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El Tomate

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Most of us have encountered the oft-repeated question "Is the tomato a fruit?" or the similar question "Is the tomato a fruit or a vegetable?" These two questions appear to be nearly identical, and yet they are actually quite different. The best answer to the first question is "Yes, the tomato is a fruit." But the best answer to the second question is "The tomato is a vegetable." So how can these two apparently contradictory answers both be correct?

The first question - "Is the tomato a fruit?" - is a great example of misdirection. It appears that the question is about tomatoes, but in fact, everyone agrees on what a tomato is. You never hear an argument about whether or not a particular object is a tomato. It's the word "fruit" that is the source of the disagreement. If we all agreed on a precise definition for the word "fruit", then there would be little room left for debate about whether a tomato fits the definition. This is the very essence of what is called a semantic argument, where the entire discussion hinges upon the meaning of a particular word - and in this case the word is "fruit".

Semantic arguments are quite common, and can go on and on for ages without a genuine resolution. This can seem bizarre to an independent observer, who might be thinking "Just look the word up in a dictionary, people!" However, there are two principal limitations to this kind of solution:

1. People don't usually think this way. Our brains are wired to create generalizations from examples. From the time we were tiny kids, we have heard people using the word "fruit" in the context of examples - such apples, bananas, oranges, strawberries, and grapes - but seldom if ever defining the word. And that is perfectly fine with us. We quickly developed an intuitive sense for the meaning of the word, without ever consulting a definition. We are quite comfortable with fuzzy abstractions like this, deducing the meaning of a word from examples. In fact, people were using words such as "fruit" for millennia before anyone decided to create a dictionary of precise definitions for our words.

2. When we consult a dictionary for a particular word, we often find multiple definitions. In part, this is because the meanings of words change over time, and because we often use words as analogies to their earlier meanings. If we say that someone is "enjoying the fruit of his labors", then we clearly understand that the conversation is not about apples and oranges. Words can also acquire special meanings that are unique to a particular field or profession - such as law or medicine. Science in particular has appropriated many common words and given them specific meanings that deviate from the fuzzier meanings employed by the general public. The upshot is that we often need to consider the context in which the word has been used in order to choose the appropriate definition from a dictionary.

By following the first approach - to deduce a meaning from generalization - our abstraction of the word "fruit" can take us in several possible directions. For many of us, when we hear the word "fruit", we think of plant material that is sweet, juicy, and deliciously edible. But another abstraction is to think of "fruit" as a result or product of an effort - just as a fruit can be considered the product of a tree or plant. Therefore we can talk about the fruits of someone's efforts, or underwear as "Fruit of the Loom", or a baby as "the fruit of thy womb" (in the prayer "Hail Mary").

Botany, the scientific study of plants, has taken the abstraction of the word "fruit" in still another direction. In botany, the essential attribute of a fruit is that it contains seeds. In some ways, this does not surprise us. We are accustomed to finding seeds in apples, oranges, watermelons, and so on. But in botany, this is the principal defining attribute of a fruit, which can lead us to some non-intuitive conclusions.

Technically, the botanical term "fruit" refers to the maturing ovary of a flowering plant. This is the part of the plant that might contain seeds, provided that the ovules inside the ovary have been fertilized with pollen. By this definition, a tomato is certainly a fruit, along with apples, oranges, bananas, grapes, cherries, peaches, watermelons, and so on. But in the scientific domain (that is, in the field of botany), the term "fruit" has a much broader meaning than in popular speech. To a botanist, a cucumber is also a fruit, and so is a green bean, a pea pod, an avocado, a zucchini, a pumpkin, an eggplant, and a bell pepper. In fact, nearly all flowering plants bear fruits of one kind or another, most of which we would never consider eating. The husk of a coconut is a fruit, and so is a beggar's tick - that annoying thing that clings to your clothes when you go hiking. Furthermore, our intuitive idea of a fruit is that it has some pulp or flesh surrounding the seeds, but a botanical fruit need not have such flesh. In fact, a single-seeded fruit that lacks pulp can appear to be a naked seed without any fruit at all. Such fruits include a sunflower seed, an acorn, or the winged seed of a maple tree.

So if we ask "Is the tomato a fruit?", then it makes sense to answer "yes", because botanically a tomato is indeed a fruit. It wouldn't make much sense to answer "no".

On the other hand, the question "Is the tomato a fruit or a vegetable?" takes us down a different path. Although the word "fruit" is commonly used in science, the word "vegetable" is not. In older literature, the word was essentially a synonym for "plant", and therefore "vegetable matter" meant (and still means) any kind of material taken from a plant. But in modern science the word is seldom used, and it is not associated with any essential scientific concept.

Therefore the question "Is the tomato a fruit or a vegetable?" puts us into a different domain - a domain where the term "vegetable" is still in current use - and that domain is food preparation. Furthermore, this question presents the terms "fruit" and "vegetable" as a dichotomy, where fruits and vegetables are mutually exclusive sets - and therefore the tomato can be a member of just one of these sets. This particular use of these terms is quite common, reflecting a popular way of thinking about food plants. This is a perfectly valid usage of the words, but it does not correspond to any professional field - such as botany, medicine, or law - where all of the jargon is carefully defined. Instead, we must rely on cultural rules of thumb to distinguish between fruits and vegetables.

A key point to note is this: Virtually no one ever asks "Is the zucchini a fruit or a vegetable?" or "Are green beans fruits or vegetables?" Most people would consider these to be silly questions, replying "Zucchinis and green beans are obviously vegetables!" And yet both, from a strictly botanical point of view, are fruits. This indicates that there is something different about tomatoes - something that makes the answer less obvious. The issue is that our process of mental categorization often employs several simultaneous criteria. When we look at a tomato, we see a food item that is usually prepared "like a vegetable". But we also see an object whose shape and color are both "fruit-like". Furthermore, a tomato is juicy like a fruit. And while a tomato is only slightly sweet, it is usually tart, another characteristic that is far more common in fruits than in vegetables. Therefore we have many possible characteristics to consider. So is there any single characteristic that can serve as a reliable rule of thumb to distinguish a fruit from a vegetable?

There are several possible criteria that might come to mind, but the most reliable rule of thumb is based on the finished food item. If you start with a recognizable part of a plant (not a plant by-product, such as sugar or flour), then the nature of the finished food usually indicates whether that piece of plant is considered to be a fruit or a vegetable. If the plant material is typically used as a major ingredient in sweet dishes, especially if served as a dessert, then it is usually considered to be a fruit. But if the plant material is typically used in savory dishes (that is, salted instead of sweetened), then the plant material is usually considered to be a vegetable.

But what if the plant material is eaten fresh and raw, without any preparation other than cutting it up? A raw apple is clearly a fruit, and a raw celery stalk is clearly a vegetable - so what is the formal distinction? The sweet and salty distinction can still apply. The foods we consider fruits are usually sweet (and often tart at the same time), and if we have a choice of sprinkling on sugar or salt, then we'll usually go for the sugar. The foods we consider vegetables are usually not sweet (and usually not tart either), and if we have a choice of sprinkling on sugar or salt, then we'll usually go for the salt.

By this culinary definition, the tomato is clearly a vegetable - almost always served in savory dishes, and never as a dessert. When eaten fresh and raw - either solitary or as part of a salad - we typically sprinkle on salt, not sugar. So if we ask "Is the tomato a fruit or a vegetable?" then the best answer is "a vegetable".

To recap our initial questions and answers:

1) Is the tomato a fruit? Yes, it is.

2) Is the tomato a fruit or a vegetable? It's a vegetable.

It all depends on the definition of the word "fruit". These two questions have subtly different wordings that imply two different definitions for the word, resulting in two different answers that appear to be contradictory. But in fact these two answers are not contradictory, because we are using the word "fruit" in two different ways.

The upshot of this story is twofold:

1) Some hotly debated questions can be answered by simply defining the terms used in the question.

2) A single word can have multiple definitions, and these different meanings often correspond to distinct domains. If the most appropriate domain can be identified, then the best definition will often follow.
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Is the Tomato a Fruit? Well, It Depends... - The Philipendium - Medium

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Most of us have encountered the oft-repeated question "Is the tomato a fruit?" or the similar question "Is the tomato a fruit or a vegetable?" These two questions appear to be nearly identical, and yet they are actually quite different. The best answer to the first question is "Yes, the tomato is a fruit."

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El Pollo

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El Pesado

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Mating is never easy when you have an unsightly bulbous appendage protruding from your head.

But the male Asian Sheepshead Wrasse has even greater problems to contend with.

The female wrasse is endowed with the extraordinary ability to unexpectedly switch gender, a change which not only scuppers any burgeoning relationship with the male but also creates another headache for him - a new love rival.

The gender-bending ability of the wrasse has been captured in detail for the first time for BBC Blue Planet II which airs on Sunday.

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Transgender fish filmed changing sex for BBC's Blue Planet II

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Mating is never easy when you have an unsightly bulbous appendage protruding from your head. But the male Asian Sheepshead Wrasse has even greater problems to contend with. The female wrasse is endowed with the extraordinary ability to unexpectedly switch gender, a change which not only scuppers any burgeoning relationship with the male but also creates another headache for him - a new love rival.

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La Patata

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The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant Solanum tuberosum and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae.

Wild potato species can be found from the southern United States to southern Chile. The potato was originally believed to have been domesticated ( § History) by Native Americans independently in multiple locations, but later genetic studies traced a single origin, in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia. Potatoes were domesticated there approximately 7,000-10,000 years ago, from a species in the S. brevicaule complex. In the Andes region of South America, where the species is indigenous, some close relatives of the potato are cultivated.

Potatoes were introduced to Europe from the Americas by the Spanish in the second half of the 16th century. Today they are a staple food in many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world's food supply. As of 2014, potatoes were the world's fourth-largest food crop after maize (corn), wheat, and rice. Following millennia of selective breeding, there are now over 5,000 different types of potatoes. Over 99% of potatoes presently cultivated worldwide descend from varieties that originated in the lowlands of south-central Chile. The importance of the potato as a food source and culinary ingredient varies by region and is still changing. It remains an essential crop in Europe, especially Northern and Eastern Europe, where per capita production is still the highest in the world, while the most rapid expansion in production during the 21st century was in southern and eastern Asia, with China and India leading the world production of 376 million tonnes (370,000,000 long tons; 414,000,000 short tons), as of 2021.

Like the tomato, the potato is a nightshade in the genus Solanum, and the vegetative and fruiting parts of the potato contain the toxin solanine which is dangerous for human consumption. Normal potato tubers that have been grown and stored properly produce glycoalkaloids in negligible amounts, but, if green sections of the plant (namely sprouts and skins) are exposed to light, the tuber can accumulate a high enough concentration of glycoalkaloids to affect human health.

The English word "potato" comes from Spanish patata (the name used in Spain). The Royal Spanish Academy says the Spanish word is a hybrid of the Taíno ( sweet potato) and the Quechua (potato). The name originally referred to the sweet potato although the two plants are not biologically closely related, despite their similar appearance. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard referred to sweet potatoes as "common potatoes", and used the terms "bastard potatoes" and "Virginia potatoes" for the species now known as potato. In many of the chronicles detailing agriculture and plants no distinction is made between the two. Potatoes are occasionally referred to as "Irish potatoes" or "white potatoes" in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes.

The name "spud" for a potato comes from the digging of soil (or a hole) prior to the planting of potatoes. The word has an unknown origin and was originally ( c. 1440) used as a term for a short knife or dagger, probably related to the Latin spad-, a word root meaning "sword"; compare Spanish espada, English "spade", and " spadroon". It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools. Around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself, the first record of this usage being in New Zealand English. The origin of the word spud has erroneously been attributed to an 18th-century activist group dedicated to keeping the potato out of Britain, calling itself the Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet (SPUD), for whose existence there is no evidence. Mario Pei's 1949 The Story of Language was responsible for the word's false etymology; he wrote "the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago. Some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the main words in this title gave rise to spud." Like many other claimed pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false.

At least six languages-Afrikaans, Dutch, French, (West) Frisian, Hebrew, Persian and some variants of German-are known to use a term for "potato" that translates roughly (or literally) into English as "earth apple" or "ground apple".

Taxonomic synonyms

Description

Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm (24 in) high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, though a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well. Tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties.

After flowering, potato plants produce small green fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes, each containing about 300 seeds. Like all parts of the plant except the tubers, the fruit contain the toxic alkaloid solanine and are therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true potato seed", "TPS" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. New varieties grown from seed can be propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tubers cut to include at least one or two eyes, or cuttings, a practice used in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers. Plants propagated from tubers are clones of the parent, whereas those propagated from seed produce a range of different varieties.

Potatoes, both S. tuberosum and most of its wild relatives, are self-incompatible: they bear no useful fruit when self-pollinated. This trait is problematic for crop breeding, as all sexually-produced plants must be hybrids. The gene responsible for its trait as well as mutations to disable it are now known. Self-compatibility has successfully been introduced both to diploid potatoes (including a special line of S. tuberosum) by CRISPR-Cas9. Plants having a 'Sli' gene produce pollen which is compatible to its own parent and plants with similar S genes. This gene was recently cloned by Wageningen University and Solynta in 2021, which would allow for faster and more focused breeding.

Diploid hybrid potato breeding is a recent area of potato genetics supported by the finding that simultaneous homozygosity and fixation of donor alleles is possible.

Wild potato species useful for breeding include Solanum desmissum, S. stoloniferum, S. bulbocastanum, S. phureja, S. pinnatisectum, S. verrucosum, S. chacoense, S. berthaulti, S. vernei, S. polytrichon, S. simplicifolium, S. microdontum, and Solanum ruiz-ceballosii.

There are about 5,000 potato varieties worldwide. Three thousand of them are found in the Andes alone, mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. They belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart from the 5,000 cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecies, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties. Cross-breeding has been done repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain pests and diseases from the gene pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species.

The major species grown worldwide is S. tuberosum (a tetraploid with 48 chromosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated. There are also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): S.stenotomum, , S.goniocalyx, and S.ajanhuiri. There are two triploid species (with 36 chromosomes): and S.juzepczukii. There is one pentaploid cultivated species (with 60 chromosomes): S.curtilobum. There are two major subspecies of S. tuberosum: andigena, or Andean; and tuberosum, or Chilean. The Andean potato is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated; the Chilean potato, however, native to the Chiloé Archipelago, is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the higher latitude region of southern Chile.

The International Potato Center (CIP), based in Lima, Peru, holds 4,870 types of potato germplasm, most of which are traditional landrace cultivars. The international Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium announced in 2009 that they had achieved a draft sequence of the potato genome, containing 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs, making it a medium-sized plant genome. More than 99 percent of all current varieties of potatoes currently grown are direct descendants of a subspecies that once grew in the lowlands of south-central Chile. Nonetheless, genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species affirms that all potato subspecies derive from a single origin in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme Northwestern Bolivia (from a species in the S. brevicaule complex).

Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources, although at least one wild potato species, , occurs in North America, where it is used in breeding for resistance to a nematode species that attacks cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where important wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, such as the hexaploid , as a source of resistance to the devastating late blight disease (Phytophthora infestans). Another relative native to this region, Solanum bulbocastanum, has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blight. Many such wild relatives are useful for breeding resistance to P. infestans.

Little of the diversity found in ancestral and wild relative is found outside of the original South American range. This makes these South American species highly valuable in breeding.

There are close to 4,000 varieties of potatoes, each of which has specific agricultural or culinary attributes. Around 80 varieties are commercially available in the UK. In general, varieties are categorized into a few main groups based on common characteristics, such as russet potatoes (rough brown skin), red potatoes, white potatoes, yellow potatoes (also called Yukon potatoes) and purple potatoes.

For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealy baking potatoes have more starch (20-22%) than waxy boiling potatoes (16-18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water. Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.

Immature potatoes may be sold fresh from the field as "" or "" potatoes and are particularly valued for their taste. They are typically small in size and tender, with a loose skin, and flesh containing a lower level of starch than other potatoes. In the United States they are generally either a Yukon Gold potato or a red potato, called gold creamers or red creamers respectively. In the UK, the Jersey Royal is a famous type of new potato. They are distinct from "baby", "salad" or " fingerling" potatoes, which are small and tend to have waxy flesh, but are grown to maturity and can be stored for months before being sold.

The European Cultivated Potato Database (ECPD) is an online collaborative database of potato variety descriptions that is updated and maintained by the Scottish Agricultural Science Agency within the framework of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR)-which is run by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).

Pigmentation

Dozens of potato cultivars have been selectively bred specifically for their skin or, more commonly, flesh color, including gold, red, and blue varieties that contain varying amounts of phytochemicals, including carotenoids for gold/yellow or polyphenols for red or blue cultivars. Carotenoid compounds include provitamin A alpha-carotene and beta-carotene, which are converted to the essential nutrient, vitamin A, during digestion. Anthocyanins mainly responsible for red or blue pigmentation in potato cultivars do not have nutritional significance, but are used for visual variety and consumer appeal. In 2010, potatoes were bioengineered specifically for these pigmentation traits.

Genetically engineered potatoes

Genetic research has produced several genetically modified varieties. 'New Leaf', owned by Monsanto Company, incorporates genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (source of most Bt toxins in transcrop use), which confers resistance to the Colorado potato beetle; 'New Leaf Plus' and 'New Leaf Y', approved by US regulatory agencies during the 1990s, also include resistance to viruses. McDonald's, Burger King, Frito-Lay, and Procter & Gamble announced they would not use genetically modified potatoes, and Monsanto published its intent to discontinue the line in March 2001.

Potato starch contains two types of glucan, amylose and amylopectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. Waxy potato varieties produce waxy potato starch, which is almost entirely amylopectin, with little or no amylose. BASF developed the ' Amflora' potato, which was modified to express antisense RNA to inactivate the gene for granule bound starch synthase, an enzyme which catalyzes the formation of amylose. 'Amflora' potatoes therefore produce starch consisting almost entirely of amylopectin, and are thus more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commission cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industrial purposes only-not for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries have the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent years. Another GM potato variety developed by BASF is 'Fortuna' which was made resistant to late blight by adding two resistance genes, and , which originate from the Mexican wild potato S. bulbocastanum.[clarification needed ] In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA. In 2012, GMO development in Europe was stopped by BASF. In November 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified potato developed by J.R. Simplot Company, which contains genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried than conventional potatoes; the modifications do not cause new proteins to be made, but rather prevent proteins from being made via RNA interference.

Genetically modified varieties have met public resistance in the United States and in the European Union.

Biosynthesis of starch

Sucrose is a product of photosynthesis. Ferreira et al. (2010) found that the genes for starch biosynthesis start to be transcribed at the same time as sucrose synthase activity begins. This transcription - including starch synthase - also shows a diurnal rhythm, correlating with the sucrose supply arriving from the leaves.

Production of potatoes (2019)[58]

The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and northwestern Bolivia by pre-Columbian farmers, around Lake Titicaca. It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.

The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of Ancon (central Peru), dating to 2500 BC. The most widely cultivated variety, Solanum tuberosum tuberosum, is indigenous to the Chiloé Archipelago, and has been cultivated by the local indigenous people since before the Spanish conquest.

According to conservative estimates, the introduction of the potato was responsible for a quarter of the growth in Old World population and urbanization between 1700 and 1900. In the Altiplano, potatoes provided the principal energy source for the Inca civilization, its predecessors, and its Spanish successor. Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spanish introduced the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century, part of the Columbian exchange. The staple was subsequently conveyed by European (possibly including Russian) mariners to territories and ports throughout the world, especially their colonies. The potato was slow to be adopted by European and colonial farmers, but after 1750 it became an important food staple and field crop and played a major role in the European 19th century population boom. However, lack of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus-like oomycete Phytophthora infestans, spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland as well as parts of the Scottish Highlands, resulting in the crop failures that led to the Great Irish Famine. Thousands of potato varieties still persist in the Andes, where over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household.

Production

In 2021, world production of potatoes was 376 million tonnes (370,000,000 long tons; 414,000,000 short tons), led by China with 25% of the total (table). Other major producers were India and Ukraine.

Boiled potato pulp with skin is 77% water, 20% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), boiled potato supplies 87 calories of food energy, and is a rich source of vitamin B6 (23% of the Daily Value, DV), with moderate contents (10-16% DV) of some B vitamins and vitamin C (table). Other micronutrients are below 10% of the DV.

The potato is rarely eaten raw because raw potato starch is poorly digested by humans.

Potatoes are often broadly classified as having a high glycemic index (GI) and so are often excluded from the diets of individuals trying to follow a low-GI diet. The GI of potatoes can vary considerably depending on the cultivar, growing conditions and storage, preparation methods (by cooking method, whether it is eaten hot or cold, whether it is mashed or cubed or consumed whole), and accompanying foods consumed (especially the addition of various high-fat or high-protein toppings). Consuming reheated or pre-cooked and cooled potatoes may yield a lower GI effect due to the formation of resistant starch.

In the UK, potatoes are not considered by the National Health Service (NHS) as counting or contributing towards the recommended daily five portions of fruit and vegetables, the 5-A-Day program.

Potatoes contain toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloids, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is found in other plants in the same family, Solanaceae, which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and tobacco ( spp.), as well as the food plants eggplant and tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are generally concentrated in its leaves, flowers, sprouts, and fruits (in contrast to the tubers). In a summary of several studies, the glycoalkaloid content was highest in the flowers and sprouts and lowest in the tuber flesh. (The glycoalkaloid content was, in order from highest to lowest: flowers, sprouts, leaves, tuber skin, roots, berries, peel [skin plus outer cortex of tuber flesh], stems, and tuber flesh).

Exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber. Cooking at high temperatures-over 170 °C (338 °F)-partly destroys these compounds. The concentration of glycoalkaloids in (a wild potato) is sufficient to produce toxic effects in humans. Glycoalkaloid poisoning may cause headaches, diarrhea, cramps, and, in severe cases, coma and death. However, poisoning from cultivated potato varieties is very rare. Light exposure causes greening from chlorophyll synthesis, giving a visual clue as to which areas of the tuber may have become more toxic. However, this does not provide a definitive guide, as greening and glycoalkaloid accumulation can occur independently of each other.

Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The ' Lenape' variety was released in 1967 but was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids. Since then, breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard an otherwise promising cultivar. Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below 200 mg/kg (0.0032 oz/lb) (200 ppmw). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, they can still approach solanine concentrations of 1,000 mg/kg (0.016 oz/lb) (1000 ppmw). In normal potatoes, analysis has shown solanine levels may be as little as 3.5% of the breeders' maximum, with 7-187 mg/kg (0.00011-0.00299 oz/lb) being found. While a normal potato tuber has 12-20 mg/kg (0.00019-0.00032 oz/lb) of glycoalkaloid content, a green potato tuber contains 250-280 mg/kg (0.0040-0.0045 oz/lb) and its skin has 1,500-2,200 mg/kg (0.024-0.035 oz/lb).

Growth and cultivation

Seed potatoes

Potatoes are generally grown from "seed potatoes", tubers specifically grown to be free from disease and to provide consistent and healthy plants. To be disease free, the areas where seed potatoes are grown are selected with care. In the US, this restricts production of seed potatoes to only 15 states out of all 50 states where potatoes are grown. These locations are selected for their cold, hard winters that kill pests and summers with long sunshine hours for optimum growth. In the UK, most seed potatoes originate in Scotland, in areas where westerly winds reduce aphid attack and the spread of potato virus pathogens.

Specially genetically modified potatoes can also be grown from true seeds. This is rarely used in breeding experimentation.

Phases of growth

Potato growth can be divided into five phases. During the first phase, sprouts emerge from the seed potatoes and root growth begins. During the second, photosynthesis begins as the plant develops leaves and branches above-ground and stolons develop from lower leaf axils on the below-ground stem. In the third phase the tips of the stolons swell forming new tubers and the shoots continue to grow and flowers typically develop soon after. Tuber bulking occurs during the fourth phase, when the plant begins investing the majority of its resources in its newly formed tubers. At this phase, several factors are critical to a good yield: optimal soil moisture and temperature, soil nutrient availability and balance, and resistance to pest attacks. The fifth phase is the maturation of the tubers: the leaves and stems senesce and the tuber skins harden.

Challenges

Potatoes are renowned for their ease of cultivation compared to other staple crops; however, maximizing yields and preventing disease and undesirable characteristics requires intensive management.

New tubers may start growing at the surface of the soil. Since exposure to light leads to an undesirable greening of the skins and the development of solanine as a protection from the sun's rays, growers cover surface tubers. Commercial growers cover them by piling additional soil around the base of the plant as it grows (called "hilling" up, or in British English "earthing up"). An alternative method, used by home gardeners and smaller-scale growers, involves covering the growing area with mulches such as straw or plastic sheets.

Correct potato husbandry can be an arduous task in some circumstances. Good ground preparation, harrowing, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a little grace from the weather and a good source of water. Three successive plowings, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Eliminating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. In general, the potatoes themselves are grown from the eyes of another potato and not from seed. Home gardeners often plant a piece of potato with two or three eyes in a hill of mounded soil. Commercial growers plant potatoes as a row crop using seed tubers, young plants or microtubers and may mound the entire row. Seed potato crops are rogued in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different variety from the seed crop.

Potatoes are sensitive to heavy frosts, which damage them in the ground. Even cold weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rotting, which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.

Pests and disease

The historically significant Phytophthora infestans (cause of late blight) remains an ongoing problem in Europe and the United States. Other potato diseases include Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Pectobacterium carotovorum (black leg), powdery mildew, powdery scab and leafroll virus.

Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include the Colorado potato beetle, the potato tuber moth, the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), the potato aphid, Tuta absoluta, beet leafhoppers, thrips, and mites. The potato cyst nematode is a microscopic worm that feeds on the roots, thus causing the potato plants to wilt. Since its eggs can survive in the soil for several years, crop rotation is recommended. According to an Environmental Working Group analysis of USDA and FDA pesticide residue tests performed from 2000 through 2008, 84% of the 2,216 tested potato samples contained detectable traces of at least one pesticide. A total of 36 unique pesticides were detected on potatoes over the 2,216 samples, though no individual sample contained more than 6 unique pesticide traces, and the average was 1.29 detectable unique pesticide traces per sample. The average quantity of all pesticide traces found in the 2,216 samples was 1.602 ppm. While this was a very low value of pesticide residue, it was the highest amongst the 50 vegetables analyzed.

is a nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR/NLR), an R-gene-produced immunoreceptor. It has been introgressed from wild relatives (various Solanum spp.) into the common potato. Rpi-blb1 conveys resistance to Late Blight ( P. infestans).[clarification needed ]

At harvest time, gardeners usually dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-prong "grape" (or graip), i.e., a spading fork, or a potato hook, which is similar to the graip but with tines at a 90 ° angle to the handle. In larger plots, the plow is the fastest implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is typically done with large potato harvesters, which scoop up the plant and surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. Different designs use different systems at this point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.

Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the process by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Potato tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage during harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and any wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tubers during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures (10 to 16 °C or 50 to 60 °F) with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.

Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of sprouting which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area be dark, ventilated well, and, for long-term storage, maintained at temperatures near 4 °C (39 °F). For short-term storage, temperatures of about 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F) are preferred.

Temperatures below 4 °C (39 °F) convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to international health concerns.[citation needed ] It is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food causes cancer in humans. Chemicals are used to suppress sprouting of tubers during storage. Chlorpropham (CIPC) is the main chemical used, but toxicity concerns have led to it being banned in the EU. Alternatives are applying maleic hydrazide to the crop whilst it is still growing or the use of ethylene, spearmint and orange oils and 1,4-dimethylnaphthalene.

Under optimum conditions in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to 10-12 months. The commercial storage and retrieval of potatoes involves several phases: first drying surface moisture; wound healing at 85% to 95% relative humidity and temperatures below 25 °C (77 °F); a staged cooling phase; a holding phase; and a reconditioning phase, during which the tubers are slowly warmed. Mechanical ventilation is used at various points during the process to prevent condensation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide.

The world dedicated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres) to potato cultivation in 2010; the world average yield was 17.4 tonnes per hectare (7.8 short tons per acre). The United States was the most productive country, with a nationwide average yield of 44.3 tonnes per hectare (19.8 short tons per acre). United Kingdom was a close second.

New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the world, ranging between 60 and 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88 tonnes of potatoes per hectare.

There is a big gap among various countries between high and low yields, even with the same variety of potato. Average potato yields in developed economies ranges between 38 and 44 metric tons per hectare (15 and 18 long ton/acre; 17 and 20 short ton/acre). China and India accounted for over a third of world's production in 2010, and had yields of 14.7 and 19.9 metric tons per hectare (5.9 and 7.9 long ton/acre; 6.6 and 8.9 short ton/acre) respectively. The yield gap between farms in developing economies and developed economies represents an opportunity loss of over 400 million metric tons (440 million short tons; 390 million long tons) of potato, or an amount greater than 2010 world potato production. Potato crop yields are determined by factors such as the crop breed, seed age and quality, crop management practices and the plant environment. Improvements in one or more of these yield determinants, and a closure of the yield gap, can be a major boost to food supply and farmer incomes in the developing world. The food energy yield of potatoes-about 95 gigajoules per hectare (9.2 million kilocalories per acre)-is higher than that of maize (78 GJ/ha or 7.5 million kcal/acre), rice (77 GJ/ha or 7.4 million kcal/acre), wheat (31 GJ/ha or 3 million kcal/acre), or soybeans (29 GJ/ha or 2.8 million kcal/acre).

Climate change

Climate change is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production. Like many crops, potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and precipitation, as well as interactions between these factors. As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests. While potato is less important than maize, rice, wheat and soybeans, which are collectively responsible for around two-thirds of all calories consumed by humans (both directly and indirectly as animal feed), it still is one of the world's most important food crops. According to a 2011 estimate, future worldwide potato yield would be 18-32% lower than it was at the time, driven by declines in hotter areas like Sub-Saharan Africa, unless farmers and potato cultivars can adapt to the new environment.

As with the other plants, potato plants and crop yields are predicted to benefit from the CO2 fertilization effect, which would increase photosynthetic rates and therefore growth, reduce water consumption through lower transpiration from stomata and increase starch content in the edible tubers. However, potatoes are more sensitive to soil water deficits than some other staple crops like wheat, so in countries like Bolivia, where the rainy season has shortened in recent decades, the potato growing season has shortened as well. This can get worse in the future: for instance, the amount of arable land suitable for rainfed potato production in the UK may decrease by at least 75%. These changes are likely to lead to increased demand for irrigation water, particularly during the potato growing season.

Potatoes also grow best under temperate conditions. Tuber growth and yield can be severely reduced by temperature fluctuations outside 5-30 °C (41-86 °F). Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) can have a range of negative effects on potato, from physiological damage such as brown spots on tubers, to slower growth, premature sprouting and lower starch content. These effects can reduce crop yield and the number and weight of tubers. As a result, areas where current temperatures are near the limits of potatoes' temperature range (e.g. much of sub-Saharan Africa) will likely suffer large reductions in potato crop yields in the future. On the other hand, low temperatures reduce potato growth and present risk of frost damage. At high altitudes and in high latitude countries such as Canada and Russia, potato growth is currently limited or impossible due to risks of frost damage, and rising temperatures will likely extend potentially suitable land and/or growing season.

Changes in pests and diseases for potato crops

Climate change is predicted to affect many potato pests and diseases. These include:

Insect pests such as the potato tuber moth and Colorado potato beetle, which are predicted to spread into areas currently too cold for them.

Aphids which act as vectors for many potato viruses and will also be able to spread under increased temperatures.

Several pathogens causing potato blackleg disease (e.g. Dickeya) can grow and reproduce faster at higher temperatures and so will likely become more of a problem.

Bacterial infections such as Ralstonia solanacearum are predicted to benefit from higher temperatures and be able to spread more easily through flash flooding.

Late blight benefits from higher temperatures and wetter conditions. Late blight is predicted to become a greater threat in some areas (e.g. in Finland) and become a lesser threat in others (e.g. in the United Kingdom).

Adaptation strategies

Shifting potato production from areas where yields will decline due to hotter temperatures and decreased water availability to places which will become suitable can help to mitigate much of the projected decline in yield: however, this can also trigger competition for land between potato crops and other crops or other land uses.), mostly due to changes in water and temperature regimes. At the same time potato production is predicted to become possible in high altitude and latitude areas where it would previously have been limited by frost damage. These changes in crop yields are predicted to cause shifts in the areas in which potato crops can be viably produced.

The other approach is through the development of varieties or cultivars which would be more adapted to altered conditions. This can be done through 'traditional' plant breeding techniques and genetic modification. These techniques allow for the selection of specific traits as a new cultivar is developed. Certain traits, such as heat stress tolerance, drought tolerance, fast growth/early maturation and disease resistance, may play an important role in creating new cultivars able to maintain yields under stressors induced by climate change.

For instance, developing cultivars with greater heat stress tolerance would be critical for maintaining yields in countries with potato production areas near current cultivars' maximum temperature limits (e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa, India). Superior drought resistance can be achieved through improved water use efficiency (amount of food produced per amount of water used) or the ability to recover from short drought periods and still produce acceptable yields. Further, selecting for deeper root systems may reduce the need for irrigation. Finally, potatoes that grow faster could help adjust to shorter growing seasons in some areas, and also reduce the number of life cycles pests such as potato tuber moth can complete in a single growing season.

Various, typically American potato preparations: (clockwise from top left) potato chips, hashbrowns, tater tots, mashed potato, and a baked potato

Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with seasonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to swell the starch granules. Most potato dishes are served hot but some are first cooked, then served cold, notably potato salad and potato chips (crisps). Common dishes are: mashed potatoes, which are first boiled (usually peeled), and then mashed with milk or yogurt and butter; whole baked potatoes; boiled or steamed potatoes; French-fried potatoes or chips; cut into cubes and roasted; scalloped, diced, or sliced and fried ( home fries); grated into small thin strips and fried ( hash browns); grated and formed into dumplings, Rösti or potato pancakes. Potatoes can also be cooked in a microwave oven to produce a meal very similar to a steamed potato, while retaining the appearance of a conventionally baked potato.[citation needed ] Potato chunks also commonly appear as a stew ingredient. Potatoes are boiled between 10 and 25 minutes, depending on size and type, to become soft.

Latin America

Peruvian cuisine naturally contains the potato as a primary ingredient in many dishes, as around 3,000 varieties of this tuber are grown there. Some of the more notable dishes include boiled potato as a base for several dishes or with ají-based sauces like in papa a la Huancaína or ocopa, diced potato for its use in soups like in cau cau, or in carapulca with dried potato (papa seca). Smashed condimented potato is used in causa Limeña and papa rellena. French-fried potatoes are a typical ingredient in Peruvian stir-fries, including the classic dish lomo saltado.

Chuño is a freeze-dried potato product traditionally made by Quechua and Aymara communities of Peru and Bolivia, and is known in various countries of South America, including Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In Chile's Chiloé Archipelago, potatoes are the main ingredient of many dishes, including milcaos, chapaleles, curanto and chochoca. In Ecuador, the potato, as well as being a staple with most dishes, is featured in the hearty locro de papas, a thick soup of potato, squash, and cheese.

In the UK, potatoes form part of the traditional staple, fish and chips. Roast potatoes are commonly served as part of a Sunday roast dinner and mashed potatoes form a major component of several other traditional dishes, such as shepherd's pie, bubble and squeak, and bangers and mash. New potatoes may be cooked with mint and are often served with butter.

The tattie scone is a popular Scottish dish containing potatoes. Colcannon is a traditional Irish food made with mashed potato, shredded kale or cabbage, and onion; champ is a similar dish. Boxty pancakes are eaten throughout Ireland, although associated especially with the North, and in Irish diaspora communities; they are traditionally made with grated potatoes, soaked to loosen the starch and mixed with flour, buttermilk and baking powder. A variant eaten and sold in Lancashire, especially Liverpool, is made with cooked and mashed potatoes.

In the UK, game chips are a traditional accompaniment to roast gamebirds such as pheasant, grouse, partridge and quail.

Powdered cooked potato has been sold in the UK since the 1960s as Smash and is used as a food for camping and domestically.

Halushky are the national dish of many Slavic nations. Halušky dumplings are made from a batter consisting of flour and grated potatoes. Bryndzové halušky are associated to Slovak cuisine in particular.

German Bauernfrühstück ("farmer's breakfast")

In Germany, Northern (Finland, Latvia and especially Scandinavian countries), Eastern Europe (Russia, Belarus and Ukraine) and Poland, newly harvested, early ripening varieties are considered a special delicacy. Boiled whole and served un-peeled with dill, these "new potatoes" are traditionally consumed with Baltic herring. Puddings made from grated potatoes ( kugel, kugelis, and potato babka) are popular items of Ashkenazi, Lithuanian, and Belarusian cuisine. German fried potatoes and various versions of Potato salad are part of German cuisine. Bauernfrühstück (literally farmer's breakfast) is a warm German dish made from fried potatoes, eggs, ham and vegetables.

Cepelinai is the national dish of Lithuania. They are a type of dumpling made from grated raw potatoes boiled in water and usually stuffed with minced meat, although sometimes dry cottage cheese ( curd) or mushrooms are used instead.

In Western Europe, especially in Belgium, sliced potatoes are fried to create frieten, the original French fried potatoes. , a traditional Dutch meal, is based on mashed potatoes mixed with vegetables.

In France, the most notable potato dish is the hachis Parmentier, named after Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, a French pharmacist, nutritionist, and agronomist who, in the late 18th century, was instrumental in the acceptance of the potato as an edible crop in the country. Pâté aux pommes de terre is a regional potato dish from the central Allier and Limousin regions. Gratin dauphinois, consisting of baked thinly sliced potatoes with cream or milk, and tartiflette, with Reblochon cheese, are also widespread.

In the north of Italy, in particular, in the Friuli region of the northeast, potatoes serve to make a type of pasta called gnocchi. Similarly, cooked and mashed potatoes or potato flour can be used in the Knödel or dumpling eaten with or added to meat dishes all over central and Eastern Europe, but especially in Bavaria and Luxembourg. Potatoes form one of the main ingredients in many soups such as the vichyssoise and Albanian potato and cabbage soup. In western Norway, komle is popular.

Potato pancakes are popular all over Central Europe, and are also known in Scandinavia, and in Jewish cuisine.

A traditional Canary Islands dish is Canarian wrinkly potatoes or papas arrugadas. Tortilla de patatas (potato omelette) and patatas bravas (a dish of fried potatoes in a spicy tomato sauce) are near-universal constituents of Spanish tapas.

North America

In the US, potatoes have become one of the most widely consumed crops and thus have a variety of preparation methods and condiments. French fries and often hash browns are commonly found in typical American fast-food burger "joints" and cafeterias. One popular favourite involves a baked potato with cheddar cheese (or sour cream and chives) on top, and in New England "smashed potatoes" (a chunkier variation on mashed potatoes, retaining the peel) have a great popularity. Potato flakes are popular as an instant variety of mashed potatoes, which reconstitute into mashed potatoes by adding water, with butter or oil and salt to taste. A regional dish of Central New York, salt potatoes are bite-size new potatoes boiled in water saturated with salt then served with melted butter. At more formal dinners, a common practice includes taking small red potatoes, slicing them, and roasting them in an iron skillet. Among American Jews, the practice of eating latkes (fried potato pancakes) is common during the festival of Hanukkah.

A traditional Acadian dish from New Brunswick is known as poutine râpée. The Acadian poutine is a ball of grated and mashed potato, salted, sometimes filled with pork in the centre, and boiled. The result is a moist ball about the size of a baseball. It is commonly eaten with salt and pepper or brown sugar. It is believed to have originated from the German , prepared by early German settlers who lived among the Acadians. , by contrast, is a hearty serving of French fries, fresh cheese curds and hot gravy. Tracing its origins to Quebec in the 1950s, it has become a widespread and popular dish throughout Canada.

Potato grading for Idaho potatoes is performed in which No. 1 potatoes are the highest quality and No. 2 are rated as lower in quality due to their appearance (e.g. blemishes or bruises, pointy ends). Potato density assessment can be performed by floating them in brines. High-density potatoes are desirable in the production of dehydrated mashed potatoes, potato crisps and french fries.

French fries served with a hamburger

Poutine, a Canadian dish of fried potatoes, cheese curds, and gravy

In South Asia, the potato is a very popular traditional staple. In India, the most popular potato dishes are aloo ki sabzi, batata vada, and samosa, which is spicy mashed potato mixed with a small amount of vegetable stuffed in conical dough, and deep-fried. Potatoes are also a major ingredient as fast-food items, such as aloo chaat, where they are deep-fried and served with chutney. In Northern India, alu dum and alu paratha are a favourite part of the diet; the first is a spicy curry of boiled potato, the second is a type of stuffed chapati.

A dish called masala dosa from South India is notable all over India. It is a thin pancake of rice and pulse batter rolled over spicy smashed potato and eaten with sambhar and chutney. Poori in south India, in particular in Tamil Nadu, is almost always taken with smashed potato masal. Other favourite dishes are alu tikki and pakoda items.

Vada pav is a popular vegetarian fast-food dish in Mumbai and other regions in Maharashtra in India.

Aloo posto (a curry with potatoes and poppy seeds) is popular in East India, especially Bengal. Although potatoes are not native to India, it has become a vital part of food all over the country especially North Indian food preparations. In Tamil Nadu this tuber acquired a name based on its appearance, 'urulai-k-kizhangu' (உருளைக் கிழங்கு), meaning cylindrical tuber.

Aloo gosht, potato and meat curry, is one of the popular dishes in South Asia, especially in Pakistan.

In East Asia, particularly Southeast Asia, rice is by far the predominant starch crop, with potatoes a secondary crop, especially in China and Japan. However, it is used in northern China where rice is not easily grown, with a popular dish being ( qīng jiāo tǔ dòu sī), made with green pepper, vinegar and thin slices of potato. In the winter, roadside sellers in northern China will also sell roasted potatoes. It is also occasionally seen in Korean and Thai cuisines.

Potatoes are also used for purposes other than eating by humans, for example:

Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, poitín, or akvavit.

They are also used as fodder for livestock. Livestock-grade potatoes, considered too small or blemished to sell or market for human use but suitable for fodder use, have been called chats in some dialects. They may be stored in bins until use; they are sometimes ensiled. Some farmers prefer to steam them rather than feed them raw and are equipped to do so efficiently.

Potato starch is used in the food industry as a thickener and binder for soups and sauces, in the textile industry as an adhesive, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards.

Potatoes are commonly used in plant research. The consistent parenchyma tissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity make it an ideal model tissue for experiments on wound-response studies and electron transport.

Potatoes have been delivered with personalized messages as a novelty. Potato delivery services include Potato Parcel and Mail A Spud.

Cultural significance

The potato has been an essential crop in the Andes since the pre-Columbian era. The Moche culture from Northern Peru made ceramics from the earth, water, and fire. This pottery was a sacred substance, formed in significant shapes and used to represent important themes. Potatoes are represented anthropomorphically as well as naturally.

During the late 19th century, numerous images of potato harvesting appeared in European art, including the works of Willem Witsen and Anton Mauve.

Van Gogh's 1885 painting The Potato Eaters portrays a family eating potatoes. Van Gogh said he wanted to depict peasants as they really were. He deliberately chose coarse and ugly models, thinking that they would be natural and unspoiled in his finished work.

Jean-François Millet's The Potato Harvest depicts peasants working in the plains between Barbizon and Chailly. It presents a theme representative of the peasants' struggle for survival. Millet's technique for this work incorporated paste-like pigments thickly applied over a coarsely textured canvas.

In popular culture

Invented in 1949, and marketed and sold commercially by Hasbro in 1952, Mr. Potato Head is an American toy that consists of a plastic potato and attachable plastic parts, such as ears and eyes, to make a face. It was the first toy ever advertised on television.

In June 1992 at the Muñoz Rivera Elementary School spelling bee in Trenton, New Jersey, U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle was handed a flash card that incorrectly spelled "potato" as "potatoe" and then prompted a 12-year-old student to change his correct spelling. This incident was the subject of widespread ridicule.

References

General and cited sources

Economist. "Llamas and mash", The Economist 28 February 2008 online

Economist. "The potato: Spud we like", (leader) The Economist 28 February 2008 online

Boomgaard, Peter (2003). "In the Shadow of Rice: Roots and Tubers in Indonesian History, 1500-1950". Agricultural History. 77 (4): 582-610. doi:10.1525/ah.2003.77.4.582. JSTOR 3744936.

Hawkes, J.G. (1990). The Potato: Evolution, Biodiversity & Genetic Resources, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC

Lang, James (1975). Notes of a Potato Watcher. Texas A&M University Agriculture series. ISBN 978-1-58544-138-9.

Langer, William L (1975). "American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750-1850". Journal of Social History. 8 (2): 51-66. doi:10.1353/jsh/8.2.51. JSTOR 3786266.

McNeill, William H. "How the Potato Changed the World's History." Social Research (1999) 66#1 pp. 67-83. ISSN 0037-783X Fulltext: Ebsco, by a leading historian

McNeill William H (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". Journal of Modern History. 21 (3): 218-21. doi:10.1086/237272. JSTOR 1876068. S2CID 145099646.

Ó Gráda, Cormac. Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory. (1999). 272 pp.

Ó Gráda, Cormac, Richard Paping, and Eric Vanhaute, eds. When the Potato Failed: Causes and Effects of the Last European Subsistence Crisis, 1845-1850. (2007). 342 pp. ISBN 978-2-503-51985-2. 15 essays by scholars looking at Ireland and all of Europe

Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008), 315pp a standard scholarly history

Salaman, Redcliffe N. (1989). The History and Social Influence of the Potato, Cambridge University Press (originally published in 1949; reprinted 1985 with new introduction and corrections by J.G. Hawkes).

Stevenson, W.R., Loria, R., Franc, G.D., and Weingartner, D.P. (2001) Compendium of Potato Diseases, 2nd ed, Amer. Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.

Zuckerman, Larry. The Potato: How the Humble Spud Rescued the Western World. (1998). 304 pp. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 0-86547-578-4.

Further reading

Bohl, William H.; Johnson, Steven B., eds. (2010). Commercial Potato Production in North America: The Potato Association of America Handbook (PDF). Second Revision of American Potato Journal Supplement Volume 57 and USDA Handbook 267. The Potato Association of America. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2012.

"'Humble' Potato Emerging as World's Next Food Source". column. Japan. Reuters. 11 May 2008. p. 20.

Spooner, David M.; McLean, Karen; Ramsay, Gavin; Waugh, Robbie; Bryan, Glenn J. (October 2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (41): 14694-14699. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10214694S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507400102. PMC . PMID 16203994.

The World Potato Atlas, released by the International Potato Center in 2006 and regularly updated. Includes current chapters of 15 countries:

South America: (English and Spanish): Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru

Africa: Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya

Eurasia: Armenia, Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan

38 others as brief "archive" chapters

Further information links at Other Materials

World Geography of the Potato at UGA.edu, released in 1993.

Atlas of Wild Potatoes (2002), Systematic and Ecogeographic Studies on Crop Genepools 10, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), ISBN 9789290435181

Gauldie, Enid (1981). The Scottish Miller 1700-1900. Pub. John Donald. ISBN 0-85976-067-7.

External links

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The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant Solanum tuberosum and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern United States to southern Chile.

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Bring a dramatic-looking Tuxedo Cake to any special occasion. This chocolate Tuxedo Cake with white frosting and chocolate glaze is an elegant dessert.

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Canned beans are convenient, but dried beans win on flavor every time. Here's how to cook any kind of dried bean to perfection.

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La ensalada

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Publicado por canalHOGAR, 09 Sep 2015

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Aunque una ensalada esté preparada con los mejores ingredientes, si no sabemos aliñarla como es debido, podemos echar por tierra este sabroso plato. Te damos todos los consejos para aliñar correctamente las ensaladas y conseguir que todos los comensales se chupen los dedos.

Vinagre en su justa medida

Aunque dependerá de los gustos de cada persona, uno de los aliños más populares es la vinagreta. Ésta se debe elaborar con cuatro partes de aceite por cada una de vinagre (tres partes de aceite si el vinagre no es especialmente fuerte) y sal.

Si no quieres preparar la vinagreta previamente y optas por añadir los aliños por separado, lo recomendable es hacerlo en el siguiente orden: sal, vinagre y aceite. De esta forma conseguiremos que la sal y el vinagre penetren en los alimentos aportando ese sabor tan característico y evitando que el aceite lo cubra.

En cuanto a las cantidades de cada ingrediente para el aliño dependerá del gusto de cada uno también. Aunque si echamos mano del refranero popular español la mejor forma de aliñar con sal, vinagre y aceite de oliva sería la siguiente: "para aliñar bien una ensalada es necesario alguien prudente para la sal, generoso para el aceite y tacaño para el vinagre".

A la hora de añadir el vinagre, es importante no excederse o de lo contrario podemos acabar con el sabor del resto de ingredientes. Una solución perfecta para remediar la ensalada si nos hemos pasado con el vinagre es añadir varias bolitas de miga de pan en el fondo de la ensalada, esperar 10 minutos a que se absorba la parte sobrante del vinagre y añadir después un poco más de aceite.

Otro aliño más suave

Si el vinagre te resulta demasiado fuerte, también puedes recurrir al limón para aliñar tu ensalada.

Recuerda que el aliño debe hacerse siempre en el último momento para evitar que los vegetales pierdan su textura.

Una vez que tengamos la base de la vinagreta podemos añadir, por ejemplo, pimentón, mostaza, miel, pimiento, remolacha, cebolla u otras verduras muy picaditas.

Con estos consejos para aliñar correctamente las ensaladas conseguirás que te queden totalmente apetecibles. No olvides combinarlas con otros alimentos complementarios para seguir una dieta sana y equilibrada. Recuerda que si necesitas ayuda en este sentido, el Seguro de Salud Elección MAPFRE te ofrece una cobertura centrada en la prevención de la obesidad.

Cantidades: depende del gusto de cada comensal, pero siempre hay que tener precaución con el vinagre y la sal.

Limón: puede ser el sustitutivo perfecto para el vinagre a la hora de aliñar las ensaladas.

Vinagre: si se nos va la mano podemos añadir miga de pan para eliminar el sobrante.

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Publicado por canalHOGAR , 09 Sep 2015 Comparte el artículo: Aunque una ensalada esté preparada con los mejores ingredientes, si no sabemos aliñarla como es debido, podemos echar por tierra este sabroso plato. Te damos todos los consejos para aliñar correctamente las ensaladas y conseguir que todos los comensales se chupen los dedos.

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La Carne

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Prep 10 min

Total 2 hr 30 min

Ingredients 4

Servings 4

One of the most popular dishes during Memorial Day is grilled meat, made with a traditional carne asada marinade. In my opinion, there's nothing more delicious that the taste of grilled meat served with salsa, lime and onions. Just thinking about it makes my mouth water. Grilling meat is its own experience. I remember that it took me hours to start the charcoal the first time I tried, but I've gotten better over time. Not I enjoy each moment. From watching the charcoal change colors and the heat it gives off to the sound of the meat heating the grill and the delicious aroma that invades all the senses. Are you ready? If you've grilled meat before then you know I'd be lying if I said it was easy, the important thing is so have a nice piece of well-marinated steak. Have ingredients to make guacamole, salsa, beans and rice, I've sure your guests will be very satisfied. MORE +LESS -

Season the steaks one by one on both sides with salt, pepper and garlic. Place the steaks in a deep glass container. Carefully pour the beer in with the steak until they're covered completely. Cover and refrigerate for 2 hours.

Remove the meat from the fridge and let it reach room temperature while you prepare the grill.

As soon as the grill reaches its hottest temperature, place the meet on the grill and let cook for 4-6 minutes on both sides, depending on how thick the meet is. I usually use thin cuts so that the meat cooks quickly, but be sure not to over cook to avoid the meat from being too hard.

Serve immediately with grilled onions, guacamole, salsa, rice and beans. Enjoy!

Expert Tips

If you don't have garlic powder, use fresh garlic finely chopped.

Two hours is recommended for marinating, but if you're in a rush you can cook after one hour.

No nutrition information available for this recipe

One of the most popular dishes during Memorial Day is grilled meat, made with a traditional carne asada marinade. In my opinion, there's nothing more delicious that the taste of grilled meat served with salsa, lime and onions. Just thinking about it makes my mouth water. Grilling meat is its own experience. I remember that it took me hours to start the charcoal the first time I tried, but I've gotten better over time. Not I enjoy each moment. From watching the charcoal change colors and the heat it gives off to the sound of the meat heating the grill and the delicious aroma that invades all the senses. Are you ready? If you've grilled meat before then you know I'd be lying if I said it was easy, the important thing is so have a nice piece of well-marinated steak. Have ingredients to make guacamole, salsa, beans and rice, I've sure your guests will be very satisfied.

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One of the most popular dishes during Memorial Day is grilled meat, made with a traditional carne asada marinade. In my opinion, there's nothing more delicious that the taste of grilled meat served with salsa, lime and onions. Just thinking about it makes my mouth water. Grilling meat is its own experience.

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El brocoli

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These mini trees are notorious for being pushed off the plates of kids around the world, but broccoli's reputation as one of the healthiest veggies still rings true.

Broccoli belongs to the cruciferous vegetable family, which includes kale, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, bok choy, cabbage, collard greens, rutabaga, and turnips. These nutrition powerhouses supply loads of nutrients for few calories.

If you are trying to eat healthier, cruciferous vegetables like broccoli should be at the very top of your grocery list. If you or your kids are not big fans of broccoli, be sure to read the how to incorporate more broccoli into your diet section for tips and delicious recipes.

This MNT Knowledge Center feature is part of a collection of articles on the health benefits of popular foods. It provides a nutritional breakdown of broccoli and an in-depth look at its possible health benefits, how to incorporate more broccoli into your diet, and any potential health risks of consuming broccoli.

Possible health benefits of consuming broccoli

Broccoli belongs to the cruciferous vegetable family.

Consuming fruits and vegetables of all kinds has long been associated with a reduced risk of many lifestyle-related health conditions.

Many studies have suggested that increasing consumption of plant foods like broccoli decreases the risk of obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and overall mortality.

It may also promote a healthy complexion and hair, increased energy, and overall lower weight.

Fighting cancer

Eating a high amount of cruciferous vegetables has been associated with a lower risk of cancer; particularly lung and colon cancer. Studies have suggested that sulforaphane, the sulfur-containing compound that gives cruciferous vegetables their bitter bite, is also what gives them their cancer-fighting power.

Researchers have found that sulforaphane can inhibit the enzyme histone deacetylase (HDAC), known to be involved in the progression of cancer cells. The ability to stop HDAC enzymes could make sulforaphane-containing foods a potentially powerful part of cancer treatment in the future. Sulforaphane is now being studied for its ability to delay or slow cancer with promising results shown in melanoma, esophageal, prostate, and pancreatic cancers.

Other easily recognized cruciferous vegetables include cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale, turnips, and cabbage, as well as the lesser-known arugula, broccolini, daikon, kohlrabi, and watercress.

Another important vitamin that broccoli contains, folate, has been found to decrease the risk of breast cancer in women. Adequate intake of dietary folate (in food) has also shown promise in protecting against colon, stomach, pancreatic, and cervical cancers. Although the mechanism behind the protection is not understood, researchers believe that it may have something to do with folate's role in DNA and RNA production and the prevention of mutations.

Improving bone health

Poor vitamin K intake is linked with a higher risk of bone fracture. Just one cup of chopped broccoli provides 92 micrograms of vitamin K, well over 100 percent of your daily need. Consuming an adequate amount of vitamin K improves bone health by improving calcium absorption and reducing urinary excretion of calcium.

Broccoli also contributes to your daily need for calcium, providing 43 milligrams in one cup.

Looking younger

Broccoli is rich in vitamin C.

The antioxidant vitamin C, when eaten in its natural form (in fresh produce as opposed to supplements) can help to fight skin damage caused by the sun and pollution, reduce wrinkles, and improve overall skin texture.

Many people automatically think of citrus fruit when they think of vitamin C, but did you know that broccoli provides 81 milligrams in just one cup? That is more than what you need in an entire day.

Vitamin C plays a vital role in the formation of collagen, the main support system for the skin. Vitamin A and vitamin E are also crucial for healthy looking skin, both of which broccoli provides.

Improved digestion and natural detoxification

Eating foods with a natural fiber like broccoli can prevent constipation, maintain a healthy digestive tract, and lower the risk of colon cancer. Adequate fiber promotes regularity, which is crucial for the daily excretion of toxins through the bile and stool. Recent studies have shown that dietary fiber may also play a role in regulating the immune system and inflammation.

Protection from chronic disease

According to the Department of Internal Medicine and Nutritional Sciences Program of the University of Kentucky, high fiber intakes are associated with significantly lower risks of developing coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and certain gastrointestinal diseases.

Increased fiber intake has also been shown to lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels, improve insulin sensitivity, and enhance weight loss for obese individuals.

Nutritional breakdown of broccoli

According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, one cup of chopped raw broccoli (approximately 91 grams) contains 31 calories, 0 grams of fat, 6 grams of carbohydrate (including 2 grams of sugar and 2 grams of fiber) and 3 grams of protein.

Just one cup of broccoli provides over 100 percent of your daily need for vitamin C and vitamin K and is also a good source of vitamin A, folate, and potassium.

Broccoli ranks among the top 20 foods in regards to the ANDI score ( Aggregate Nutrient Density Index), which measures vitamin, mineral, and phytonutrient content in relation to caloric content.

To earn a high rank, a food must provide a high amount of nutrients for a small amount of calories.

How to incorporate more broccoli into your diet

Broccoli is famously one of the least favorite vegetables of many, along with its cruciferous cousin, Brussels sprouts. But what if you have just been storing and preparing it wrong?

Fresh, young broccoli should not taste fibrous, woody, or sulfurous. To make sure you get the best tasting broccoli, store the unwashed vegetable in loose or perforated plastic bags in the crisper drawer of the refrigerator. Only wash broccoli right before eating, as wet broccoli can develop mold and become limp.

Broccoli left at room temperature becomes fibrous and woody. You may not be able to tell by looking, but the flavor of broccoli continues to diminish the older it gets.

Broccoli can be added to wraps, pasta, pizza, or even made into a soup with onion and garlic.

Quick tips to enjoy more broccoli:

Keep it simple and sauté chopped broccoli drizzled with olive oil, cracked black pepper, and minced garlic.

Chop raw broccoli and add to your next wrap.

Top your flatbread or pizza with chopped broccoli before roasting.

Make your own pesto or pasta sauce and add broccoli.

Check out these healthful recipes using broccoli:
roasted broccoli chickpea burgers with spicy cashew mayo
roasted broccoli with lemon tahini sauce
broccoli cheddar quinoa pie

Broccoli is available to purchase in different forms in grocery stores and online.

Possible health risks of consuming broccoli

If you are taking blood-thinners, such as Coumadin (warfarin), it is important that you do not suddenly begin to eat more or less foods containing vitamin K, which plays a large role in blood clotting.

It is the total diet or overall eating pattern that is most important in disease prevention and achieving good health. The key to a healthful diet is to eat a variety of foods, rather than to concentrate on individual foods.

Further reading

If you have enjoyed reading about the potential health benefits of broccoli, take a look at our collection of articles about other fruits and vegetables.

Alternatively, read our article about the top 10 healthy foods for your daily diet.

We picked linked items based on the quality of products, and list the pros and cons of each to help you determine which will work best for you. We partner with some of the companies that sell these products, which means Healthline UK and our partners may receive a portion of revenues if you make a purchase using a link(s) above.

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Broccoli is a cruciferous vegetable that is a nutritional powerhouse. It contains lots of nutrients and very few calories. Eating broccoli may have many health benefits, including lowering cancer risk, improving bone health, and helping fight skin damage. The article includes a breakdown of its nutritional contents.

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El arroz

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El cafe