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A Framework for Conceptualizing and Evaluating the Validity of Instructionally Relevant Assessments

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A Framework for Conceptualizing and Evaluating the Validity of Instructionally Relevant Assessments

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http://www.projectreadi.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/A-Framework-for-Conceptualizing-and-Evaluating-the-Validity-of-Instructionally-Relevant-Assessments.pdf

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https://www.nap.edu/read/18409/chapter/8

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Read “Developing Assessments for the Next Generation Science Standards” at NAP.edu

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Read chapter 6 Designing an Assessment System: Assessments, understood as tools for tracking what and how well students have learned, play a critical role...

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Making Math Meaningful for Young Children

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Making Math Meaningful for Young Children

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https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/tyc/oct2014/making-math-meaningful

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Children are natural mathematicians. They push and pull toys, stack blocks, and fill and empty cups of water in the bathtub. All of these activities allow young children to experience math concepts as they experiment with spatial awareness, measurement, and problem solving (ETFO 2010; NAEYC 2010). Young children easily learn as they describe, explain, and consider the ideas from their immediate environment. Am I as tall as Yancey? How can I find out? I know! We can both stand next to each other in front of the mirror.

Early math is not about the rote learning of discrete facts like how much 5 + 7 equals. Rather, it's about children actively making sense of the world around them. Unlike drills or worksheets with one correct answer, open-ended, playful exploration encourages children to solve problems in real situations. Because the situations are meaningful, children can gain a deeper understanding of number, quantity, size, patterning, and data management (Grossman 2012). For example, it is easier to understand what six means when applied to a real-life task such as finding six beads to string on a necklace or placing one cracker on each of six plates.

Creating a math-rich classroom

Research suggests that preschool classrooms can be the ideal environment for learning about math (ETFO 2010). Children sort materials into corresponding bins at cleanup time, explore patterns and shapes while creating at the art table, tell time while using the visual schedule to predict which activities come next, and measure when they squeeze their bodies through the climber on the playground (ETFO 2010).

Preschool classrooms also celebrate curiosity and risk-taking as children engage in inquiry-based exploration at various learning centers and outdoors. Interesting items in the environment encourage children to find answers to their questions and solve problems across all curricular domains. Children measure as they clap out the beats to music. They repeat rhythmic patterns as they dance. They describe, sort, and count objects in the discovering science center and look for patterns while on a nature walk. They count the rungs while climbing up the ladder to the loft. Many familiar children's songs, stories, and poems contain mathematical messages that help familiarize children with counting, measuring, and patterning. For example, children can count along with "One, two, buckle my shoe" and "Ten little monkeys jumping on the bed."

In addition to offering blocks, buttons, and other loose materials to touch and explore, teachers can ask open-ended questions that promote problem solving and probe and challenge children's mathematical thinking and reasoning (Ontario Ministry of Education 2010). Such questions are not meant to elicit correct answers but rather to engage children in open-ended conversations that promote high-level thinking, such as What do you notice about these objects? How might we sort the toys? One of the foundations of play-based learning is that the teacher is active in the play, asking questions and adding knowledge and insight. The teacher learns together with children throughout the inquiry process.

Every preschool classroom needs to be rich with materials that encourage math exploration and learning. A well-stocked math and manipulatives center includes found objects such as shells, stones, bread tags, and sticks, as well as purchased materials. The center can include photos of completed geoboard creations or of children sorting coins in the dramatic play center. There might be narratives of children's learning, such as transcripts of children's comments and conversations, and artwork featuring pattern or shape exploration. Teachers can post documentation of math learning as a way of encouraging children to reflect on past experiences and motivate them to plan and revise future ones. These visuals can inspire even deeper, more connected learning. They help children maintain their focus on a particular topic, refine and expand their ideas, communicate their learning to others, and reflect on their experiences before making new plans.

Encourage children to play mathematically

Young children need to see themselves as capable mathematicians. Child-guided and child-focused explorations and teacher-guided math activities help children practice and consolidate their learning. This helps them feel confident about what they know and can do. Although many preschoolers learn some math concepts on their own, it's important for teachers to include math in authentic experiences, resulting in a deeper understanding by children (ETFO 2010).

In addition to creating a rich math and manipulatives learning center, teachers can encourage children to use math tools and strategies in all areas of the classroom. Children might use a set of plastic links to measure their buildings in the block center, use play money to pay for a train ticket in the dramatic play center, and use rulers to measure the growth of spring bulbs in the discovering science center. Take a set of scales outdoors so children can figure out who found the heaviest rock. Using math tools for real-life tasks frees both teachers and children to act spontaneously, resulting in richer interactions and a calmer learning environment (Wien 2004).

In addition to the freedom to use materials in authentic ways, children also need freedom of time and space to deeply engage in math. The preschool schedule should include plenty of time for uninterrupted play so children have the time they need to work on sustained tasks of interest. This allows children to explore materials thoroughly, often resulting in more complex and evolved experiences over time. If a child spends all of his time at one learning center, he is not missing out on learning opportunities elsewhere. Instead, his deep connection to the center is often indicative of rich learning. Teachers can model the use of other materials at the center, such as using writing materials to draw plans for a structure to be built, or pose challenges that encourage the child to think beyond her play, such as How tall can you build this tower before it falls?

To support learning, it is important to encourage children to communicate their explorations and findings. Teachers can establish a routine through which children share their experiences at group time. For example, a child might explain how he built a structure with blocks, do a dance with repeating steps, or share a photo of a complex pattern made with colorful buttons. While circulating through the room, a teacher might notice high-quality work and suggest that a child share it with her peers during group time. The child making the presentation grows in confidence and the onlookers may want to try the experience themselves.

Conclusion

Most children enter preschool knowing a lot about math. In a safe and supportive classroom they will feel comfortable taking risks and engaging in self-directed problem solving. Weaving math into all areas of the curriculum will heighten children's play experiences and allow all learners to experience success. Children will soon see themselves as capable mathematicians who apply their skills in a number of ways. Their growing math skills, confidence, and interests will serve them well in school and life.

Supporting Dual language learners

Children who are DLLs can learn math concepts and skills without being fluent in their second language. Much of the meaning is found in the right materials. If families send to the classroom familiar items from home, the children will know the name and function of the items in their home language. They can use this prior knowledge as a foundation to help them learn math. For example, young children may not understand how to sort plastic shapes, but they already know it is important to sort the baby's socks and daddy's socks in separate piles-a math activity that has real-life meaning in any language.

References

ETFO (Elementary Teachers' Federation of Ontario). 2010. Thinking It Through: Teaching and Learning in the Kindergarten Classroom. Toronto, ON: ETFO.

Grossman, S. 2012. "The Worksheet Dilemma: Benefits of Play-Based Curricula." Early Childhood News. www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=134.

NAEYC. 2010. "Early Childhood Mathematics: Promoting Good Beginnings." A joint position statement of NAEYC and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/psmath.pdf.

Ontario Ministry of Education. 2010. The Full-Day Early Learning-Kindergarten Program (draft version). Toronto, ON: Queen's Printer for Ontario. www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/elementary/kindergarten_english_june3.pdf.

Wien, C.A. 2004. "From Policing to Participation: Overturning the Rules and Creating Amiable Classrooms." Young Children 59 (1): 34-40. www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200401/Wien.pdf.

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Making Math Meaningful for Young Children

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Children are natural mathematicians. They push and pull toys, stack blocks, and fill and empty cups of water in the bathtub. All of these activities allow young children to experience math concepts as they experiment with spatial awareness, measurement, and problem solving (ETFO 2010; NAEYC 2010).

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https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/practice/improve/Pages/eitinterpret.aspx

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Team tools for making sense of student data.

Analysis and interpretation of data

The analysis and interpretation of data should support the fundamental purpose of assessment: establishing and understanding where learners are in an aspect of their learning at the time of assessment.

This is the domain of teacher professional judgement, where teachers work together to make sense of data and other forms of assessment evidence to see what this reveals about where students are in their development.

Data, information and artefacts become evidence when used to determine the presence or absence of what students know, understand, can do and are becoming

Achievement standards provide the lens that guides the analysis process to make judgements about where students are in their development

Scope and sequence charts developed for each learning area of the Victorian Curriculum provide a guide for teacher judgements

Analysis and interpretation of data and evidence has several components, including teachers working individually and together to:

'read' and understand what has been collected. Depending on the skills and experience of the teacher and the complexity of the data or evidence, this may require access to professional learning support

make sense of it in light of the intended learning and associated curriculum achievement standards. Sense making can be supported by structured learning conversations with colleagues and students to enable learning from and with each other

clarify what the evidence clearly indicates students know, understand and can do, what can be inferred from the evidence, and what needs further investigation in order to make a confident judgement based on a mix of data and evidence.

Structured discussions with colleagues can strengthen judgements that require inference from behaviours, including review of whether the assessment design accurately reveals a student's development.

For team dialogue

1. What aspects of learning development or progress do we want to better understand?

2. What is the best evidence to look at to work out how our students are going?

3. Which students do we want to focus on to anchor our analysis?

Tools

The following tools may offer guidance in leading dialogue in this area.

A protocol supporting teams of teachers to look closely at a piece of student work, and examine what it reveals about the student's learning and development, and also their interests, strengths, and struggles. Collaborative assessment conference: overview

A protocol supporting teams of teachers to make predictions, observations and inferences about data. Data driven dialogue

A protocol supporting teams of teachers to describe and interpret data, and identify implications for practice. Atlas - looking at data protocol

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Team tools for making sense of student data. The analysis and interpretation of data should support the fundamental purpose of assessment: establishing and understanding where learners are in an aspect of their learning at the time of assessment.

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https://www.edutopia.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/blogs/edutopia-finley-53ways-check-for-understanding.pdf

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Designing Assessments of Student Learning

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Designing Assessments of Student Learning

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Designing Assessments of Student Learning

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As educators, we measure student learning through many means, including assignments, quizzes, and tests. These assessments can be formal or informal, graded or ungraded. But assessment is not simply about awarding points and assigning grades. Learning is a process, not a product, and that process takes place during activities such as recall and practice.

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Preparing Early Childhood Teachers to Work With Young Dual Language Learners

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Preparing Early Childhood Teachers to Work With Young Dual Language Learners

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7 Teaching Strategies to Consider for your ECE Classroom

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7 Teaching Strategies to Consider for your ECE Classroom

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The nerves are likely starting to set in as you prepare to step into your first preschool teaching job. It's perfectly normal to be nervous. While you've done a lot to get ready for it, there's nothing that can fully prepare you for the excitement and anticipation of starting your first year of teaching toddlers.

But with plenty of practice, hands-on training and some good advice, even corralling a classroom of kiddos can be conquered. To help set you up for success, we asked preschool teaching pros to share some their favorite teaching strategies in early childhood education.

This list of teaching strategies for the preschool classroom will give you some excellent jumping-off points to branch out and explore as an educator.

Teaching strategies for preschoolers

Are you ready to face a room full of rambunctious kiddos? This teaching strategies list was compiled from childcare professionals. Adopt their tried and true tactics so you can enter the classroom confident and equipped.

1. Logo/symbol labeling

One way to promote everyday vocabulary is by having students verbally label common brands and symbols, according to Dr. Elaine Fogel Schneider, director of Touchtime International. She explains that translating from picture to word helps in language development.

She suggests making this activity more interactive by having the students and their parents take pictures of logos or symbols found around their neighborhood, such as street signs, car logos or clothing brands. Then children can bring the photos to the classroom where students can label them as a group. This labeling practice can add layers of complexity as kids learn-colors and numbers can easily be added into the mix.

2. Sound recognition & matching

This activity will require a few large letters cut out of cardboard and several small-but not too small-objects nearby that begin with those letters. For example, if your letters are "B" and "F," you might have a pile of buttons and feathers. Start by having the child say the sound that the letter makes. Then, encourage the child to find an object beginning with the same sound and paste it to the letter.

Schneider says this activity is a student favorite because it allows them to be hands-on in their learning. It also results in an art "masterpiece," with decorated letters that can be kept throughout the classroom or brought home to share with parents.

3. Switch out activities

Children tend to have short attention spans, so scheduling long lessons is out of the question. To help children stay focused, try changing out activities. Nancy Gretzinger, Ed.D and former teacher, suggests beginning with a sedentary activity-such as listening or reading-and then following up with a more lively activity-such as a music lesson or art project. It may also help to have a few quick go-to activities that will help kids release a little energy if you find they're too wound up.

Gretzinger also recommends posting a daily schedule with colors and pictures. If kids can get excited about each day, then it will be easier to help them focus during the more sedentary activities.

4. Start a garden

Whether you have an expansive outdoor space or just a nice ledge by a window, a garden can be an excellent way to teach kids about the natural world. Growing a plant from seed to maturity can teach children about their own growth, relieve stress and help promote fine motor skills. You don't have to be a natural green thumb, either-there are plenty of easy-to-grow indoor options out there. Not only that, but it also allows you to reinforce routines by setting aside a time to regularly check up on the plants' progress with your pupils. .

5. Get the senses involved in science

"Getting [kids] to be still for a moment and focus on what they are discovering helps you learn what they know," Helen Meissner, ECE teacher, says. She stresses the importance of encouraging students to use all five senses in science and observation activities.

Meissner explains, for example, when planting a class garden they can discuss how the soil feels and smells and what colors we see in the soil. They talk about how the different plants will taste and what they will look like as they grow from a seed into a plant.

6. Establish rules

While this may seem like common sense to any teacher, establishing rules at the beginning of the school year is a great strategy for keeping a calm classroom. Gretzinger suggests setting up simple rules to begin with, such as keeping your hands to yourself and using inside voices.

Post the rules in a common area so that students will see them every day and be reminded of what's good or bad behavior. When a child breaks a classroom rule, be sure not to use harsh language. "Remember positive words for discipline," Gretzinger says. She suggests reminding the student of the rule, instead of using negative words such as "no" or "don't." It's easy to forget, but an ECE classroom can be a child's first experience dealing with boundaries and interacting with other children, so discouraging bad behavior takes easing into.

7. Tailor activities to your students

It can be easy to fall back on the teacher's manual or default lessons you may have memorized in school. However, for some kids, these can pose problems. Gretzinger says teachers need to be sensitive to children from non-traditional home situations. Think twice before asking students to draw pictures of their families-think how an adopted child or child of separated parents may feel, and how other children may react.

Coming up with inclusive activities may take a bit more time, especially at the beginning of the year when you may not know all your students, but it will be worth it when you save a child embarrassment or confusion.

Keep the inspiration going

You are now equipped with a few new ECE teaching strategies and methods that have proven effective for others in your field. Your learning doesn't stop there, though. The world of ECE is constantly changing, and staying up-to-date on the latest trends and news can help you be a better educator. To help with that, check out our article, " 3 Trends in Early Childhood Education that You Should Know About."

Thinking of returning to school for an Early Childhood Education degree? Your previous experience and childcare knowledge can help you earn your degree sooner than you might think! Check out the Early Childhood Education degree page to learn more about how Rasmussen College's flexible, competency-based programs could work for you.

EDITOR'S NOTE: This article was originally published in November 2014. It has since been updated. Insights from Schneider and Meissner remain from the original article.

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7 Teaching Strategies to Consider for Your ECE Classroom

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The nerves are likely starting to set in as you prepare to step into your first preschool teaching job. It's perfectly normal to be nervous. While you've done a lot to get ready for it, there's nothing that can fully prepare you for the excitement and anticipation of starting your first year of teaching toddlers.

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Exploring Types of Educational Talk in Early Childhood Education Centers 

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Exploring Types of Educational Talk in Early Childhood Education Centers 

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ABSTRACT
Educational classroom talk is beneficial for children's learning and communicative development (Alexander 2018); however, current research has focused predominantly on classroom talk starting at the primary school level. This study explored types of educational classroom talk between teachers and children as early as in early childhood education (ECE) in the United Arab Emirates. It also examined variations in the occurrence of different types of classroom talk, depending on activities and content areas. Twenty-nine video-recorded and transcribed sessions from 11 ECE classrooms serving three- to four-year-old children were analysed; the analysis was partly theory driven and partly data driven with respect to communicative acts, events, and situations. Four types of educational classroom talk were identified: initiation-response-feedback (IRF), open naming, open informal discussion, and teacher-directed exploration. IRF dominated the interactions across all content areas and activities. More extended exchanges between teachers and children occurred predominantly in small-group activities. No strictly defined educational teacher-student dialogue was found. The study showed variations in educational classroom talk in ECE settings and suggests that there is an urgent need to increase extended educational classroom talk between teachers and children in the early stages of pre-primary education to support children's development and learning.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi Foundation for Policy Research faculty research grant, which was awarded to the second author, Priti Verma. We wish to thank all early childhood education centres and teachers. Without their support, this study would not have been possible.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed here.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi Foundation for Policy Research [Faculty research grant awarded to the second author].

Notes on contributors

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Exploring types of educational classroom talk in early childhood education centres

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ABSTRACT Educational classroom talk is beneficial for children's learning and communicative development (Alexander 2018); however, current research has focused predominantly on classroom talk starting at the primary school level. This study explored types of educational classroom talk between teachers and children as early as in early childhood education (ECE) in the United Arab Emirates.

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Principles and recommendations for Early Childhood Assessments 

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Principles and recommendations for Early Childhood Assessments 

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Interpreting Child Assessment Information 

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Interpreting Child Assessment Information 

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Linking specific practices with children's learning is the heart of good teaching. Doing so effectively requires teachers to combine lots of knowledge. First, they have to understand child development and the milestones to strive for along the preschool continuum. They need to recognize and understand the development, temperament, culture and interests of each child as well as what parents' expectations are for their children. In addition, they need to know about curriculum and types of activities that will contribute to children's optimal development and learning.

To use assessment data in planning is a complex process. To navigate the process it helps to understand the link between child outcomes, curriculum and the assessment system your program is using. With these connections clear, staff can more easily use assessment information to plan instruction.

Once you collect assessment information you need to use it. While staff may be good at conducting child assessments and recording data they may need help understanding how to move from information to instructional planning. Consider the following steps:

Step 1.

Look at the assessment information as a whole. Does it come from a variety of sources over a period of time?

Step 2.

Examine the data and try to find out if it tells you about children's development. Look for patterns in a group of children. Look for children who do not fit the pattern. For example, you might find that many children can recognize vocabulary words but cannot engage in conversations on a topic. Where does the child assessment compare with the teacher's and parent's understanding and expectations? How does each child's preferences, skills and abilities vary across different developmental areas?
Step 3.
Make instructional decisions for the group and children based on multiple sources of information and thoughtful reflection. Use your knowledge about current development of the group and individuals to identify developmental goals and plan instruction.

Administrators play a vital role in guiding staff through these steps. Talking with staff about each step, and giving examples of what to look for, makes the task easier. Review assessment data regularly with staff. Help them start to see patterns. Ask questions that help staff gain a deeper understanding of the link between assessment and curriculum. Use their analysis of data to set and to develop/differentiate instructional strategies and activities. Then they will have the tools they need to turn their assessments of children into interactions that support learning.

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Interpreting Child Assessment Information - Early Childhood Associates, Inc.

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Linking specific practices with children's learning is the heart of good teaching. Doing so effectively requires teachers to combine lots of knowledge. First, they have to understand child development and the milestones to strive for along the preschool continuum. They need to recognize and understand the development, temperament, culture and interests of each child as ...

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Early Literacy Instruction: Research Applications in the Classroom

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Early Literacy Instruction: Research Applications in the Classroom

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Phonics and phonemic awareness

According to the National Institute for Literacy (2001), phonemic awareness is the ability to think about and work with individual sounds in spoken languages. Before children learn to read, they need to be aware of how sounds work. Teachers should integrate phonemic awareness instruction in the curriculum to help children learn to read and spell. The instruction can start with having children categorize the first phonemes - the smallest functional unit of speech - in words and then progress to more complicated combinations.

According to the National Reading Panel (2000), "Phonics skills must be integrated with the development of phonemic awareness, fluency, and text reading comprehension skills." Developing skill in blending and manipulating phonemes has been found to permit many children to develop strong reading abilities who were otherwise struggling.

Phonemic awareness can also be integrated into beginning writing instruction. While a child writes, the teacher can name the letters or comment about the strokes used to form the letters. When teachers take dictated messages from children, such as when writing a thank-you letter to a parent or guest, they can provide explicit demonstrations of phoneme segmentation. Note, however, there is no need to postpone children's functional writing until they all know the alphabet letters since many children develop strong writing skills simply through exposure to a print-rich environment (Schickedanz, 1998).

Teachers should provide flexible writing experiences that allow young children to use scribble, random letters, or invented spelling in the beginning, and over time move to more conventional forms (NAEYC, 1998; Teale & Yokota, 2000). When children write their own texts, they are also developing their vocabulary and phonemic awareness (Slegers, 1996).

Positive adult-child relationships

Young children's literacy learning benefits greatly from adults who are responsive to their interests and sensitive to their current level of language development (Slegers, 1996). During the infant and toddler years, children need many one-on-one interactions with caring adults to support their oral literacy development. Parents can talk to very young children and respond to their attempts to engage with simple language and frequent eye-contacts.

Young children also need teachers to play with, talk with, sing to, and with whom to do finger plays and other learning games. In preschool, children need positive and nurturing relationships with teachers who can model reading and writing behaviors, engage in responsive conversations, and foster their interests in learning to read and write (NAEYC, 1998; Teale & Yokota, 2000).

A print-rich environment

Children need materials to support their literacy development. When children have ready access to writing tools with which to express themselves in symbolic ways, they are motivated to learn and use literacy. Books, papers, writing tools, and functional signs should be visible everywhere in the classroom so that children can see and use literacy for multiple purposes.

Children also engage in more reading and writing activities in print-rich environments (Slegers, 1996). For toddlers, teachers can provide simple art materials such as crayons, markers, or papers for them to explore and manipulate. For preschoolers, teachers can draw children's attention to specific letters and words in the environment whenever it is appropriate.

Besides accessible writing tools, children also need time to explore literacy. In the free-choice time period, children can engage in literacy-related play by sharing and sending messages to friends in a writing center. Creating menus for a restaurant, writing grocery lists, or making invitations to classroom events are examples of activities that can help children understand what readers and writers do before they actually acquire the skills necessary to read and write (NAEYC, 1998; Neuman, 1998; Teale & Yokota, 2000). When literacy is an integral part of their daily activities, children actively construct their own literacy knowledge and strategies, and learn to read and write naturally and playfully (Teale & Yokota, 2000).

Integrated language explorations in the curriculum

The early childhood curriculum should be intellectually engaging and challenging in a way that expands children's knowledge of the world and vocabulary. Investigating real topics or events that are meaningful to children should be a primary feature of the curriculum. When children investigate, they have opportunities to ask questions and use their literacy skills to explore their worlds.

Teachers can establish time each day for students to present their thoughts in symbolic ways. Children can also work in small groups with peers having different skills so they can learn from each other. Most young children are eager to learn literacy when they discover that it is useful for exploring the environment and for communicating with others (NAEYC, 1998; Neuman, 1998).

Reading and writing activities

Listening to stories and discussing them are very important activities in early childhood classrooms (Slegers, 1996). For very young children, who normally have very short attention spans, story times work best when they are short (about 5-10 minutes) and conversational. Teachers can share cardboard books, nursery rhymes, books with photographs, or drawings of animals, people, and brightly colored objects. Through these activities, children learn to focus their attention on words and pictures (Neuman & Bredekamp, 2000).

In preschool, children need daily exposure to high quality books. Teachers can read books daily to individual children or to small groups of children; these readings should be from books that positively reflect children's identity, home language, and culture. In kindergarten and the primary grades, children also need to experience and engage in stories and informational texts daily. These activities foster children's vocabulary learning and comprehension skills (NAEYC, 1998; Neuman & Bredekamp, 2000; Teale & Yokota, 2000).

When reading to students of all ages, teachers should speak with inflection in order to convey meanings. Teachers may either stop and ask questions when they read the books or they can read an entire passage at once, thereby permitting students to enjoy the language and the rhythm of the book (Neuman, 1998). After readings, there should be opportunities for children to talk about what was read and to focus on the sounds and parts of language as well as the meaning of the book (NAEYC, 1998).

Student response cards and group discussions followed by the retelling of a story using pictures or actual objects are effective devices for engaging students and enhancing their understanding of the stories they have read (Neuman, 1998). Background and contextual information regarding the literature being read is also useful for students' comprehension, vocabulary building, and decoding. This can be provided through field trips, experiments, videos, or guest speakers (NAEYC, 1998; Schickedanz, 1998).

Students not only need to listen to books, they also need to have chances to read independently. Library corners need to be in the central part of the classroom with comfortable furniture that encourages children to read by themselves. Varying levels and varieties of reading materials, such as novels, biographies, informational books, magazines, and newspaper articles should be provided to broaden children's reading experiences.

Good lighting and lively displays of readily accessible arrangements of books encourage children to stay in the library (Neuman & Bredekamp, 2000). Many teachers like to encourage children to do book talks about the materials they are reading, finding that this method significantly promotes conversations and reading interests among the children. Opportunities for children to read to audiences, including peers, parents, or even stuffed animals should be provided since this has been found to increase reading accuracy and fluency. Reading can also be a regular part of children's out-of-school time so that parents can be involved in supporting children's reading habits at home.

When children have opportunities to experience various types of literature such as stories, informational texts, and poems, to respond to them through art, music, or dramatic activities, and to learn from lessons about comprehension strategies such as predicting and drawing inferences, they become more capable in processing written language and more familiar with language patterns and vocabulary (Neuman, 1998; Teale & Yokota, 2000).

Vary teaching strategies according to children's needs

In literacy-rich classrooms, some children are able to learn the skills and strategies necessary for reading and writing through engagement in meaningful activities. Finger plays, songs, poems, games, chants, and book listening and discussion all help children to pick up new vocabularies, understand the similarities and differences in language, and develop phonemic awareness (NAEYC, 1998; Neuman, 1998). However, it is important for teachers to adjust teaching strategies according to children's needs.

Some children need explicit, direct instruction in order to master the task, and teachers must try to achieve a balance between meaningful activities and skill practices (NAEYC, 1998; Neuman, 1998; Schickedanz, 1998; Teale & Yokota, 2000). Children may need to see or hear the alphabetic letters isolated from the context in order to better capture their shape and form (Neuman, 1998).

If a child fails to make expected progress in literacy learning or if his or her literacy skills are advanced, teachers also need to prepare more individualized instructional strategies to meet the child's needs (NAEYC, 1998)

Conclusion

Learning to read and write is a critical achievement in life. Research reveals conclusively the link between early literacy and later academic and career success. To ensure that every child becomes a competent reader and writer is a responsibility shared by teachers, families and communities.

The role of educators in early literacy instruction is to teach basic skills and to provide rich, meaningful, and engaging learning environments supported by appropriate teaching practices. Each child comes to the classroom with different literacy experiences and abilities, and teachers need to consider each child's needs and to provide balanced programs with explicit instruction and meaningful reading and writing tasks (Slegers, 1996).

When children are encouraged to learn independently, and when teachers, parents, and communities work together to build optimal environments for that learning, children's success in reading and writing can be expected (NAEYC, 1998; Neuman, 1998; Schickedanz, 1998).

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Early Literacy Instruction: Research Applications in the Classroom

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Teaching reading and writing to young children in American has always been an area of controversy and debate (Teale & Yokota, 2000), and it remains so today. The purpose of this article is to review various research studies and to identify essential elements of effective early literacy classroom instruction.

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Assessment Tools

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Student Learning: Observing and Assessing

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Below are links to assessment tools and techniques along with specific geoscience examples and resources. Concept Maps - A diagramming technique for assessing how well students see the "big picture". ...

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A Framework for Conceptualizing and Evaluating the Validity of Instructionally Relevant Assessments 

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A Framework for Conceptualizing and Evaluating the Validity of Instructionally Relevant Assessments 

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Implications of conceptual framing for assessment to change to support of people with disabilities

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Implications of conceptual framing for assessment to change to support of people with disabilities

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Purpose. Although participation is an important construct and valued goal, how it is conceptualized, defined and measured varies widely. This qualitative, multi-site study sought to gain an insider perspective from people with disabilities in grounding what participation means, how to characterize it, and the barriers and supports to participation.

Method. Sixty-three people self-identifying with diverse disabilities participated in qualitative focus groups across sites.

Results. Participants conceptualized participation as a cluster of values that included active and meaningful engagement/being a part of, choice and control, access and opportunity/enfranchisement, personal and societal responsibilities, having an impact and supporting others, and social connection, inclusion and membership.

Conclusions. No gold standard for ideal or optimal participation emerged; no one defined set or frequency of activities accounted for 'full' participation. Participants described needing to be free to define and pursue participation on their own terms rather than meeting predetermined societal norms. Participation was viewed as both a right and a responsibility, influenced by and ascribed to the person and to the society. Participation does not occur in a vacuum; the environment dynamically influences participation. Implications of this conceptual framing for assessment, research and systems level change to support participation of people with disabilities are discussed.

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What does participation mean? An insider perspective from people with disabilities

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Purpose. Although participation is an important construct and valued goal, how it is conceptualized, defined and measured varies widely. This qualitative, multi-site study sought to gain an insider perspective from people with disabilities in grounding what participation means, how to characterize it, and the barriers and supports to participation. Method.

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Early Childhood Assessment: Why, What, and How? 

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Early Childhood Assessment: Why, What, and How? 

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Programming and Planning in Early Childhood Settings 

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Programming and Planning in Early Childhood Settings 

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Programming and Planning in Early Childhood Settings

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Programming & Planning in Early Childhood Settings explores a range of approaches to curriculum and to documenting children's learning in early childhood settings. This valuable resource for early childhood education students and practitioners provides a broad view of the concepts and issues…

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Designing a Measurement Framework for Response to Intervention in Early Childhood Programs

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Designing a Measurement Framework for Response to Intervention in Early Childhood Programs

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Understanding Assessment and Evaluation in Early Childhood

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Understanding Assessment and Evaluation in Early Childhood

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Understanding Assessment and Evaluation in Early Childhood Education

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This bestselling book is still the best choice for helping early childhood teachers understand the process of assessment and evaluation to benefit young children. Completely revised to address the issues that have been raised by new testing, accountability, and standards policies, the Second Edition…

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Using Assessment to improve the Effectiveness of Early Childhood Education 

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Using Assessment to improve the Effectiveness of Early Childhood Education 

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Affiliations

1. Department of Psychology, Central Washington University, 400 E. University Way, Ellensburg, WA, 98926-7575, USA

Andrew Downs

2. Department of Psychology, Washington State University Tri-Cities, Richland, WA, USA

Paul S. Strand

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andrew Downs.

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Downs, A., Strand, P.S. Using Assessment to Improve the Effectiveness of Early Childhood Education. J Child Fam Stud 15, 671-680 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9080-7
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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Using Assessment to Improve the Effectiveness of Early Childhood Education - Journal of Child and Family Studies

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Instant access to the full article PDF. USD 39.95 Price includes VAT (USA)Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Pub. L. No. 88-452, U.S.C. § 2701 et seq. Greenwood, C. R., Luze, G. J., & Carta, J. J. (2002). Best practices in assessment of intervention results with infants and toddlers.

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Strengthening Early Childhood teacher Preparation: Integrating Assessment, Curriculum Development, and Instructional Practice in Student Teaching

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Strengthening Early Childhood teacher Preparation: Integrating Assessment, Curriculum Development, and Instructional Practice in Student Teaching

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This paper examines the effectiveness of "Bridging"-a performance-based assessment and curriculum development tool for teachers of young children-in shaping preservice teachers' learning and teaching experiences. The experiences are examined for evidence of whether the use of "Bridging" during the student teaching period 1) facilitates student teacher acquisition of new knowledge about individual children as diverse learners, 2) helps student teachers gain a deeper understanding of content knowledge in a range of subject areas, and 3) strengthens their ability to use assessment results to inform curriculum planning and teaching. A 5-year implementation study indicates positive results with regard to all three questions. The discussion focuses on components and processes of Bridging that are key to student teacher development. These include constructing learning profiles for individual children, recognizing children's zones of proximal development in different curricular areas, using assessment to inform curriculum and instruction, and working on these goals in a community of learners.

Acknowledgments

The program and research described in this article was supported in part by grants from the Educational Foundation of America, the Polk Bros. Foundation, McDougal Family Foundation, the Field Foundation, and Lloyd A. Fry Foundation. The views expressed in the article are those of the authors. Special thanks go to Margaret Adams for her insightful comments and editorial assistance.

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Strengthening Early Childhood Teacher Preparation: Integrating Assessment, Curriculum Development, and Instructional Practice in Student Teaching

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This paper examines the effectiveness of "Bridging"-a performance-based assessment and curriculum development tool for teachers of young children-in shaping preservice teachers' learning and teaching experiences.

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Basic Concepts in Early Childhood Educational Standards 

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Basic Concepts in Early Childhood Educational Standards 

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Basic Concepts in Early Childhood Educational Standards: A 50-State Review - Early Childhood Education Journal

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The incidence of basic concepts in early childhood educational standards is explored across all 50 US states. Concept inclusion in state standards is described in terms of the representation of the universe of basic concepts, representation of concept categories, the depth and breadth of individual concept inclusion, and unique examples.

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The Early Childhood Curriculum: Current Findings in Theory and Practice 

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The Early Childhood Curriculum: Current Findings in Theory and Practice 

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Hailed as a "tremendous value" by Young Children and "informative and provocative" by Educational Leadership, this popular textbook has been an essential resource for kindergarten and early elementary teachers, curriculum planners, and graduate students in early childhood education for over a decade. Bringing educators completely up to date, this Third Edition includes two totally new chapters on inclusion and the multicultural world of the early childhood classroom ...an overview of current developments in the field...and unique coverage of curriculum-making, teaching strategies, play, reading, math, science, social studies, movement, music, and art. Once again, this text will enable educators to make decisions about what curriculum content is appropriate for young children by presenting the best thinking of authorities in curriculum content areas.

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Hailed as a "tremendous value" by Young Children and "informative and provocative" by Educational Leadership, this popular textbook has been an essential resource for kindergarten and early elementary teachers, curriculum planners, and graduate students in early childhood education for over a decade.

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An Examination of Mathematics Professional Development in Early Childhood Settings 

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An Examination of Mathematics Professional Development in Early Childhood Settings 

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
An Examination of Mathematics Professional Development Opportunities in Early Childhood Settings - Early Childhood Education Journal

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This study investigates how and to what extent preservice and inservice early childhood educators are being prepared to develop mathematics skills and processes in young children, age birth to five, in one southeastern state in the United States.

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Characterising the principles of Professional Love in early childhood care and education

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Characterising the principles of Professional Love in early childhood care and education

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ABSTRACT
Framed as an extension of Noddings' notion of the 'ethic of care,' the paper sets out an argument about 'Professional Love' as both a term to comprehend the reciprocal pedagogic relationship which develops in positive interactions between primary caregiver, child and parent and as a core normative component of early years educational discourse; the paper grounds this conceptualisation of Professional Love in attachment theory (both its empirical validity and its sociological shortcomings); it then posits the dynamic of child-parent-practitioner love as a Triangle of Love which is essentially complementary to the parent/child relationship as opposed to representing any risk or threat to parents' relationships with their children. The paper examines the work of theorists of care who have been particularly influential in developing the notion of Professional Love, and it considers the work of interdisciplinary scholars whose challenges to notions of love and care help problematise and clarify Professional Love beyond romanticised or other contextually inappropriate forms of love. The paper is intended as a provocative and explorative piece of critical enquiry; it highlights the prevalent devaluation of care/love in policy making and posits a semi-operationalisable prospectus for cultivating Professional Love in early childhood settings. Consistent with the author's editorial foreword, tensions between practitioner, child and parent, as well as internal encumbrances placed on practitioners to develop Professional Love in the absence of policymaker support, emerge as recurring themes.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Characterising the principles of Professional Love in early childhood care and education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
ABSTRACT Framed as an extension of Noddings' notion of the 'ethic of care,' the paper sets out an argument about 'Professional Love' as both a term to comprehend the reciprocal pedagogic relationship which develops in positive interactions between primary caregiver, child and parent and as a core normative component of