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by Chris Woodford. Last updated: October 21, 2020.

It's amazing when you think about it: you can store a movie several hours long on a shiny piece of plastic no bigger than your hand! Although compact discs (CDs) have been around for more than 30 years, they are still one of the most popular ways of storing music and computer data. In the mid-1990s, CDs evolved into digital video/versatile discs (DVDs), which look and work in a similar way but can store about seven times more. And now we have Blu-ray™, which can store six times more than a DVD-or about 40 times more a than CD! Have you ever wondered how CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays actually work? Let's take a closer look!

Note: Throughout this article, we'll talk about CDs. But almost everything about CDs also holds true for DVDs and Blu-ray discs.

What is a CD?

A compact disc is a thin, circular disc of metal and plastic about 12cm (just over 4.5 inches) in diameter. It's actually made of three layers. Most of a CD is made from a tough, brittle plastic called polycarbonate. Sandwiched in the middle there is a thin layer of aluminum. Finally, on top of the aluminum, is a protective layer of plastic and lacquer. The first thing you notice about a CD is that it is shiny on one side and dull on the other. The dull side usually has a label on it telling you what's on the CD; the shiny side is the important part. It's shiny so that a laser beam can bounce off the disc and read the information stored on it.

Photo: A small portable compact disc player made by Technics. Gadgets like this have now largely been superseded by MP3 players such as iPods, which are much smaller and lighter and pack lots more music into the same space by compressing it digitally. Read more about this in our main article on MP3 players.

How CDs use optical laser technology

Until CDs were invented, music was typically stored on vinyl (plastic) LP (long-playing) records and cassette tapes. LPs scratched easily, while tapes could stretch and distort and sometimes snapped or seized up entirely. Both of these ways of storing music were primitive compared to CDs. LPs were played on turntables with a moving arm that bounced along a groove in the plastic, reading back the music as it went. Record players (or gramophones, as they were sometimes known) used mechanical technology for recording and playing back sound: the moving arm turned the bumps in the plastic into sounds you could hear. Cassette tapes (used in such things as the original Sony Walkmans) worked a different way. They stored sounds using magnetic technology. When you put a cassette into your Walkman, a small electric motor dragged the tape past a little electromagnet. The electromagnet detected the pattern of magnetism on the tape and an electronic circuit changed this back into the sounds that fizzed and popped in your headphones.

Photo: Great music, rotten CD! CDs were billed as virtually indestructible, but some early ones have fallen victim to a problem called disc rot, which comes in various flavors. Some rotten CDs slowly turn brown (a problem known as "bronzing"); in others, bits of the reflective surface pit or disappear, eventually making them unplayable. Often the last track, which is nearest the exposed edge of a compact disc, is affected first.

Photo: A close-up of the rot on the bronzed edge of a CD, where the metal has started to disintegrate and fall away. This disc will eventually become unplayable.

With the invention of CDs, people finally had a more reliable way of collecting music. CD players are neither mechanical nor magnetic but optical: they use flashing laser lights to record and read back information from the shiny metal discs. One of the main problems with LPs and cassettes was the physical contact between the player and the record or tape being played, which gradually wore out. In a CD player, the only thing that touches the CD is a beam of light: the laser beam bounces harmlessly off the surface of the CD, so the disc itself should (in theory) never wear out. Another advantage is that the CD player can move its laser quickly to any part of the disc, so you can instantly flip from track to track or from one part of a movie to another.

How CDs are recorded and played back

Note: In the explanations that follow, I'm deliberately going to simplify how CDs store music as patterns of zeros and ones. It's much more complex than I'm going to make it seem, and it's beyond the scope of an introductory article like this, but I will briefly describe what really happens at the very end.

LP records stored music as bumps on the surface of plastic, while cassettes stored it using patterns of magnetism. These are called analog technologies, because the sound is stored as a continuously varying pattern (of bumps in the plastic of a record or fluctuations in the magnetism on a cassette tape). In a CD, music (or other information) is stored digitally (as a long string of numbers). After the music has been recorded, it is converted into numbers by a process called sampling. Almost 50,000 times a second (44,100 to be exact), a piece of electronic equipment measures the sound, turns the measurement into a number, and stores it in binary format (as a pattern of zeros and ones). The sampling process turns a CD track lasting several minutes into a string of millions of zeros and ones. This is the information stored on your CD. In other words, there is no music on a CD at all-just a huge long list of numbers.

Illustration: An ordinary CD is a sandwich of plastic (in which bumps have been pressed by a master disc), reflective aluminum, and protective polycarbonate plastic.

CDs are made from an original "master" disc. The master is "burned" with a laser beam that etches bumps (called pits) into its surface. A bump represents the number zero, so every time the laser burns a bump into the disc, a zero is stored there. The lack of a bump (which is a flat, unburned area on the disc, called a land) represents the number one. Thus, the laser can store all the information sampled from the original track of music by burning some areas (to represent zeros) and leaving other areas unburned (to represent ones). Although you can't see it, the disc holds this information in a tight, continuous spiral of about 3-5 billion pits. If you could unwrap the spiral and lay it in a straight line, it would stretch for about 6 km (roughly 3.5 miles)! Each pit occupies an area about two millionths of a millionth of a square meter. That's pretty tiny!

Once the master disc has been made, it is used to stamp out millions of plastic duplicates-the CDs that you buy and put into your music player or computer. Once each disc is pressed, it's coated with a thin aluminum layer (so it will reflect laser light), covered with protective polycarbonate and lacquer, and the label is printed on top.

How a CD player works

So what's going on in your CD player when the disc spins around?

1. Inside your CD player, there is a miniature laser beam (called a semiconductor diode laser) and a smallphotoelectric cell (an electronic light detector). When you press play, anelectric motor (not shown in this diagram) makes the disc rotate at high speed (up to 500rpm). The laser beam switches on and scans along a track, with the photocell, from the center of the CD to the outside (in the opposite way to an LP record). The motor slows the disc down gradually as the laser/photocell scans from the center to the outside of the disc (as the track number increases, in other words). Otherwise, as the distance from the center increased, the actual surface of the disk would be moving faster and faster past the laser and photocell, so there would be more and more information to be read in the same amount of time.

2. The laser (red) flashes up onto the shiny (under) side of the CD, bouncing off the pattern of pits (bumps) and lands (flat areas) on the disc. The lands reflect the laser light straight back, while the pits scatter the light.

3. Every time the light reflects back, the photocell (blue) detects it, realizes it's seen a land, and sends a burst of electric current to an electronic circuit (green) that generates the number one. When the light fails to reflect back, the photocell realizes there is no land there and doesn't register anything, so the electronic circuit generates the number zero. Thus the scanning laser and electronic circuit gradually recreates the pattern of zeros and ones (binary digits) that were originally stored on the disc in the factory. Another electronic circuit in the CD player (called a digital to analog converter or DAC) decodes these binary numbers and converts them back into a changing pattern of electric currents.

4. A loudspeaker transforms the electric currents into sounds you can hear (by changing their electrical energy into sound energy).

Photos: 1) The diode laser and photocell move along a radial track so they can scan the entire surface of the CD as it rotates. 2) Here's the diode laser (bottom) and photocell (top) in closeup. WARNING! Don't try to fiddle with your CD player to see the laser lit-up inside. It could damage your eyes or blind you. All CD players are designed to stop you looking at the lasers by mistake. Don't ever fool around with them!

Recordable CDs and DVDs

When CDs first became popular in the 1980s, they were sold purely as read-only audio compact discs (CD-DA, ones you could play music from but not record onto). It wasn't long before computer companies realized they could use CDs to distribute software (programs) very cheaply, and ordinary computer users soon saw that CDs would be even better if you could write music and data on them as well as just read from them. That's how recordable CDs (CD-Rs) came to be developed, but the snag was that they could only be written on once; you couldn't erase and reuse them. Soon enough, though, the computer whizzkids developed rewritable CDs (CD-RWs) that you could erase and rewrite any number of times.

Photo: A CD/DVD writer/rewriter has a much more sophisticated laser read/write head than an ordinary CD/DVD player. Depending on the type of player, the read/write head needs to be able to read ordinary CDs and DVDs, recordable discs, and rewritable discs-so it really needs to be capable of several quite different reading and writing operations.

How does a recordable CD (CD-R) work?

In theory, if you wanted to make ordinary CDs in your own home, you'd need to install a huge and expensive CD-pressing machine. Fortunately, you don't need to do this-and that's because recordable CDs (CD-Rs) work in a completely different way. This time, there are no pits and lands imprinted on plastic. Instead, in between the protective polycarbonate and the reflective aluminum, there's a layer of dye. Normally the dye is translucent: laser light zooming into the disk from a CD player will pass straight through it, hit the reflective aluminum, and bounce straight back down again.

So far so good, but how do we store information on a compact disc like this? A CD-R writer has a higher-powered laser than normal, which generates heat when it strikes the disc, "burning" the dye and making a tiny black spot. Later, when a CD reader aims its laser at that spot, the light is completely absorbed and doesn't reflect back. This indicates that a zero ("0") is stored on the disc at that point. In places where the dye is unburned, the laser light reflects straight back again, indicating that a "1" is stored on the disc. See where this is going? By creating areas of "burned" dots, and other places where the dye is left alone, a CD-R writer creates a pattern of binary zeros and ones that can be used to store information. Unfortunately, once the dye is "burned" it's permanently transformed: you can't change it back again. And that's why you can only write a CD-R disc once. Just in passing, we should note that, although CD writers are widely referred to as CD burners, they do not actually burn things (combust them with oxygen): they simply use a laser to change the light-sensitive dye.

Illustration: With a CD-R, binary information is stored as "burned" areas (0) and unburned areas (1) in the dye layer sandwiched between the protective polycarbonate and the reflective aluminum.

How does a rewritable CD (CD-RW) work?

Let's say you're charged with the task of developing a type of compact disc that can be written to or erased over and over again. Clearly you can't use either of the methods we've discussed so far (the pits and lands method from read-only audio CDs or the "burned"-dye method used in CD-Rs). What you really need is a CD made from a substance that can easily be converted back and forth between two different forms, so it can be used to store a pattern of zeros and ones, then erased and used to store a different pattern later on if necessary.

Most of us learned in school that the atoms (or molecules) in solids, liquids, and gases arrange themselves in different positions, with atoms in solids tightly locked together. Some solid materials are more complex than this: their atoms (or molecules) can be arranged in two or more different ways called solid phases. (Solid carbon, for example, can exist in very different phases that include graphite and diamond.) That's just what we need to make a CD-RW disc.

Instead of having a layer of dye, a CD-RW has a layer of metallic alloy that can exist in two different solid forms and change back and forth between them. It's called a phase-change or phase-shift material. Sometimes it's crystalline, with its atoms/molecules arranged in orderly ways, so it's translucent and light can pass straight through it; other times, its atoms/molecules are jumbled up in a much more random and disorderly form called an amorphous solid, which is opaque and blocks light. When a CD-RW laser hits this material, it changes tiny little areas of it back and forth between the crystalline and amorphous forms. When it creates a crystalline area, it's making part of the CD reflective and effectively writing a one ("1"); when it makes an amorphous area, it's making the CD non-reflective and writing a zero ("0"). Because this process can be repeated any number of times, you can write and rewrite a CD-RW pretty much as many times as you like!

Illustration: With a CD-RW, binary information is stored as areas of metal alloy that are either crystalline or amorphous. Crystalline areas have a regular structure that lets light pass through to the aluminum area and reflect back down again, thus storing ones. Amorphous areas have a random structure that scatters incoming laser light, so it can't reflect back, thus storing zeros. A CD-rewriter can change the metal alloy on the CD from one form to the other and back again, which is why this kind of disc can be erased and rewritten many times over.

Other types of CDs

CDs were originally used just for storing music. Each disc could store 74 minutes of stereo sound-more than enough for a typical LP record. During the 1990s, CD technology also became popular for storing computer programs, games, and other information. Kodak's PhotoCD system (a way of storing up to 100 photos on a compact disc), was also launched in the 1990s.

The original form of computer CD was called CD-ROM (CD-Read Only Memory), because most computers could only read information from them (and not store any information on them). In those days, you needed a separate piece of equipment called a "burner" to write your own CDs, which were often called WORMs (Write Once Read Many). It's now more common for computers to have CD-R or CD/RW drives for burning their own CDs, although most new computers now have DVD drives instead.

The difference between CDs and DVDs is the amount of information they can store. A CD can hold 650 megabytes (million characters) of data, whereas a DVD can cram in at least 4.7 gigabytes (thousand megabytes)-which is roughly seven times more. Because DVDs are the same size as CDs, and are storing seven times more information, the zeros and ones (or pits and lands) on a DVD have to be correspondingly smaller than those on a CD. The latest optical discs use a technology called Blu-ray to store six times more data than DVDs or 40 times more than CDs (see the box at the bottom for a full explanation).

Photo: CDs introduced us to digital music, but they're now being superseded by MP3 players and digital downloads. Why? Look how hard it is to hold just a dozen CDs in your hand. Even a 20GB Apple iPod MP3 player can hold something like 400-500 CDs worth of music without even blinking-and it fits in your shirt pocket! Having said that, a music track on CD will always sound better than than the equivalent MP3, for reasons we explain in our article on MP3 players and digital music.

More about those zeros and ones

It's nice and easy to explain CDs by saying that pits correspond to zeros and lands to ones, but it's not really true. The information on a CD is encoded in a much more subtle way that uses complex and clever data encoding techniques, including eight-to-fourteen modulation (EFM) and non-return to zero inverted (NRZI) coding. That sounds extremely technical, but it's not too hard to understand. EFM essentially just means converting short patterns of data into longer ones (paradoxically) to store them more efficiently with less risk of error. NRZI means that instead of reading individual lands and pits, the laser is looking out for changes between a pit and a land, or long strings of pits and lands, and converting those into ones and zeros instead. So, for example, if it reads a long pit and suddenly comes across a land, that is interpreted as a one. If it reads a land and suddenly comes across a pit, that's also interpreted as a one. On the other hand, unchanging areas of land or pit are both interpreted as zeros.

Artwork: How pits and lands encode zeros and ones on a CD's surface. The transition from pit to land, or land to pit, encodes a one; a length of uninterrupted pit or land encodes a zero.

Why use these sorts of techniques instead of the simple "pit equals zero, land equals one" method I described above? It uses the disc space more efficiently (so we can pack more data on a disc), avoids the need for very short or long pits or lands, and minimizes the importance of bits that get lost due to scratches or dirt (so it helps correct against errors). Unless you're building your own CD player or monkeying around with data communication, you really don't need to know precisely how your data is stored on a CD or DVD, so if you want to think of pits being zeros and lands one, that's a perfectly good approximation to what's happening-and all most of us care to know. (For much more detail, check out the section on Data Encoding in The Compact Disc Handbook by Ken C. Pohlmann, from page 74 onward.)

Who invented CDs?

The technology behind CDs was invented in the late 1960s by James T. Russell (1931-). An avid music fan, he longed for a sound-recording system that would reproduce music more exactly than LP records and cassette tapes. He patented the first ever optical sound recording system in 1970, refining it over the years that followed. Audio CDs finally made their commercial debut in Europe in 1982, launched by the Sony and Philips electronics corporations, and appeared in the United States the following year. CD-ROMs became popular in the 1990s, when publishers such as Encyclopedia Britannica, Broderbund, and Dorling Kindersley released popular "multimedia" encyclopedias containing written text, sound, pictures, animations, and videos. CD-ROMs are less popular today, thanks to the World Wide Web (WWW), which makes it easier to publish and update information instantly and link together pages from lots of different sources.

How does Blu-ray™ work?

People forget things all the time, but that doesn't really matter because we have books, computers, CDs, DVDs, and all kinds of other technologies to help us remember. You can store 10,000 thick books on a DVD-which is about seven times more than you can fit on a CD. Imagine that: 10,000 books is about 200 shelves or 6-7 bookcases worth or knowledge. But there's no such thing as too much information. DVDs may be amazing, but sometimes you need to store even more information than they can cope with. So thank goodness for a new kind of disc called Blu-ray, which can store six times more data (digital information) than even the best DVDs-that's a whopping 50 gigabytes worth!

Photo: A blue laser (left) and a red laser (right). Photo by National Energy Technology Laboratory, Morgantown courtesy of US Department of Energy.

Why Blu-ray can store more information

Blu-ray discs are exactly the same size as DVDs, which are themselves the same size as CDs. How do Blu-rays store more than DVDs? How do DVDs store more than CDs? The answer is simple. If you've ever had to squeeze a certain amount of text on a single sheet of paper (maybe to make a poster) and found it difficult to get everything on, you'll know there's a simple solution: you just make your words a bit smaller (lower the font size). The same idea works when you're writing computer data on discs with laser beams. You can store more on a DVD than a CD by using a laser beam that "writes smaller". And to read or write a Blu-ray disc, you use a laser to write even smaller still.

A DVD uses a red laser beam that makes light waves with a wavelength of 650 nanometers (0.00000065 meters, or less than one hundredth the width of a human hair). That's considerably shorter than the wavelength of invisible, infrared light that a CD player uses (780 nanometers), which is why DVDs can store more than CDs. A Blu-ray player uses an even more precise laser than a DVD player, with a beam of blue light shooting out of it instead of red or infared. Blue light has a much shorter wavelength (about 450 nanometers) than red light so a blue laser can write things that are far smaller. That means Blu-ray discs can store movies in a much higher quality format known as High Definition (HD), store much longer movies on a single disc, or just store more altogether. If you can fit four, half-hour episodes of Friends on a DVD, you can fit 24 episodes (a whole series) on a Blu-ray disc.

With a DVD, you use a red laser beam to read and write the information. The information you write onto the disk can't be smaller than the size of the beam. By using a much finer blue laser beam, Blu-ray can write smaller and store more information in the same space.

Is Blu-ray becoming more popular?

Despite a slow start, Blu-ray discs are beginning to gain in popularity-especially since a rival type of disc, called HD-DVD (High-definition DVD), fell by the wayside in early 2008. Blu-ray players are widely available and powerful games machines like the Sony PlayStation have built in Blu-ray drives. A few years ago, there were just few hundred Blu-ray discs on the market; today, there are tens of thousands-and many more will follow in the next few years.

Blu-ray isn't the end of the story, by any means. It's only a matter of time before cunning engineers develop lasers that can pack even more data on a disc. But whether we'll actually be using discs at all in the future is another matter. Most people are already using their broadband Internet connections to download or stream MP3 music tracks, movies, and TV programs instead and it may just be a matter of time before disc players disappear altogether. Then again, people said the same thing about vinyl records when CDs came along-and that prediction proved untrue.

Find out more

On this website

On other sites

James T. Russell: A short biography from the Lemelson-MIT inventor program. (Archived page via the Wayback Machine.) There's also a brief biography onWikipedia.

How the CD was developed: This BBC News article from 2007 celebrates the 25th birthday of CD technology with a timeline explaining how the invention progressed.

Books

Technical

Digital Audio Technology: A Guide to CD, MiniDisc, SACD, DVD(A), MP3 and DAT by Jan Maes, Marc Vercammen. Taylor & Francis, 2013. An up-to-date technical guide that covers some of the common principles of digital music, including sampling, compression, error correction, and so on.

Blu-ray Disc Demystified by Jim Taylor et al. McGraw-Hill, 2009. A comprehensive introduction that covers the history of Blu-ray, the technology behind it, disc formats, and practical applications.

The Book of Nero 7: CD and DVD Burning Made Easy by Wally Wang. No Starch Press, 2006. This covers everything you'd possibly want to know about CD and DVD burning, from storing files to designing attractive labels.

The Compact Disc Handbook by Ken C. Pohlmann. A-R Publications, 1989/1992. A technical introduction to CD technology that explains the difference between analog and digital, the basics of digital audio, how CD players work (in much more detail than we go into here), the various CD formats, and how CDs are manufactured. It might seem a dated book now, but it's still very relevant and useful.

The CD-ROM Handbook by Chris Sherman. Intertext Publications, 1994. Another old but very useful resource for CD-ROM developers.

Historical

Articles

Practical tips

News

Oh for the Days of the Making-Of Featurette-Seriously by Fabrice Robinet. The New York Times, April 6, 2018. Streaming movies have killed off DVD extras that helped film-makers learn their craft.

Goodbye, DVD. Hello, Future. by Dave Kehr. The New York Times, March 4, 2011. Will services like Netflix and Amazon Video spell the end of DVDs?

Blu-ray's Fuzzy Future by Matt Richtel and Brad Stone. The New York Times, January 5, 2009. What does the future hold for Blu-Ray?

Compact disc hits 25th birthday: BBC News, 17 August 2007. Looking back on the first quarter century of the CD.

Record Biz Has Burning Question by Brad King. Wired, 14 June 2002. Does it make more sense to allow some music sharing?

Patents

For much more technical detail, try:

Please do NOT copy our articles onto blogs and other websites

Articles from this website are registered at the US Copyright Office. Copying or otherwise using registered works without permission, removing this or other copyright notices, and/or infringing related rights could make you liable to severe civil or criminal penalties.

Text copyright © Chris Woodford 2006, 2020. All rights reserved. Full copyright notice and terms of use.

Blu-ray™ is a trademark of the Blu-ray Disc Association.

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by Chris Woodford. Last updated: October 21, 2020. It's amazing when you think about it: you can store a movie several hours long on a shiny piece of plastic no bigger than your hand! Although compact discs (CDs) have been around for more than 30 years, they are still one of the most popular ways of storing music and computer data.

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C programming is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis M. Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories to develop the UNIX operating system. C is the most widely used computer language. It keeps fluctuating at number one scale of popularity along with Java programming language, which is also equally popular and most widely used among modern software programmers.

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C was initially used for system development work, particularly the programs that make-up the operating system. C was adopted as a system development language because it produces code that runs nearly as fast as the code written in assembly language. Some examples of the use of C are -

This tutorial is designed for software programmers with a need to understand the C programming language starting from scratch. This C tutorial will give you enough understanding on C programming language from where you can take yourself to higher level of expertise.

Before proceeding with this tutorial, you should have a basic understanding of Computer Programming terminologies. A basic understanding of any of the programming languages will help you in understanding the C programming concepts and move fast on the learning track.

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C Tutorial - C programming is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis M. Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories to develop the UNIX operating system. C is the most widely used computer language. It keeps fluctuating at number one scale of popularity

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Poštovani korisnici, dobrodošli na Loomen za stručno usavršavanje na kojem možete pronaći online tečajeve i edukacije kojima ste do sada pristupali na sustavu MOOC. Svi tečajevi na koje ste bili upisani dostupni su odabirom gumba „Moji e-kolegiji". Tečajevi koji su bili organizirani u svrhu natjecanja prebačeni su na novi sustav za natjecanja, a možete mu pristupiti preko naslovnice sustava Loomen.

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Pricanje preko weba, djeljenje odredenih slika itd.

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Pricanje preko weba, djeljenje odredenih slika itd.

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Naucite web dizajniranje, kodiranje itd.

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Naucite web dizajniranje, kodiranje itd.

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Learn web design, coding and much more with Treehouse. You can learn at your own pace and become job ready within months. Start your free trial!

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George Lucas Educational Foundation

The benefits of movement in the classroom aren't limited to younger students. Pairing new words and concepts with gestures or dance moves locks in understanding-and active brain breaks prime students to learn even more.

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A free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education.

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besplatne lektire na internetu za skolu

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Portal e-lektire - Lektire besplatno na Webu!

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Na ovim stranicama dostupna su cjelovita djela hrvatskih i stranih književnika u digitalnom formatu koja su besplatno dostupna obrazovnoj zajednici.

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Serving more than 5 million educators and 51 million students, available in approximately half of U.S. classrooms and primary schools in the U.K., and more than 90 countries around the globe.

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Digital Textbooks & Education Resources | Discovery Education

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Serving more than 5 million educators and 51 million students, available in approximately half of U.S. classrooms and primary schools in the U.K., and more than 90 countries around the globe.

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CARNet e-Laboratorij / Digitalni alati i sadržaji na dohvat ruke

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CARNet e-Laboratorij je portal gdje korisnici mogu saznati sve informacije o alatima, interaktivnim sadržajima te aplikacijama za uporabu na području e-učenja.

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Everybody Fiesta: A Unit on Hispanic Celebrations The Wonderful World of Arthur: A Unit About Arthur Help! What Is Happening On The Third Rock From The Sun?: A Unit about the Environment and Global Warming with a Pollution Cause and Effect Table

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Teachers Network - Free Lesson Plans, Educational Resources & Videos for Teachers, Educators & Instructors

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Welcome to Teachers Network: Free Lesson Plans, Resources & Videos for Teachers, Educators & Instructors. Online Professional Development Credit Courses. Elementary, Secondary, Middle & High School Lesson Plans & Resources.

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First 3 chapters free on all training Courses - VTC Learning

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VTC offers some free online programming tutorials that are interactive & easy-to-use. Choose from 1000+ online learning courses. Get Certified!

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Libar je usluga koja CARNET-ovim korisnicima omogućava jednostavnu izradu, objavu i korištenje digitalnog sadržaja primjenjivog u nastavi

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Za korištenje aplikacije potrebna je autentifikacija pomoću Vašeg AAI@Edu akademskog računa.

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portal za slanje emaila

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Collaborate for free with online versions of Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Excel, and OneNote. Save documents, workbooks, and presentations online, in OneDrive. Share them with others and work together at the same time.

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I had trouble learning the language to begin with, and found that a lot of 68k assembly tutorials didn't really help.In fact, hardly any of them explained it from a beginner's point of view, and were extremely vague.There was only one tutorial I found that really pointed me in the right direction, and it was a guide by SonicRetro member

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Web platforma namijenjena za učenje, poučavanje i provjeru znanja iz prometne kulture, prometnih propisa i prometnih pravila s ciljem unaprjeđenja sigurnosti prometa kod djece i mladih sudionika u prometu.

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Pristup i informacije o CARNET-ovim uslugama sada potražite na CARNET-ovom mrežnom sjedištu.

CARNET-ov Portal za škole mjesto je na kojem možete pročitati novosti o hrvatskom obrazovnom sustavu i pronaći tekstove iz područja suvremenog obrazovanja.

O tome kako CARNET provodi cjelovitu informatizaciju procesa poslovanja škola i nastavnih procesa u svrhu stvaranja digitalno zrelih škola za 21. stoljeće, informirati se možete putem stranica projekta e-Škole.

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Pristup i informacije o CARNET-ovim uslugama sada potražite na CARNET-ovom mrežnom sjedištu. CARNET-ov Portal za škole mjesto je na kojem možete pročitati novosti o hrvatskom obrazovnom sustavu i pronaći tekstove iz područja suvremenog obrazovanja. O tome kako CARNET provodi cjelovitu informatizaciju procesa poslovanja škola i nastavnih procesa u svrhu stvaranja digitalno zrelih škola za 21.