in it that prevents foam from forming. If foam appears, the cooling system's efficiency might be reduced)

How often should the coolant liquid be changed?

Theoretically it should be good for an indefinite period. This is in theory, however in real world conditions, regardless of it's quality, coolant (antifreeze) should be changed once every 2-5 years (average time after which it loses much of its benefits, unless specifically formulated as 'lifetime' on the bottle).

One should not forget to change their coolant because in the winter time, the engine can suffer irremediable damage.

Coolant (Antifreeze) liquid is tested using a device called an Antifreeze/Coolant Tester. This can be found at any car shop/parts store or online. Another option is just to simply ask the mechanic to test your coolant efficiency before winter settles in.

How many types of coolant liquids are available?

Coolant (Antifreeze) can be found in more than 1 color. This can be confusing for people who don't know what each color indicates. We will break it down for you to better understand why this liquid comes in a multitude of colors. Colors include blue, yellow, green, red, pink, turquoise, orange and purple.

Because a vehicle can pretty much run any type of coolant which is safe for aluminum, you should consider the type depending on the kind of protection you're seeking from it(prevents corrosion and preserves the metals and aluminum parts) and also depending on how often you desire to flush your coolant system.

There are 3 types of coolants:

Inorganic Acid Technology (IAT)

Commonly used in the cars produced in USA between 1920 and 1990.
This contains silicates and phosphate corrosion inhibitors to protect metal parts such as the radiator and engine.
Usually found in a bright green color, it is recommended to be flushed out of the cooling system every 30,000 miles or every 2 years. It's typically used in older cars manufactured before the mid 1990s ( Domestic vehicles from '20s to '90s, GM, Ford, Chrysler)

Organic Acid Technology (OAT)

Present in newer cars all over the world, OAT coolant color ranges from pink, orange, bright red, red, blue and dark green.

Organic Additive Technology as it is referred to in some owner's manuals, is the same as Organic Acid Technology, unless your owner's manual says differently. Both are considered an OAT Antifreeze / Coolant. They use carboxylic acids as the 'additive', to inhibit corrosion.

These antifreeze /coolants do not contain silicates or phosphates, however OAT coolants contain corrosion inhibitors that enable it to last for a much longer period of time. Special additives are used to prevent rust and corrosion, however metal parts could support some wear in time. It is recommended to be flushed out of the cooling system every 135,000 miles or every 10 years. Typically used in newer cars. While usable in older model cars also, it is best to check the owners manual to make sure that OAT coolants would be safe and effectively used. (Typically used in Chrysler, GM, VW, Honda, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Toyota)

As a side note, if you own a Chrysler (Jeep, RAM, etc.) vehicle that calls for OAT Coolant in your owner's manual, such as Mopar 68163849AB - 50/50 Prediluted 10 Year Antifreeze / Coolant... your local Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, RAM dealer may have the best price and availability in their parts department. Many people have found this to be the case.

Hybrid Organic Acid Technology (HOAT)

A mix between IAT and OAT coolants, it is designed for new cars. This contains added silicates that increase aluminium protection and prevents corrosion. Additives are also present to prevent rusting. To differentiate these a little easier, HOAT coolants are found in yellow, turquoise, pink, blue or purple colors.
It is recommended to be flushed out of the system every 150,000 miles or 5 years. (Typically used in Major European, German and Asian car manufacturers, some Chrysler vehicles)

Rule of thumb, if your car was born with a specific coolant color, you shouldn't change it. OAT works great in systems that were built for it but does poorly in old-style radiators that use lead solder. It tends to attack and eat (destroy) the radiator from the inside-out and works too slowly to protect the radiator from corrosion. However this doesn't happen overnight, it might take some time until your radiator is damaged.

Important to remember is that conventional and OAT coolant types don't go together. Never mix them together in your radiator unless specifically designed to be mixes with other types, because in the long run it can end up destroying your system.

Also pay attention to the coolant system capacity as written in your owners manual. Proper coolant level is important. Having less in the system than the designed capacity lowers efficiency and can result in overheating.

Mixing different coolants together does not boost their benefits. For example adding OAT/HOAT to a IAT coolant does not provide the IAT coolant with a longer life, however it cancels OAT/HOAT benefits and makes the mixed concoction only good up to a maximum of 2 years or less in some cases. Also it is believed by some that mixing coolants in a radiator might lead to coolant gelling in the right unfortunate circumstances.

How to prepare your coolant?

Coolant comes in a concentrated formula and needs to be mixed with water at a 50-50 ratio for it to work, unless it is marked otherwise and already premixed for you. Even if modern coolants are able to work with today's level of chlorides and hardness found in tap water, users are advised to create the mix using distilled water to reduce corrosion levels.
Tap water contains magnesium, calcium and hardness ions that contribute to scale and deposits in your radiator that reduce cooling efficiency. Also it contains chlorides that can be very corrosive.

When mixing coolant and distilled water together, carefully follow the percentages on the bottle depending on your specifics. (for example, if winters are harsher, most coolants recommend a mix of 40% distilled water and 60% coolant)

Best practices

When you decide to change your antifreeze/coolant liquid make sure you replace it with the same color or that your car is compatible with other colors (see owner manual).

When changing the coolant, it is best to drain it all and then top off with water/distilled water, start the engine and let it circulate completely and then drain again. For best results, this should be done 2-3 times. This helps evacuate the coolant from even the deepest parts, nooks and crannies of your cooling system and also helps dislocate any old deposits that might have formed.

Add the new coolant using the tips above and make sure you at least follow the 50-50 ratio. Best would be to read the instructions on the label to prepare the PERFECT mix.
Even though it may sound good or even tempting to add more coolant than water, in reality this reduces the efficiency of the coolant liquid.

In order to reduce the risk of deposits and to keep the protection levels high, it is recommended that the system is heated and circulated at least every 30 days. This applies to all coolant liquids.

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Changing your coolant is one of the easiest tasks. But do you know what color your radiator runs on and why? Learn more today...

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Here are some of the steps that need to be taken when diagnosing problems with air-conditioning systems:

When The Compressor Won't Operate

Check the wiring and make sure the proper voltage is getting to the compressor coil using a multimeter, (not sure how to use a multimeter, view this online multimeter tutorial). Without the proper voltage the coil will not have enough power to fully engage the clutch causing it to slip and burn out. This may also create heat and ruin the front seal on the pump. If there's no power at the compressor then the machines wiring harness will need to be inspected for any damage or breaks. Also the check the connections for corrosion or bad contacts, if these are found to be rusted then you'll need to clean them or in worse cases get them repaired.

All components such as the blower motor switch, thermostatic switch or pressure switch will need to be tested for proper operation. The first operation is to check the blower motor switch. The blower motor switch should pass on voltage in all three positions, low, medium and high, to the thermostatic switch. The thermostatic switch should pass on current when the switch is turned to a colder setting than what the capillary tube is sensing from the evaporator. The current will then pass through the high and low pressure switches as long as the pressure is not above the high pressure switch settings or below the low pressure switch settings. When everything is working together the current will make its way to the compressor and engage the clutch.

If the compressor still won't engage the next step will be to check the fuse or the pressure switches. Some systems have inline fuses that are wired between the machine harness and the compressor coil. This fuse will need to be checked to see if it is blown, if it is then it will need to be replaced with a suitable replacement fuse.

Check the compressor to see if it's working, if the current is getting all the way to the compressor coil and it won't engage you will need to check the compressor for proper grounding. The coil will need to be tested for proper operation. If the coil is okay, check the clutch for any damage or for a gap that is too large between the plates preventing the coil from engaging. With all of these components working correctly the compressor should now engage.

What happens when the inline fuse is blown

If the fuse was blown it needs to be replaced, once replaced and the compressor is running the cause of the fuse blowing needs to be found. AC systems that have a fuse are designed to blow when the compressor starts to pull a vacuum from being low on refrigerant to protect itself from locking up. When the compressor is engaged watch the low pressure it will start off at its equalized pressure but as the compressor starts to pump it will pull a vacuum when the system is low on refrigerant.

On some models with a fuse setup it will have a low pressure sensor on the back of the compressor that will ground out the fuse causing it to blow and shut off the power to the compressor. Once the fuse is blown the system will not run again until the fuse is replaced. Systems that do not have a fuse will have a low pressure switch. This switch will sense low pressure and cut off the power to the compressor. After the compressor shuts off the pressures will equalize, the low pressure switch will sense that the pressure is up and will re-engage the compressor until it senses a vacuum again. It will then shut the compressor off again, this will continue to cycle until the proper amount of refrigerant is added to fill the system. If the system is low on refrigerant check the system components for leaks. There are two ways to do so using a Freon detector which actually draws in air and tries to detect the scent of refrigerant gas informing you where the leak might be. Another way to find the leak is by using the die detection method where dye is injected into the system along with the refrigerant. It is best to do this at the time of original installation of components this will help the dye to show up at the site of the leak when it occurs. The dye will only glow under a black light, this method works very effectively and is a fast way to find a leak. If there's a faulty line MalpasOnline carries a wide variety of replacement lines that can be found referencing the original equipment manufacturers part numbers (OEM). Having the actual type of connection of the line is also very helpful since the system on your tractor could have been altered at some point in time.

Depending on the refrigerant used, one way to find out if the system is full is to look into the site glass and look for bubbles, you can use this way to fill the system by watching the site glass while filling keep adding refrigerant until the bubbles have disappeared. Perhaps the best way is to evacuate down the system with a reclaimer to remove all Freon and start from the beginning adding the proper amount per manufacturer specifications. If at any time you are unsure on filling the system then you should seek profession help.

Low Pressure Diagnostics

After checking for proper refrigerant levels if the system is full but the gauges are showing a vacuum on the low side a plugged expansion valve could also be a possible problem. If this is the case the system needs to be evacuated and the expansion valve must be replaced with a new one. When doing this the system will be opened and the receiver dryer will also need to be replaced. MalpasOnline has them categorised by machine model however a visual check of the size, style and connector type can also be identified in our online range. If you determine that your expansion valve is defective we carry several styles. The block style looks like this one below, all block style expansion valves appear to be the same but are made with different port and thread sizes. The o-ring and flare style will look similar to the image below but are available in different fitting sizes. This style expansion valve is built with a variety of capillary tube styles

(Expansion valve styles, Flared & O-ring)

High Pressure Diagnostics

Let's take a look at the high pressure gauge to determine if there's a problem. High side pressure in normal conditions will be around 150 psi depending on the ambient temperature this can range from 100 to 250 psi. The higher the ambient temperature the higher the pressure gauge will read. If the gauge is reading higher than normal pressures the first thing to check is the condenser. When the temperature is excessively high it means the condenser is not being cooled down and will need to be checked out. The condenser must be cleaned and unrestricted from dirt to work properly. When the fan does not cool down the condenser the temperature will steadily increase until the pressure switch shuts the compressor off. On systems with a high pressure switch the switch will cut off power to the compressor until the pressure comes down, after the pressure comes down it will reengage the compressor. On systems that don't have a high pressure switch they will have a superheat switch that will blow when it reaches 430 psi, this is located on the backside of the compressor. Once this switch is blown it will need to be replaced. The condenser must have proper airflow to cool the refrigerant to bring the high-pressure gas to a liquid state. If it's not cooled down properly it will cause the whole system to heat up and may cause the compressor to fail prematurely. If you find your condenser or evaporator to be defective or damaged MalpasOnline sells new replacements, they are categorized by model application in the air conditioning section.

Older Agricultural Vehicles Without Air-conditioning

If your tractor is not fitted with an air conditioning unit then did you know that one be can retro-fit as described in Farmers Weekly online. They say that "fitting an air-conditioning unit to an older tractor, handler or combine that didn't come with it in the first place can be complicated and costly. However a new quick-fit system from French manufacturer Hygloo could make the process simpler and cheaper. Typical cost of the whole system is £1,950. Not cheap, but it could make life much more pleasant for any driver in an older tractor having to do long hours in hot weather."

Looking for other Air Conditioning Parts?

NEW: Have you seen our new website dedicated to cab blower motor assemblies? Visit www.malpasairflow.co.uk

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Air Conditioning | How to diagnose problems | Malpasonline

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Here are some of the steps that need to be taken when diagnosing problems with air-conditioning systems: Check the wiring and make sure the proper voltage is getting to the compressor coil using a multimeter, (not sure how to use a multimeter, view this online multimeter tutorial).

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Coolant temperature sensors are used by the fuel management system to detect the engine's operating temperature. Depending on the sensor information, the control unit adapts the injection time and firing angle to the operating conditions. The sensor is a temperature sensor with a negative temperature coefficient. This means that the internal resistance reduces as the temperature increases.

The resistance of the temperature sensor changes depending on coolant temperature. As the temperature increases, the resistance is reduced, which reduces the voltage at the sensor. The control unit evaluates these voltage values, since they are directly related to the coolant temperature (low temperatures result in high voltage values at the sensor, and high temperatures result in low voltage values).

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Coolant temperature sensor testing | HELLA

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Coolant temperature sensor | Function ✓ Coolant temperature sensor faults✓ Checking the coolant temperature sensor for faults ✓ Tips for the workshop ✓

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Join a game of kahoot here. Kahoot! is a free game-based learning platform that makes it fun to learn - any subject, in any language, on any device, for all ages!

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How to set up and operate a bulldozer using GPS blade control

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JCB is moving to hydrogen power for all their big machinery. Here’s why.

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Why JCB thinks hydrogen is the best alternative to diesel for heavy machinery, farming and HGV fleet

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How does a cars Air Conditioning system work?

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Hey, In this animation I explain the basics of how a vehicles AC system works. I make reference to the pressure inside the system which is really important for the system to work correctly. On average you should have approximately 1.2 - 2bar (17 - 29 PSI) on the low pressure side and approximately 10 -15bar (145 - 217 PSI) on the high pressure side.

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Have you ever wondered about your GPS accuracy?

A well-designed GPS receiver can achieve a horizontal accuracy of 3 meters or better.

For vertical accuracy, it can achieve an accuracy of 5 meters or better 95% of the time. Augmented GPS systems can provide sub-meter accuracy.

But it's still not perfect. What are the sources of GPS errors that can leave you meters off your mark?

What Lowers GPS Accuracy?

Here are possible ways that can lower the accuracy of a GPS receiver.

For example, the geometry, atmospheric conditions, and even nearby objects can reduce the quality of a GPS signal.

Here are the main causes of error and degradation:

GDOP/PDOP - Geometric/Position Dilution of Precision

GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) or PDOP (position dilution of precision) describes the error caused by the relative position of the GPS satellites.

Basically, the more signals a GPS receiver can "see" (spread apart versus close together), the more precise it can be.

From the observer's point of view, if the satellites are spread apart in the sky, then the GPS receiver has a good GDOP.

But if the satellites are physically close together, then you have poor GDOP. This lowers the quality of your GPS positioning potentially by meters.
READ MORE: Trilateration vs Triangulation - How GPS Receivers Work

Atmosphere Refraction

The troposphere and ionosphere can change the speed of propagation of a GPS signal. Due to atmospheric conditions, the atmosphere refracts the satellite signals as they pass through on their way to the earth's surface.

To fix this, GPS can use two separate frequencies to minimize propagation speed error. Depending on conditions, this type of GPS error could offset the position anywhere from 5 meters.

Multipath Effects

One possible error source in GPS calculations is the multipath effect. Multipath occurs when the GPS satellite signal bounces off of nearby structures like buildings and mountains.

In effect, your GPS receiver detects the same signal twice at different ranges. However, this error is a bit less concerning and could cause anywhere from 1 meter of position error.

Satellite Time and Location (Ephemeris)

The accuracy of a GPS satellite's atomic clock is one nanosecond for each clock tick. That's pretty impressive stuff.

Using the trilateration of time signals in orbit, GPS receivers on the ground can obtain accurate positions. But due to the inaccuracy of the satellite's atomic clock being synchronized, this can offset a position measurement by 2 meters or so.
READ MORE: Geosynchronous vs Geostationary Orbits
The ephemeris information contains details about that specific satellite's location. But if you don't know their exact location at a particular time, this can be a source of error.

Selective Availability

Before May 2000, the United States government added time-varying obfuscated code to the Global Positioning System. Except for privileged groups like the US military and its allies, this intentionally degraded GPS accuracy.

This whole process of degrading a GPS signal is called selective availability. With selective availability enabled, signals added 50 meters of error horizontally and 100 meters vertically. All things considered, this significantly reduced GPS accuracy.

At the time, differential GPS was able to correct. But after 2000, this source of GPS error no longer was much of a concern as the selective availability switch was turned off.

How to Improve GPS Accuracy

Despite all the potential types of errors that can reduce the accuracy of a GPS, there are ways to improve accuracy.

For example, the two major techniques are:

GPS Differential Correction

Satellite-based Augmentation System (SBAS)

Let's take a closer look at how these two GPs correction methods work.

Differential GPS

DGPS receivers improve accuracy using two receivers because ground-based receivers can take accurate measurements of the error.

As long as the stationary GPS receiver detects the same satellite signals as your GPS receiver, it can send you correction data based on its precisely surveyed location.

Satellite-based Augmentation System (SBAS)

This augmented system broadcasts the corrected error in real-time along with the GPS signal.

As a matter of fact, this is the principal idea of a satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) and can provide sub-meter GPS accuracy.

A Guide to GPS Accuracy

HDOP/PDOP, multipath and atmospheric effects are some of the common sources of GPS error.

All of these types of GPS errors could lower GPS accuracy.

With the selective availability switch now turned off, we have gained significant improvements in GPS accuracy.

And with techniques like Differential GPS and Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS), positions can improve to sub-meter accuracy.

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GPS Accuracy: HDOP, PDOP, GDOP, Multipath & the Atmosphere - GIS Geography

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Have you ever wondered about your GPS accuracy? A well-designed GPS receiver can achieve a horizontal accuracy of 3 meters or better. For vertical accuracy, it can achieve an accuracy of 5 meters or better 95% of the time. Augmented GPS systems can provide sub-meter accuracy. But it's still not perfect.

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Internal engine component measurement L3 JT version

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Vernier Calliper Answers hard to read ones

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How to Read a Metric Micrometer by WeldNotes.com

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How GPS Receivers Work - Trilateration vs Triangulation - GIS Geography

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Have you ever wondered how your GPS receiver works? They use a technique called trilateration, which measures distances, not angles as in triangulation.

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Volvo Penta & CMB.TECH partner on dual-fuel hydrogen engines.

Building on a successful collaboration, Volvo Penta and CMB.TECH wish to announce a partnership agreement designed to accelerate the development of dual-fuel hydrogen-powered solutions for both on land and at sea applications.

The strengthened collaboration will include joint projects ranging from pilots to small scale industrialization, providing increased access to this important technology for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

CMB.TECH owns, operates, and designs large marine and industrial applications powered by hydrogen and ammonia - fuels that it both manufactures and supplies to its customers. Volvo Penta is a world-leading and global manufacturer of engines and complete power systems for boats, vessels, and industrial applications.

The companies have worked together in pilot projects since 2017 successfully adapting Volvo Penta engines to run as a dual-fuel hydrogen and diesel solution via the conversion kit provided by CMB.TECH.

A low-carbon solution

The strengthened collaboration will create synergies aimed at leveraging the competences and product offerings of both companies - establishing dual-fuel hydrogen technology as a low-carbon interim solution before suitable zero-emissions alternatives become viable. It is an important step in Volvo Penta's and CMB.TECH's joint ambition to help accelerate their customers' transition to net-zero emissions.

The partnership will cover pilot projects and small-scale industrialization of a hydrogen dual-fuel solution for selected customers.

Roy Campe, Chief Technology Officer at CMB.TECH said:

From the initial dual-fuel technology projects we have seen reductions of CO2 emissions up to 80%.

"It is clear that the energy transition is a major challenge in many types of applications. With the dual-fuel technology we have been developing over the last few years, we can provide a cost-effective and robust solution for a variety of applications. We think there is huge potential in this solution for customers, both on land and at sea."

The whole Volvo Group is working intensively to explore solutions to reduce - and ultimately eliminate - greenhouse gas emissions. Volvo Penta strives to team up with suppliers, partners, and customers to accelerate the journey into fossil-free fuels for both on land and at sea applications.

Heléne Mellquist, President of Volvo Penta, said:

The development in this area is moving fast and with this partnership we see a great opportunity to further explore and be part of increasing the use and availability of hydrogen solutions.

"I believe that this dual-fuel approach will appeal to many of our customers by its ease of installation, maintenance, and use. In addition, it will help accelerate our customers' transition to more sustainable operations".

Dual-fuel technology

The dual-fuel solution's main advantage is that it will reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases while at the same time provide a robust and reliable solution. And, if hydrogen is not available, the application continues to run on traditional fuel, safeguarding productivity.

The design and testing of the hydrogen-injection system will take place at CMB.TECH's Technology and Development Centre in Brentwood, UK. Here, Volvo Penta engines will be tested to optimize the hydrogen-diesel injection strategy for maximum reliability and emission savings.

Roy Campe, Chief Technology Officer of CMB.TECH, said:

The simplicity of the dual fuel technology allows a quick introduction into many applications.

"The potential to decarbonize with green hydrogen is huge, but many applications require a fallback scenario of traditional fuel to maintain a viable business. With the dual fuel technology, your asset is future proof, even without a full coverage of a reliable hydrogen infrastructure today".

"This solution is a valuable tool to have on our way to reaching our ambitious commitment to the Science Based Targets initiative where we aim to reach net-zero value chain emissions by 2040," concludes Heléne.

"There is no 'one-solution-fits-all' answer, which is why Volvo Penta is investing heavily in exploring a wide range of sustainable and bridging technologies - such as hybridization, electric drivelines, fuel cells and alternative fuels for combustion engines - giving customers the opportunity to find the technology that works best for their application."

READ the latest news shaping the hydrogen market at Hydrogen Central

Volvo Penta & CMB.TECH partner on dual-fuel hydrogen engines, October 6, 2022

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Volvo Penta & CMB.TECH Partner on Dual-fuel Hydrogen Engines - Hydrogen Central

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Volvo Penta & CMB.TECH partner on dual-fuel hydrogen engines. Building on a successful collaboration, Volvo Penta and CMB.TECH wish to announce a partnership agreement designed to accelerate the development of dual-fuel hydrogen-powered solutions for both on land and at sea applications.

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Deutz Agtron K610 Air Conditioning Wiring Assignment

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Deutz Agtron K610 Air con service manual extracts

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Deutz Agtron K610 Air con service manual extracts

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Blank L3 College & IMI Job Report Onefile