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12 Common Errors in Academic English – and how to fix them!

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Understanding the meaning of words, especially task words, helps you to know exactly what is being asked of you. It takes you halfway towards narrowing down your material and selecting your answer.

Task words direct you and tell you how to go about answering a question. Here is a list of such words and others that you are most likely to come across frequently in your course.

Account for

Explain, clarify, give reasons for. (Quite different from "Give an account of which is more like 'describe in detail').

Analyse

Break an issue down into its component parts, discuss them and show how they interrelate.

Assess

Consider the value or importance of something, paying due attention to positive, negative and disputable aspects, and citing the judgements of any known authorities as well as your own.

Argue

Make a case based on appropriate evidence for and/or against some given point of view.

Comment on

Too vague to be sure, but safe to assume it means something more than 'describe' or 'summarise' and more likely implies 'analyse' or 'assess'.

Compare

Identify the characteristics or qualities two or more things have in common (but probably pointing out their differences as well).

Contrast

Point out the difference between two things (but probably point out their similarities as well).

Criticise

Spell out your judgement as to the value or truth of something, indicating the criteria on which you base your judgement and citing specific instances of how the criteria apply in this case.

Define

Make a statement as to the meaning or interpretation of something, giving sufficient detail as to allow it to be distinguished from similar things.

Describe

Spell out the main aspects of an idea or topic or the sequence in which a series of things happened.

Discuss

Investigate or examine by argument. Examine key points and possible interpretations, sift and debate, giving reasons for and against. Draw a conclusion.

Evaluate

Make an appraisal of the worth of something, in the light of its apparent truth; include your personal opinion. Like 'assess'.

Enumerate

List some relevant items, possibly in continuous prose (rather than note form) and perhaps 'describe' them (see above) as well.

Examine

Present in depth and investigate the implications.

Explain

Tell how things work or how they came to be the way they are, including perhaps some need to 'describe' and to 'analyse' (see above).

To what extent...?

Explore the case for a stated proposition or explanation, much in the manner of 'assess' and 'criticise' (see above), probably arguing for a less than total acceptance of the proposition.

How far

Similar to 'to what extent...?' (see above)

Identify

Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making clear the criteria you use.

Illustrate

Similar to 'explain' (see above), but probably asking for the quoting of specific examples or statistics or possibly the drawing of maps, graphs, sketches etc.

Interpret

Clarify something or 'explain' (see above), perhaps indicating how the thing relates to some other thing or perspective.

Justify

Express valid reasons for accepting a particular interpretation or conclusion, probably including the need to 'argue' (see above) a case.

Outline

Indicate the main features of a topic or sequence of events, possibly setting them within a clear structure or framework to show how they interrelate.

Prove

Demonstrate the truth of something by offering irrefutable evidence and/or logical sequence of statements leading from evidence to conclusion.

Reconcile

Show how two apparently opposed or mutually exclusive ideas or propositions can be seen to be similar in important respects, if not identical. Involves need to 'analyse' and 'justify' (see above).

Relate

Either 'explain' (see above) how things happened or are connected in a cause-and-effect sense, or may imply 'compare' and 'contrast' (see above).

Review

Survey a topic, with the emphasis on 'assess' rather than 'describe' (see above).

State

Express the main points of an idea or topic, perhaps in the manner of 'describe' or 'enumerate' (see above).

Summarise

'State' (see above) the main features of an argument, omitting all superfluous detail and side-issues.

Trace

Identify the connection between one thing and another either in a developmental sense over a period of time, or else in a cause and effect sense. May imply both 'describe' and 'explain' (see above).

Other useful definitions

Assumption

Something which is accepted as being true for the purpose of an argument.

Issue

An important topic for discussion; something worth thinking and raising questions about.

Methodology

A system of methods and principles for doing something. Often used to explain methods for carrying out research.

Objective

It is the point, or the thing aimed at. It is what you want to achieve by a particular activity.

References

Maddox, H 1967, How to Study, 2nd ed, Pan Books, London.

Marshall, L., & Rowland, F 1998, A guide to learning independently, Addison Wesley Longman, Melbourne.

Northedge, A 1997, The good study guide, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK.

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Understanding the meaning of words, especially task words, helps you to know exactly what is being asked of you. It takes you halfway towards narrowing down your material and selecting your answer. Task words direct you and tell you how to go about answering a question.

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Alison Hoffmann, Barbara Griffiths, Irina Elgort

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Writing exercises for self-directed study, LLC, Victoria University of Wellington

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As a "part of speech" transition words are used to link words, phrases or sentences. They help the reader to progress from one idea (expressed by the author) to the next idea. Thus, they help to build up coherent relationships within the text.

Transitional Words

This structured list of commonly used English transition words - approximately 200, can be considered as quasi complete. It can be used (by students and teachers alike) to find the right expression. English transition words are essential, since they not only connect ideas, but also can introduce a certain shift, contrast or opposition, emphasis or agreement, purpose, result or conclusion, etc. in the line of argument.
The transition words and phrases have been assigned only once to somewhat artificial categories, although some words belong to more than one category.

There is some overlapping with prepositions and postpositions, but for the purpose of usage and completeness of this concise guide, I did not differentiate.

Agreement / Addition / Similarity

The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise, add information, reinforce ideas, and express agreement with preceding material.

Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the contrary or point out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning ( contrast).

Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.

Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples as support, to indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader.

Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words ( thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore, henceforth) are time words that are used to show that after a particular time there was a consequence or an effect.

Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are placed before the consequences or effects.

as a result

under those circumstances

in that case

for this reason

in effect

for

thus

because the

then

hence

consequently

therefore

thereupon

forthwith

accordingly

henceforth

Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and / or restate ideas, or indicate a final general statement. Also some words (like therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category can be used to summarize.

as can be seen

generally speaking

in the final analysis

all things considered

as shown above

in the long run

given these points

as has been noted

in a word

for the most part

by and large

to sum up

on the whole

in any event

in either case

all in all

Obviously

Ultimately

Definitely

Time / Chronology / Sequence

These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and defining time. They can be used either alone or as part of adverbial expressions.

Many transition words in the time category ( consequently; first, second, third; further; hence; henceforth; since; then, when; and whenever) have other uses.

Except for the numbers ( first, second, third) and further they add a meaning of time in expressing conditions, qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are also used to add information or list examples. Further is also used to indicate added space as well as added time.

Space / Location / Place

These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the function to restrict, limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Time category and can be used to describe spatial order or spatial reference.

List of Transition Words

Transition Words are also sometimes called (or put in the category of) Connecting Words. Please feel free to download them via this link to the category page:
Linking Words & Connecting Words as a PDF.

It contains all the transition words listed on this site. The image to the left gives you an impression how it looks like.

Usage of Transition Words in Essays

Transition words and phrases are vital devices for essays, papers or other literary compositions. They improve the connections and transitions between sentences and paragraphs. They thus give the text a logical organization and structure (see also: a List of Synonyms).

All English transition words and phrases (sometimes also called 'conjunctive adverbs') do the same work as coordinating conjunctions: they connect two words, phrases or clauses together and thus the text is easier to read and the coherence is improved.

Usage: transition words are used with a special rule for punctuation: a semicolon or a period is used after the first 'sentence', and a comma is almost always used to set off the transition word from the second 'sentence'.

Example 1:
People use 43 muscles when they frown; however, they use only 28 muscles when they smile.

Example 2:
However, transition words can also be placed at the beginning of a new paragraph or sentence - not only to indicate a step forward in the reasoning, but also to relate the new material to the preceding thoughts.

Use a semicolon to connect sentences, only if the group of words on either side of the semicolon is a complete sentence each (both must have a subject and a verb, and could thus stand alone as a complete thought).

Further helpful readings about expressions, writing and grammar: Compilation of Writing Tips How to write good ¦ Correct Spelling Study by an English University

Are you using WORD for writing professional texts and essays? There are many easy Windows Shortcuts available which work (almost) system-wide (e.g. in every programm you use).

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transition words list connecting  transitional transitions phrases  sentences example rule comma semicolon

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As a "part of speech" transition words are used to link words, phrases or sentences. They help the reader to progress from one idea (expressed by the author) to the next idea. Thus, they help to build up coherent relationships within the text.

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Critical essay writing : Skills Hub: University of Sussex

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Originality in an academic essay is all about the way that you interrogate the material in front of you and the way that you put the material together. So, regarding the first of those points, if you are dealing with evidence, examples, theories, other people's writing - question it, adopt a critical standpoint, evaluate it, don't just accept it at face value.

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Effective paraphrasing for postgraduate students

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