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The fall of Nixon is not really known in how it started bu it is agreed that it was part of climate of 1970s and his reckless personality and fear that the nation faced grave dangers from radicals and dissidents who challenged him

The Scandals

On 6/17/1972, police caught 5 guys trying to break into DNC office in DC and found that the guys were connected to Nixon and were made to do it by people in the White House

Public interest started growing when the men went on trial and testimony by one of them James W. McCrod showed a lot and for months many were outside the white house exposing illegalities

John dean, counsel to the president had warned Nixon of the coverup and later accused Nixon himself

There were two different sets of scandals, one that was the Watergate break in itself and the other being the cover up as Nixon obstructed investigations of it

Nixon accepted departure of those involved but claimed innocence and once there could be evidence, Nixon would not give it up even in court where he fired the person asking for it and another which led to him being very close to getting taken out of office

The Fall of Richard Nixon

Nixon's situation got worse once the VP was found to be corrupt in getting bribes and stopped the Justice Department from pressing the case by ignoring tax evasion and he resigned

This meant that no Nixon would lead to Gerald Ford being president which was good

The impeachment investigation gathered momentum and the president tried to stop it w transcripts of relevant conversations that still showed him guilty and thus the Supreme court told him to give tapes up and days later the House Judiciary committee voted to recommend 3 articles of impeachment

Nixon got fully screwed when he gave the tapes where it showed that he had been a part of it as he told the FBI to not look into it

Nixon stayed in the White House for a few days and came out resigning and left to have Gerald Ford be President

Though there was relief there was still damage from this as it kept people not really trusting the politicians around them

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Chapter 30 Notes Politics and Economics in the Nixon Years 

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Chapter 30 Notes Politics and Economics in the Nixon Years 

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Though in the '68 election, Nixon said he would be more conservative, he was actually quite liberal and expanded on old liberal initiatives

Domestic Initiatives

Nixon wanted these policies to help the silent majority of conservatives that wanted less fed interference

He tried to have congress pass legislation for stopping school desegregation w forced busing and forbade the Department of Health and Human Services for cutting funds from schools that didn't integrate

He also stopped Great Society programs and New Frontier and also took out the Office of Economic Opportunity

There were some progressive elements like the EPA came in, first affirmative action program for workers on fed projects

Also w better national welfare int he Family Assistance plan which would have guaranteed income for all Americans but it failed in the Senate and also proposed national health insurance but failed

From Warren Court to the Nixon Court

The Warren court seemed to be very nontraditional as its rulings helped the lower classes and defended civil liberties a lot which might've led to more crime

This was opposed by the middle class who thought that the court was helping poor, dispossessed, and criminal individuals at their expense

Nixon tried to get more conservative as when Warren retired he put Warren Burger who was conservative also tried to put Clement F. Haynsworth in but too much and G. Harrold Carswell but was rejected too

Nixon was made about this but then was careful to get men of standing in the legal community to fill vacancies

The new court actually wasn't too conservative though as it allowed desegregation by busing, overturned existing capital  punishment statutes and even took down abortion limiting laws

They were conservative in busing when they asked to go across municipal lines and took out affirmative action and put restrictive guidelines and the court agreed to certain limits on the right of a defendant to appeal a state conviction to a fed judiciary

The 1972 Landslide

Nixon went into presidential race quite strong as he had a lot of money and had good successes like trip to China to look good

Nixon was quite lucky w the opposition though as George Wallace got shot and got paralyzed and the next guy, George S. McGovern was way to liberal to be popular

Nixon won by a lot but there were some problems that were out of the president's control and others of his own making

The Troubled Economy

Though the American economy had been very good for 3 decades, things had gotten worse as what held that up was going away

The immediate change was the lack of cheap raw materials that caused inflation as OPEC didn't give oil to pro Israeli nations and also increased price which hurt a lot

Another change was the transformation of the manufacturing sector as there was more competition and some corporations failed while others got more compeititve in world markets

This made the high wage high employment industrial eco of the US to go away

The Nixon Response

Nixon tried to stop this by reducing spending and raising taxes making a modest surplus but these policies couldn't be sustained so he tried to get higher interest rates but this didn't help as cost of living went up as eco growth did not

Nixon then stopped wages and prices at their levels and later tried to get eco plan w increases in these by gov but recession continued

So then Nixon started spending a lot more and stopped for a bit but still things got worse and the energy crisis was a big problem but Nixon didn't propose how to deal with it

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Chapter 30 Notes Nixon, Kissinger, and the World 

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Chapter 30 Notes Nixon, Kissinger, and the World 

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Nixon began to see the world as multi powers not just Soviets and US and could do this as he had been anticommunist and wouldn't be suspicious

The China Initiative and Soviet-American Detente

China had not been recognized since Chiang Kai-Shek's fall and only Taiwan was and Nixon wanted to change this to counter Soviets

The Chinese also wanted o get back into the international affairs of the time

In July 1971 Nixon sent Kissinger to Beijing and when back he said he would go too and the UN even later added China and took Taiwan out

In 2/1972, Nixon went and got rid of old animosity but didn't recognize communist regime but at least started low level diplomatic relations

This went w effort of Nixon admin to improve relations w Soviets known as detente as in '71 there was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty which froze arsenals of nuclear missiles

Then in may of that year, Nixon went to Moscow to sign the agreement and the next year Leonid Brezhnev visited Washington

Dealing with the Third World

The policies w China and Soviets were good but the third world needed helpa s they were fragile, politically unstable nations

The Nixon-Kissinger policy maintained the status quo w/o going too deep and made the Nixon Dcotrine where the US would participate in defense and development of allies and friends but would leave the basic responsibility for the future of those friends to the nations themselves

This meant being less interested in the Third World and there was also growing contempt for UN and more US support of authoritarian regimes against radicalism

In 1970, the CIA poured a lot funds into Chile to get anticommie gov but didn't work so they put more money to stop new gov and eventually took power w military and helped repressive military of Augusto Pinochet

Things were bad in the Middle East as Israel won a war and occupied new territories dislodging many and causing instability

This led to an invasion by Egypt and Syria on Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur but the Israelis recovered and could've done more damage but stopped by the US from heavy pressure

This all showed how the US and nations like it were too dependent on oil and needed to get around it as OPEC had put an embargo on nations supporting Israel and led to Congress to pass fuel eco standards on cars

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Chapter 30 Notes Nixon, Kissinger, and the Vietnam War

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Chapter 30 Notes Nixon, Kissinger, and the Vietnam War

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Nixon came into office trying to get order at home and abroad and wanted to end Vietnam stalemate but didn't feel free enough to leave yet

Vietnamization

Nixon had brought Henry Kissinger who was a special assistant for national security affairs and together they looked for a solution to the stalemate

One part was the Vietnamize the operation in teaching them how to fight so that US forces wouldn't have to do as much

This led to less draft calls and saw less opposition to the war but it could not break the stalemate and thus military pressure was needed

Escalation

By the end of 1969, Nixon and Kissinger decided they needed to destroy bases in Laos and Cambodia and would send ground troops to do it

Then antiwar sentiment came up and many demonstrations followed and at Colleges like Kent State and Jackson State students died as national guard and police opened fire on demonstrators

This led to taking away the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and led to journalists trying to publish evidence that the gov was being dishonest about the war and though the admin went to court the info got published

Morale and discipline went down for most of the men as some took part in massacres, deserted, were drug addicts, racist, refused to obey orders and even killed unpopular officers which showed dehumanization

Though polls said people wanted US to get out Nixon thought that the nation's credibility could not take it so gov tried to get it to work in any way even if illegal

Fighting still went on though as in March 1972, North attacked and the South stopped it only w help of the US and the US ordered more bombings at the capital of North and its main port Haiphong and mined 7 harbors

"Peace With Honor"

As the 1972 election came close, the president dropped insistence of no North troops for Americans to leave and Kissinger worked out cease fire and on 10/26 Kissinger said peace is at hand

Weeks later though, negotiations got worse as things were going well but President Nguyen Van Thieu said no North forces and Kissinger couldn't get it to work and by 12/16 talks ended

The next day, American B-52s bombed many places in the worst bombing yet but many shot down but got back on the conference table

Nixon said that the Christmas bombing had made the North Vietnamese relent but the pressure on Thieu was also big

The agreement was not too different from before as there would be immediate ceasefire, American POWs were out and Thieu regime would b there w Northern troops and an undefined committee would finish

Defeat in Indochina

Everything went bad as the North invaded and South had no help as Congress wouldn't give and led to losing all of Vietnam to communism and Cambodia as well to Khmer Rouge which led to many deaths there

The war had bad results as Vietnam was ravaged, so was eco and it was poor for a long time

The US had lost a lot of money and lives but also its confidence and self esteem which would take a while to recover

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Chapter 30 Notes Environmentalism in a Turbulent Society 

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Chapter 30 Notes Environmentalism in a Turbulent Society 

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Environmentalism came up like other forces of the time and happened due to rise of environmental degradation by industrial societies and the growth of ecology

The New Science of Ecology

Originally, people supported environmentalism on moral or aesthetic grounds that it looked nice or had to be kept for good reason

Ecology is the study of the relations in the natural world and how the environment is very closely linked and any change could b bad

Early contributions came from Aldo Leopold who said that ecology demanded that people had a responsibility to the natural world

At the time ideas like the food chain, ecosystem, biodiversity, and endangered species were coming up and w help of Rachel Carson these ideas got the larger public

Environmental Advocacy

The environmental orgs had been around before ecological science but the growth of threats to environment got them woke af

From the connections to other orgs they could have scientists give data that lawyers used in court battles w gov agencies

Lady Bird Johnson, LBJ's wife, helped raise awareness by showing how nice land was and the bad stuff that was happening and many of the counterculture were all for it and against the technocracy

The biggest cause though was how hard environmental deterioration was to ignore as the water sources were tainted and even rivers caught fire

The air became unhealthy and people wanted it to change and also with oil spills as well were what got attention of people to look into new ways of making things cleaner

Environmentalists brought long term dangers to light and made a broad and powerful movement

Earth Day and Beyond

Earth day was proposed by Senator Gaylord Nelson as teachins at colleges but became much bigger as it was chill and eventually became the biggest demonstration in the nation's history

The character of Earth day made it less divisive and was because most supported it and it became a part of pop culture

It also became law with the National Environmental Protection Act making the EPA, The Clean Air and Water Act which helped the government prevent environmental degradation

Different administrations showed varying levels of support on environmental goals and as some problems went away new ones arose

But Environmentalism had become a movement, set of policies, and a national ideal that made a big part of American Life

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Women began to identify as a minority group in the 1960s and 70s as they wanted liberation of their own

The Rebirth

Betty Friedan's book The Feminine Mystique was cited as starting it as she saw that those who graduated from college w her had all society said they wanted but they weren't happy

JFK established the President's Commission on the Status of Women which brought attention to sexual discrimination and helped get Equal Pay act for some fields

Also w an addition to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, women got many legal protections that African Americans had gotten

Friedan and others made the National Organization for Women and responded by demanding greater opportunities and denouncing traditional ideas of marriage but mostly focused on need of women at work

Women's Liberation

Women in the late 1960s had more radicla feminist demands and got large following, they were inspired by counterculture, civil rights, and anti war but found discrimination there too

The most radical form said marriage was bad but most women saw they were being exploited and needed to have their own culture which came w their own places and newspapers and magazines and health centers eventually abortion clinics

Expanding Achievements

Gov gave affirmative action guidelines for women and men's colleges started to let women in and even had unis have mens and womens athletic programs

Women became big in business and professions as they held a lot of jobs and it became normal and some would even not accept husbands surname as their marital status didn't matter in the pro world

Women got more and more opportunities in the field of politics and also academia w more presence in scholarly fields and new fields

In 1972, the equal rights amendment was sent to states for ratification but didn't happen as antifeminist women didn't want change in traditional social patterns

The Abortion Issue

A major goal of feminism was control of sexual and reproductive lives from birth control to rape and sexual and domestic abuse but this all led to the popular controversy of abortion

Abortion had once been legal but by the 1960s it had been restricted though many were done quietly and women's movements tried to change this

Though states and supreme court were cool with it there was still more of the issue to settle

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Chapter 30 Notes The Mobilization of Minorities 

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Chapter 30 Notes The Mobilization of Minorities 

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The growth of African American protest led to other minorities to get what they wanted through protest as well

Seeds of Indian Militancy

Few minorities had it as bad as Native Americans as they were least healthy, prosperous and stable of the nation and ignored for years

After WWII the federal tribal policies tried to get Indians in by making tribes not legal entities and encouraging them to assimilate by working in cities

There was little success in this and led to it being stopped and a militant generation that got the National Congress of American Indians woke

Demos of 60's didn't bring back termination and tried to help w money and tribes wanted more self determination and got rapid increase of pop.

The Indian Civil Rights Movement

In 1961, 67 tribes met in Chicago and issues the Declaration of Indian Purpose to say that they could chose their way of life and responsible for keeping their heritage

There was also the National Indian youth Council that promoted intertribal unity and also a group of young militant Indians making the American Indian Movement that got support from urban and reservations

This got results as there was the Indian Civil Rights act that gave them protections of Bill of Rights

Then in 1968, Indian fisherman citing old treaties said they should have Columbia river and Puget Sound and some tribe members went to Alcatraz Island and claimed it by right of discovery

Nixon got Louis Bruce, a Mohawk-Sioux as commissioner of Indian Affairs and promised self determination and more federal aid but still protest

Lakota Sioux occupied the building of Bureau of Indian affairs, AIM members seized the town of Wounded Knee to make the gov honor old treaty obligations

This didn't give them full equality but did get a lot of rights and a stronger position

Latino Activism

The fastest growing minority in the 70s were Latinos and most came during WWII for labor shortage and stayed to get huge pop

But the greatest expansion came after 1970 as they made up 1/3 of all legal immigrants after 1960

Puerto Ricans went to the East as they were already citizens, Cubans went to Miami and made good part of middle class and poor too that came later

Then more immigrants came from central and South America

Latinos came w stronger ethnic ID and orgs as Affluent Hispanics got influential positions in gov and professions and in SW Mexican Americans got voted to be part of Congress or governor

Also orgs like La Raza Unida and United Farm Workers were both efforts of Hispanics

It was hard though as Latinos were slow to develop political influence though they had number and were one of the poorest in US

Gay Liberation

By the 1960s, gay people, who usually had to hide or be persecuted, began to fight for their rights as everyone else

On 7/27/1969, officers arrested gay people for being at a gay nightclub but onlookers started fight and fire even started which got riots in the area (NYC's gay community center)

These riots led to challenges of traditional values as people began to see that sexual preference was normal both ways and was big when APA said it was not a mental illness

The movement helped gay people accept themselves and come out and want respect for relationships and made big strides though there was AIDS epidemic but helped others try to get those suffering and up in acceptance

By the early 21st century, gay people had gotten what other minorities did as there were openly gay politicians, gay and lesbian studies, no discrimination

There was also backlash as once it got to the military, it was opposed to a Don't Ask Don't Tell policy and some states refused to allow amrragie and there was violence

But there was still support as in 2010 Obama got rid of don't ask don't tell and Supreme Court allowed them to get married in all states

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Younger Americans had social and cultural anger from:

The political left and trying to make a community of the people to break traditional power and end the war, pursue economic and racial justice, and transform political life

Personal liberation in how many groups- African Americans, Indians, Hispanics, women, gay people and others- defined themselves and demands from society

Also wanted to make new culture that would escape dehumanization of technocracy

The New Left

The racial crisis and Vietnam War led to radicalization of American students seen w the New Left which started in U of Michigan w the Students for Democratic Society who didn't like society and wanted to change it

At universities there were conflicts over Free Speech and how students should be able to engage in political activities as there would demonstrations, building seizures, and even occupation of offices

There was also demands for more control over the curriculum and disciplinary policy as well

Not many liked the radical ideology of the New left but they did like their views on popular issues like that the War should end as they organized huge demonstrations against it

Another issue w antiwar was the opposition of the draft as there were not as many limits to keep grad students, husbands, teachers, and fathers out so many just didn't go and went to jail or fled to not go

The Counterculture

Youth culture also went against conventional values w the counter culture where they would have long hair, weird clothes, be rebellious in speech and act and use drugs

The counter culture didn't like how fake life was so many rejected modern society to look for more natural existence but even those who weren't as intense were also for being more into personal instinct and desire and not traditional inhibitions or conventions of middle class

The expression of impulses was just exaggerated of larger society as most people not just hippies dressed sort of weird and marijuana, more sex, and iconoclastic language was seen w most people

The biggest part was rock music that had grown w the Beatles who like most musicians of the time left normal topic sand went to new different themes

They would also be more political, be about drugs, or even have anger, frustration or rebellion as well which made it a good way to vent

A big symbol was the Woodstock Music Festival as there were many people there who were peaceful though conditions were quite bad

And also a concert in San Fran which had Rolling Stones but had many deaths due to overdoses, accidents, and even beating by biker gang security guards

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W the struggle of Nam and racial tensions, 1968 saw tensions burst to the surface that threatened national chaos

The Tet Offensive

On 1/31/1968, first day of Vietnamese New Year (Tet) the commies launched an attack on US forces in the South and Ls were taken

The American people saw vivid images of the US losing and the brutality of the whole conflict

The US got the Vietcong out after a while and actually hit the NLF v hard but was not good as the public felt betrayed so military W but admin L

In the weeks after, many more people began to oppose the war and the president whose approval rating went to the lowest since Truman

The Political Challenge

Starting in summer 1967 dissident Demos tried to get an antiwar candidate to go against LBJ and got Eugene McCarthy but LBJ got it tho

Robert Kennedy then got in the campaign and got LBJ to trail badly but then LBJ said he'd stop bombing in Nam but then left the race

Robert Kennedy did get support but the VP Hubert Humphrey got support of LBJ and got party leaders and state party orgs and got to 1st

Assassinations and Politics

MLK was shot in Memphis, TN after trying to support blacks trying to strike and assassin had no motive and was paid to do it but never revealed boss

The death caused major grief but also anger as there were very many riots that came up after

Then as Robert Kennedy was in LA acknowledging his California primary W a Palestinian mad about pro israeli remarks shot him in the head and killed him and brought sadness over campaign

Demos then met in Chicago for convention and would most likely pick Humphrey but didn't know how to approach antiwar

Also demonstrators there for antiwar led to violence w police which showed how HH got the nomination but had a screwed up party that couldn't do much

The Conservative Response

The events of 1968 got some to think it was a time a revolutionary change but others just looked back and took conservative ideas

The biggest sign of this was the success of George Wallace's campaign as he was quite conservative but got a lot of support

The Repubs were trying to be more conservative so Richard Nixon got in and barely won the election over HH and though it was close it showed how the US had become interested in restoring order

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Though at first the Vietnam conflict seemed like one that would be simple, it became very very bad

America and Diem

By supporting Ngo Dinh Diem after Geneva accords and after no free elections got it drawn deeper into Vietnam

Diem was an aristocratic Catholic and an outsider but v nationalist and against the commies and religious sects of Vietnam and did well so US supported

This eventually became ops to take commies out but then they fought back w Viet Cong starting military ops in South which started war

Vietcong (NLF) were not the only opposition though as there were also Buddhists that were being repressed by Diem and protested w setting themselves on fire to be seen w cameras

American Officials told Diem to reform but he didn't do anything so JFK got South Vietnamese generals to stage coup but killed Diem and brother which wasn't expected or wanted

This led to a series of new govs that were less stable than Diem's and then a few weeks later Diem was assassinated

From Aid to Intervention

LBJ already had a lot of commitment there but sent a bit more and then in August 1964 in the Gulf of Tonkin an American destroyer was attacked but maybe not the most exact news

LBJ showed made it seem like US was attacked so he got Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave him ability to take all necessary measure to protect US forces ad prevent further aggression in SE Asia

In other words, he got an open-ended legal authorization for escalation of the conflict

W the South getting worse and worse and commies getting better the US had to step in more and once commies attacked US base at Pleiku US bombed the North to try to stop supply lines and all lasted till 1972

Then US sent more troops to Da Nang in South Vietnam to get 100k troops

Then 4 months later LBJ said that soldiers would play acgtive role and by 1967 there were over 500k troops and the air war was intensifying

The Quagmire

The US was fighting a war of attrition where they would do more damage than the enemy could take but this was bad as the North Vietnamese saw it as a war for independence and would do anything they could

The US also didn't do well w bombing as the industrial power was underground and the North had aid and would move Ho Chi Minh trail too

The bombings actually seemed to add popular opinion and commitment, not necessarily stop it

There was also pacification where the US would push the Vietcong out and win over the people but this was hard so they then just relocated people from their homes

This led to many refugees and the burning of villages to "save them" though the strat was quite flawed

As victory seemed more and more elusive, LBJ decided not to add more troops because of how he did not want China to get involved and screw him over like in Korean war

The War at Home

Few Americans opposed the war until it started to drag on inconclusively so people began to stop support

By the end of 1967, American students opposed the war and made peace marches while journalists would report about it as they had been there saying how futile the war really seemed

Senator J. William Fulbright Chair of Senate Foreign Relations Committee turned against the war and would put on tv congressional hearing about how it was bad which had JFK's brother

Even Robert McNamara who had wanted to get in the war saw it didn't work and left gov but gave ay to Clark Clifford who was quite but powerful in advocating for scaling down commitment

Johnson's Great Society caused inflation and when he asked for tax increase to avoid more, he was told to reduce Great Society funding which he did to pacify congressional conservatives

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Chapter 29 Notes "Flexible Response" and the Cold War 

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Chapter 29 Notes "Flexible Response" and the Cold War 

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Kennedy and Johnson were both quite active and aggressive in dealing w the nation's problems compared to the 50's

Diversifying Foreign Policy

Kennedy wanted more flexibility in the army and thus supported the expansion of special forces like Green Berets for the guerilla conflicts

JFK also wanted to help peacefully in Latin America w Alliance for Progress w projects for peaceful development of the region

Also the Agency for International Development to coordinate foreign aid and the Peace Corps which were most popular as Young Americans worked in developing areas

But there was also the bad Bay of Pigs operation as the CIA tried to invade Cuba w Americans and exile help but neither came up and the whole mission collapsed within 2 days

Confrontations With the Soviet Union

After Bay of Pigs, JFK went to Vienna in 1961 to meet Nikita Khrushchev and much was the same as Khrushchev threatened war if the US did not leave noncommunist West Berlin

He was mostly mad about East Berlin people escaping to the West so he had a wall built on 8/13/1961 and was a symbol for cold war

The climax was when Cuba got Soviet technicians and we saw that there were nuclear silos and got scared so US blockaded them

Khrushchev then sent a message to Kennedy for them to leave and if they did no more missiles and worked

Then there was a secret deal called the Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact where JFK took missiles out of Turkey and they also made a hotline w each other to stop war and have nuclear test ban in 1963

Johnson and the World

LBJ wasn't too into international affairs bu he was eager to follow JFK's example end show how he was a strong leader too

A conflict in the Dominican Republic where the communists were thought to be taking over gave LBJ a chance where he sent troops that didn't leave until a conservative candidate got control of the nation

But Johnson's foreign policy was dominated by the Vietnam conflict and the added involvement at the time

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Chapter 29 Notes The Battle for Racial Equality 

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Chapter 29 Notes The Battle for Racial Equality 

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By the early 1960s, African Americans pushed racial issues to the front of politics and was a big part of the late 20th century

Expanding Protests

JFK was sympathetic to racial justice but wasn't committed as he needed support of southern voters and southern demos so they just wanted to contain the problem and use executive orders (no legislation)

But there was pressure even before as in the 50s, blacks in northern cities were active in opposition and grew in 60s w college students in Greensboro, NC staging a sit in at a segregated lunch corner forcing integration

In the fall of 1960s, some of them made the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee which was a branch of MLK's Southern Leadership Conference and kept the spirit of resistance alive

In 1961, an interracial group of students working w the Congress of Racial Equality, started freedom rides by going on bus throughout the south to get no segregation at bus stations

This led to violence from whites that Attorney General Robert Kennedy had to bring marshals in for and ordered the integration of all bus and train stations

Events in the Eep South in 1963 helped get the movement  to a climax as in April there were nonviolent demonstrations in Birmingham, AL that led to Police breaking it up brutally w attack dogs, tear gas, firehoses, and electric cattle prods

Later the governor would not let blacks into U of Alabama but moved after Fed Marshals came and then NAACP official was murdered in MS

Then in september, a bombing of the 16th street Baptist Church in Birmingham killed 4 black kids

A National Commitment

These events got the JFK to say something and then introduced  new proposals stopping segregation in public places, employment, and more power for gov to sue schools if they didn't integrate

To get support for this, more than 200k demonstrators marched down the Mall in DC and gathered before Lincoln memorial where MLK gave I have a dream speech

The assassination of JKF stopped the civil rights legislation for a bit but did not stop it as LBJ got the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to get passed

Battle for Voting Rights

Civil rights then wanted to get the vote and started w the Freedom Summer in 1964 but 3 of those to get there were killed w police involved

This also made the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party that was an alternative to the reg demos and wanted to take seats but didn't work as LBJ and MLK tried to get them to just observe but MFDP didn't want it

Then in 1965, MLK got demonstration in Selma but were stopped by police who killed some demonstrators and led to the Voting rights act of 1965 that allowed federal protection to blacks trying toote

These gains were small as the civil rights movement went from politics to economics

The Changing Movement

Though for most Americans, things were getting better in the 60s, for blacks it was getting much worse

This publicity of the movement got people in the North to want no discrimination in jobs and got LBJ to have affirmative action in 1965 and got to all institutions

Also gender was added to a bill in 1964 civil Rights act so women could not be discriminated against in workplace or higher education

A symbol of this new direction and its problems was the major campaign in Chicago in 1966 that tried to get attention to housing and employment discrimination but just got whites mad and didn't help like South did

Urban Violence

There was already violence all around the US over race as there were disturbances in Harlem and riots in LA, Chicago, Cleveland, and Detroit which all led to big struggles

These conditions were put on TV and had some people doubting what they were doing but the Commission on Civil Disorders said this was all because of bad ghetto conditions, but white Americans just wanted no violence

Black Power

After all this, some blacks decided to follow black power which suggested to shift away from goals of assimilation and towards awareness of racial distinctiveness

Black people began to have pride due to this ad got them to get more radical and even want to get violent w whites to get back at them and rejected the approaches of older leaders

These radical expressions came from the Black Panthers and the Nation of Islam that denounced whites and embraced islamic faiths which blacks liked

The most celebrated was Malcolm Little (X) that founded the Muslim Mosque Inc. to get more connections w civil rights leaders and went to Mecca and came back in hopes of getting racial problems solved

He died in 1965 though when he was killed by rivals in the Nation of Islam but was a big figure in many African American communities after his death like MLK

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Chapter 29 Notes Expanding the Liberal State 

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Chapter 29 Notes Expanding the Liberal State 

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JFK and LBJ  were seen as presidents that embodied the liberal hopes of the time

John Kennedy

The 1960 campaign had Richard Nixon for the Repubs w moderate reform and John F. Kennedy from Massachusetts

JFK was the son of Joseph P. Kennedy and based his campaign on how the American people didn't like the nation's current course

His public image really helped though as he was on shows a lot and got over him being young and catholic to win closely

Kennedy wanted reforms in the "New Frontier: but Congress w repubs and conservative demos really didn't help but he did get tariff reductions and tried for significant tax cut for eco growth

JFK used his personality a lot and was seen most when he was assassinated and everyone reacted

In Dallas, he was being driven and got shot twice and then died, shot by Lee Harvey Oswald who was in Soviet Union and Cuba for a time

Then LHO was killed by a nightclub owner and LBJ (president now) got gov to investigate w Chief Justice Earl Warren looking over

They found no association but later however it is thought that this was part of a bigger conspiracy

Lyndon Johnson

LBJ was from West Texas and had become majority leader in Senate by effort and ambition and surprised many that he decided to be vice president but it did get him to the white house eventually

LBJ was v different from JFK but he still wanted to use power for good which he did with a lot of legislation being put out due to support

He even made his own program called the Great Society and won approval of it w his skills as a lobbyist

LBJ first focused on getting reelected which wasn't a problem cuz he went against hella conservative Barry Goldwater and LBJ won easy, though some right wing groups might've gotten woke

But still, the congress was in LBJ's favor so he could secure all his goals

The Assault on Poverty

Medicare was added by LBJ which wanted to give the elderly help by paying for health care though it took a while as some didn't like the idea

They just wanted to make it for all elderly and not socialist which then got them to have it and eventually led to Medicaid as well for those who needed help like welfare recipients and indigent peoples

This was the start of the war on poverty followed by the Office of Economic Opportunity which made new edu, employment, housing, and health care programs but was controversial due to "community action"

This was having members of poor communities planning and administrating programs and though it gave jobs didn't help as there were bad parts and excesses which damaged the image of it and war on poverty

The OEO spent $3 billion dollars in its first two years and reduced poverty but not enough and mostly due to not enough funding that went down w war in Vietnam

Cities, Schools, and Immigration

There were also efforts to make cities and schools better as seen w the Housing Act of 1961 which gave grants to cities to preserve open spaces, develop mass transit systems, and subsidize middle income housing

Johnson also made the Department of Housing and Urban Development and model cities program which offered subsidies for urban redevelopment pilot programs

JFK wanted to aid public edu but couldn't get over people not wanting nation controlling schools and catholics wanting their schools getting $

LBJ got over this w the Elementary and Secondary Edu Act of 1965 where he gave aid to all types of schools based on eco conditions of students not need of schools

What also changed was the Immigration Act of 1965 where LBJ made it so that there were no restrictions on immigration anymore and more and more people came in making America quite diverse

Legacies of the Great Society

The Great Society had spent a lot of money and helped eco growth to make up for it but and cut taxes too but also had eco growth help

But over time w more programs, more $ was spent and w military ventures, the budget got bigger and bigger

The high costs and failures of the Great Society showed how it wasn't plausible to solve all social problems but it did do good

It reduced hunger in America, gave medical care to elderly and poor, and reduced poverty the most in US history

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Chapter 28 Notes Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War 

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Chapter 28 Notes Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War 

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The threat of nuclear war brought anxiety but this got superpowers away from direct confrontations and was seen w the rapid instability of the 3rd World

Dulles and the "Massive Retaliation"

Secretary of State John Foster Dulles was hella against Communism and wanted it to be gone w rollback but once in power had to go w president's moderate views

The biggest policy was "massive retaliation" where Dulles wanted us to use nukes instead and have brinksmanship where we went to the brink of war and basically play chicken

This was mostly due to economics though as there was pressure to reduce military spending so maybe just nukes would help

France, America, and Vietnam

On 7/27/1953, negotiators at Panmunjom signed an agreement to end hostilities in Korea where antagonist would have to withdraw troops to about the 38th parallel (ironic)

Then a conference in Geneva was supposed to decide how to reunite the nation but all it did was put a ceasefire line down as a place for a permanent border which is still there today

As this happened the US was drawn to Vietnam as the nationalist and communist forces of Ho Chi Minh wanted to be independent but the US supported France as they were close allies

By 1954, Ho had help of china and Soviets and was killing France and the US needed to help but Eisenhower didn't want to as America's allies or congress would support it

So the French lost Vietnam and gave it to Geneva to decide who said that there would be one part governed by Ho Chi Minh and another by Democracy

The West had help from US and leader Ngo Dinh Diem was quite ruthless knowing the US backed him and would even stop the free elections they promised would happen

Cold War Crises

There were real and imaginary challenges to the US in the 1950s in far away areas like in the Middle East in which it was a first for the US there

On 5/14/1948, Zionist efforts got the UN to make Israel a nation and Truman recognized them the next day but the Palestinian Arabs who were displaced went to Arab neighbors and fought against the new state to start Arab-Israeli wars

Though the US was committed to Israel, they looked to be good w Oil rich middle east which saw the US make a coup to take out Mohammed Mossadegh and replace w Mohammed Reza Pahlevi who was close to the US for next 25 years

This was not as good in Egypt as General Gamal Abdel Nasser developed trade relationship w Soviets and US stopped giving funds for NIle dam

Then Nasser took Suez canal from British to build the dam himself and then the Israeli, British, and French forces all attacked but the US stayed w the UN to make sure no other war and helped in the end for truce w Egypt

Also happened in Latin America w the CIA trying to topple the Leftist gov of Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in Guatemala as the United Fruit Company said it was potentially communist

Cuba was quite close to the US as it backed Fulgencio Batista and was close w many investments in Cuba but once Fidel Castro got resistence against them, things got worse and Batsista fled to Spain and Castro took over

Castro soon got land reform and expropriated foreign owned businesses and resources and was a dictator w no free elections and silencing dissenters

Then he went w Soviets and US tried to stop but things got worse until they went all w Soviets once the US severed ties

The U-2 Crisis

Though there were problems in the 3rd world, relations got worse between the US and soviets as there was a Hungarian revolt that was silenced by the Soviets

Nikita Khurshchev became leader of Soviet Union and told the NATO to leave West Berlin but they said no

So Khrushchev said to talk personally w Eisenhower in their own countries and went to the US w good meeting

They also tried to meet in a Paris conference too but that did not work as the Soviets had shot down an American U-2 plane that was spying and made Khrushchev angry and disbanded Paris summit and withdrew Eisenhower's invitation to visit Soviet Union

Eisenhower did not eliminate tensions as he might've increased them but he put limits on American power and left Vietnam

He tried to stop the idea of the MIlitary Industrial complex but this would not work as his successors were all for this

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Chapter 28 Notes Eisenhower Republicanism 

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Chapter 28 Notes Eisenhower Republicanism 

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Dwight D. Eisenhower wasn't quite experienced enough in politics but still did very well as he had moderate policies at home and kept work of earlier and abroad went against communism a lot but not too much as successors

"What Was Good For... General Motors"

As before in the 1920s, the repubs staffed themselves w the business community, but these guys liked deficit spending better as they saw its benefits to themselves

Eisenhower even put the president of GM to secretary of defense and he said that what was good for our country was good for GM, and vice versa

Eisenhower encouraged private enterprise as he limited spending, stopped social service programs expanding, supported private development of natural resources, and removed wage and price controls set by Truman and also ended in 1960 w a billion budget surplus

The Survival of the Welfare State

The president didn't let Social Security go away, got minimum wage from .75 to a dollar, and got the Federal Highway Act of 1956 where he got $25 bill into a 10 year project to make 40,000 miles of highways and was funded by putting taxes on stuff like tires, gas, cars, and trucks

In 1956, Eisenhower went for another term against Adlai Stevenson and got it but Demos got both houses of congress and w 1958 recession got even more control

The Decline of McCarthyism

The Eisenhower admin at first didn't do much, but then McCarthyism was very unpopular by 1954

At first he was left to do whatever, but then he attacked army and so Congress got hearings for it where it was obvious it wasn't too legit

So then in 12/1954 the Senate condemned him for conduct unbecoming of a senator and then 3 years later he died of alcoholism but red scare went a for a bit more time

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Chapter 28 Notes The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement 

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Chapter 28 Notes The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement 

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The battle against segregation started in 1950s w help of white Americans but mostly because of African Americans speaking up

The Brown Decision and "Massive Resistance"

On 5/17/1954, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka said that segregation at school was unconstitutional and said it should be stopped but only gave rules to do it and no timetable and left specifics to lower courts

Some communities just did it but others in the South took a long time due to "massive resistance" w long delays and bitter conflicts as whites didn't want blacks in schools w them

The Eisenhower Administration didn't want to do much until in Little Rock High School black kids couldn't physically get in as state didn't stop that

So Eisenhower gave them troops to guide the African American troops and led to blacks getting in

The Expanding Movement

The Brown decision led to other challenges like Rosa Parks on the bus bench which led to bus boycotts to stop segregated seating

The boycott did help as buses and Montgomery merchants needed black support but also from Browder v. Gayle which declared segregation in public transportation illegal and ended the boycott

This accomplishment got MLK popularity as he was a good orator and leader and started the nonviolent idea to get the moral high ground

This helped the movement spread around the country to help in the journey of African American rights

Causes of the Civil Rights Movement

WWII was a cause because of how the US fought to end totalitarianism abroad so why should they not have their rightful freedoms at home?

The growth of the black middle class due to the war was very helpful as it got people to know more about how to succeed

TV and pop culture helped blacks see how they should be living and also got their activities to mass audiences that could support the movement

White Americans supported because they wanted to be the model country due to the Cold War, had a lot of blacks voting up north, and labor unions now had black membership and a lot of it

This led to the civil rights movement being quite powerful in America

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It was quite easy for the middle class to think that its prosperity was universal, but it actually wasn't for other groups

On the Margins of the Affluent Society

In 1962, Micheal Harrington published a celebrated book that showed the existence of poverty in the US

The eco boom did reduce poverty but didn't eliminate as people were still poor and lived below the poverty line while others struggled too just above

Most of the poor 80% only had it intermittently but 20% always poor which was a lot of old people, African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans

This poverty didn't seem to be affected by the postwar boom and seemed impervious to hope

Rural Poverty

The income of the rural population was going down and showed how people were leaving rural areas

Also showed declining farm prices as the reason for that and was due to of course higher production  and supply due to tractors  w no demand

Sharecroppers and tenant farmers lived at a very low levels because cotton wasn't as needed due to synthetic fabrics and migrant workers lived the same as well

Rural areas w out commercial agriculture were hurt the worse as they were cut off and were vulnerable to malnutrition and starvation

The Inner Cities

As whites moved out, minorities moved into cities to make ghettoes but some succeeded but most likely to take Ls because of discrimination

Many blacks left the South to Northern cities just as whites were leaving these cities for suburbs

Hispanics also came a lot for the cities to then expand their populations there as well

The inner cities were getting more unskilled people when they didn't need it which left many minorities doing bad

Discrimination in hiring, housing, and edu led to many going into poverty

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The middle class expanded a lot during this time was coined as the People of plenty

The Consumer Culture

People loved consumer goods as prosperity went up, more variety and availability of products, and better advertisements making higher demand

Credit also helped w credit cards, revolving charge accounts and easy payment plans

This led to people wanting more consumer good and companies giving it to them and a want for new products like dishwashers, garbage disposals, televisions, and stereos

W national advertisements everyone got in on consumer crazes like the hula hoop and Mickey Mouse w the television show which helped disneyland too

The Suburban Nation

1/3 of the nation lived in suburbs and was because of affordability and innovations in home buildings seen in Levittowns that started on East and went all around the nation

Americans moved to suburbs to have larger families, to be away from dangers of urban living, and have space for products they wanted

The suburbs were appealing to whites specifically as they could afford it and didn't really let blacks in as blacks were growing in cities

The Suburban Family

Since work was far away in the city, the men had a big difference between work and home and women were discouraged from working if they dind't have to

Also motherhood made them stay in the house to take care of the kids as much as possible

But some families wanted a lot so they had to have two people working to ensure that they could have everything they wanted

The Birth of Television

TV came out of many discoveries and had cultural and social impacts as it became a medium of communication as more people got it

Mostly started out as radio w NBC, ABC, and CBS all starting as radio companies and adverts got them money so corporate sponsors decide what was shown

This was seen as shows were titled by the corps paying and daytime ones were soap operas since they advertised household products aimed at women

By the late 1950s, the TV wast he main form of communication and got a lot more entertainment ot people and got around movies and radio as diversion for families

TV helped keep the image up of American life w people being white, middle class, and suburban and would keep ideas the same but exaggerated them

Some poked fun though, like I Love Lucy by expanding on normal roles in funny ways

TV also created collisions w social conflict as it could show how the rest of society lived and showed alienation as well w news

Travel, Outdoor Recreation, Environmentalism

Paid vacation was already there, but travel had become a big thing w the interstate highway and cars which helped American families have road trips

The desire to go on vacation was the same that brought people out of urban areas as they wanted to escape densely populated areas and to experience the natural world

This was very prevalent w National Parks which saw a spike in attendance for many reasons but there were some conflicts like w echo park

Echo Park was a valley in the Dinosaur National Monument in between Utah and Colorado and was wanted by the Fed Bureau of Reclamation for a dam to get hydroelectric power and a recreation lake

This led to the environmentalists getting made even after their L at Hetch Hetchy in Yosemite earlier in the century

Bernard DeVoto wrote an essay about it which got many, like the Sierra Club, to take action as they lead environmental organizations

This led to finally Echo Park being left alone which was a huge W for the environmentalists of the time

Organized Society and Its Detractors

White collar jobs became more prominent and industrial workers now had to face large bureaucracies in unions and at work

The effect of Bureaucratic life was seen as people wrote about how they did not like it as they would say the self driven man was being taken down by the man who is directed by others and conformity went up

Novelists expressed this as well w the Catcher in the Rye and others that showed the difficulty of finding one's true self during a time of conformity

The Beats and the Restless Culture of Youth

The biggest critics of bureaucratic life were the beat writers who didn't like the sterility and conformity of life and wanted change

Juvenile Deliquency was thought to have gone up in the American Youth as seen in movies but this did not really happen

The culture of alienation had similar parts in the middle class behavior in teenage rebelliousness towards parents, fascination w fast cars and motorcycles, and increasing sexual activity w birth control devices

James Dean helped this w movies like Rebel w/o a cause and became an American icon for the unfocused rebelliousness seen in the time

Rock'n'Roll

The birth of rock'n'roll in the 1950s was huge as Elvis Presley got it going as he went against usual stuff w his music and being rebellious and stylish and sexuality of music

He was a huge part of pop culture up until his death in 1977

Presley's music drew from black and blues roots which was based on how Sam Phillips needed a white man w black sound which he found in Presley and got him famous as w others as well

Rock was also from country music, gospel music, and even jazz though

Black bands also got chances to record ad make music but never as big as those of the white man during these times

Rock got big w the help of the radio that was now only playing recorded music due to TV and helped people get more attention and spread rock

Radio got recording industry way up as they wanted quick profit and people would even pay djs to play their songs more which led to payola in which scandals were exposed in the 1950s and early 60s

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Chapter 28 Notes The Explosion of Science and Technology 

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Chapter 28 Notes The Explosion of Science and Technology 

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The American people were becoming more and more interested w technology as atomic power was becoming very popular

Medical Breakthroughs

The 20th Century had more progress than ever before as antibiotics were developed which could stop infections thought to be untreatable

This all started in France in 1870s w Louis Pasteur and Jules-Francois Joubert who found that bacteria could be stopped by others

And then Joseph Lister used this to see that antiseptic solutions could be used in preventing infection during surgery

They were only practically used in the 1930s w sulfa drugs from sulfanilamide to stop streptococcal blood infections and were developed very quickly

Alexander Fleming in 1928 accidentally found penicillin but wasn't used much until Oxford scientists got it to cure bacterial infections

This did not get to everyone due to WWII and once the US got it they got it to everyone so that now bacterial infections are the best treated of all

Vaccines also made a big jump as there were some made for smallpox, typhoid, tetanus, and tuberculosis which all helped a lot

Viruses were harder to get because they were harder to study but once done, they found vaccines w dif viruses to get antibodies to kill actual viruses and got vaccine for influenza and yellow fever

A big development was the vaccination for polio made by Jonas Salk and was given free by US gov and led to the elimination of it from US life

With better mass production, the death rates of kids went down a lot and life expectancy went up but using this led to mutations that made super diseases resistant to it and are the next challenge to face

Pesticides

Paul Muller made DDT when he saw that it was good for mammals but terrible for insects who would eat crops and was necessary as army was fighting against typhus and malaria in 1942

DDT was used a lot in Italy during typhus outbreak and in mosquito infested areas in Pacific Islands and malaria went down but over time did people see its toxic effects on animals and humans

Postwar Electronic Research

After the war, electronic technology saw new developments with commercial TV and systems to broadcast programs

Late 1950s, RCA (Radio Corporation of America) scientists developed color TV that was made widely available during 1960s

Bell labs, part of AT&T in 1948 was able to make the transistor that could amplify electrical signals but was very small so it could be used in smaller devices and helped in aviation, weapons, and satellites but also integrated circuitry later on

Integrated circuits were small devices that combined what used to be separate elements and allowed the computer to be made

Postwar Computer Technology

B4 1950s, computers were used to do complicated math but in 1950sw they started to have commercial functions

The first significant computer was UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) and could predict things and handle alphabetical and numerical info

It was faster than before and to get more attention, the Remington Rand Company used it to predict the 1952 election and had Eisenhower winning

This happened in the end and got people aware of what computers could do

Remington Rand could not advertise as well as International Business Machines Company (IBM) that would make computers and market them in the US and abroad

What got its success was all the money invested in research

Bombs, Rockets, and Missiles

In 1952, the US sucessfully detonated the first hydrogen bomb and the Soviets did the same a year later but they were different from before

These bombs got power from joining atoms together (fusion) instead of splitting them apart (fission)

This led to the US and Soviets looking for other ways to deliver as these bombs were much more powerful, such as missiles but the US had an advantage w German scientists from Germany

The US then started trying to get this to work long range but couldn't get how as fuel was a problem but everything else was good but overtime, they got it in the Minuteman

They also developed missiles that could be launched out of submarines that were successfully tested in 1960 w the Polaris

The Space Program

The American space program only came about to go against Soviets after they said Sputnik was up in 1957 which got a lot of spending to get Explorer I out in 1/1958

The center piece of the US program was the manned space program w the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Astronauts were seen as heroes but success kept coming after the Soviets  but then NASA brought in the Gemini program w two at once

These successes led to the Apollo program which wanted to get people on the moon but was stopped by a fire during an exercise

But eventually we got up on 1/20/1969 when Astronauts actually go the moon and 6 more lunar missions were carried out after that

Over time, this became a modest effort though as the space shuttle was made but then there were two explosions which in the end led to the end of the space shuttle program in 2011

Also used to repair comms satellites and the Hubble Space Telescope

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There was booming economic growth in the 50s and early 60s and more balanced and distributed but not as universal as many thought

Economic Growth

Economic expansion started in 1949 and went by gross national product up 250%, unemployment 5% or under, and inflation 3% or under

Many causes like no emotional shackles from great depression, more investment, gov spending up, also military spending, trade agreements, and not touched by WWII so it got int. trade w good manu services

The national birthrate went up in Baby Boom and led to more consumerism since there were more people

Rapid suburban expansion helped stimulate eco, so did more privately owned cars and demand for new homes w roads needed as well

The combination of post WWII eco growth, new support from gov and booming population led to the best standard of living ever

The Rise of the Modern West

The west experienced the most change w booming cities, expanding pop., and flourishing industrial eco and some parts became most important of all US

This growth was because of a  lot of spending and investment by feds and state gov and also military contracts coming in, and companies that also came in for more profit

Also the population boomed and the climate also attracted people to come as well

Capital and Labor

Though businesses didn't really want to follow unions, they had to since they were so big and the AFL and CIO merged under George Meany

With such success, also came corruption which was seen as there were congressional investigations and two presidents of the Teamster Union had to step down because of misappropriation of union funds and jury tampering

There were similar problems with the United Mine Workers Union that had violence and charges of corruption

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Chapter 27 Notes The Crusade Against Subversion 

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Chapter 27 Notes The Crusade Against Subversion 

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Reasons for the hysteria of communist subversion was that it was tangible, the Korean Stalemate, the loss in China and the Soviet development of the atomic bomb

People wanted someone to blame and began to look inside the US for who was responsible

HUAC and Alger Hiss

This all started when the Repubs wanted to attack demos and demos wanted to avoid it

In 1947, the House of Un-American Activities Committee investigated to prove that demos had allowed communist subversion and they started w Hollywood and propaganda

They would ask writers and producers about political beliefs and if they didn't want to talk then they were sent to jail for contempt and others were not allowed to work due to blacklist for those that were possibly commies

Alger Hiss was accused of being a spy when a former communist agent said that Hiss gave him classified docs and had proof but Hiss could not be tried since it was out of statute of limitations as it had been 7 years

But Richard M. Nixon kept going and got Hiss convicted of perjury and years in prison which got Hiss discredited and made Liberal demos suspicious and gave Nixon fame and got him senate seat later

The Federal Loyalty Program and the Rosenberg Case

The Truman admin started a loyalty review of fed employees and got 2k out by resignation and 2112 by dismissal

This led to an assault on subversion in gov and all around as the FBI investigated it and McCarran Internal Security Act put restrictions on subversive activity and told communist orgs to publish records and register w gov which Truman tried to veto but overruled

The soviet bomb had people thinking someone talked and found in Klaus Fuchs and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg who were said to have given info from Ethel's brother to russians

Julius and Ethel were both convicted and died on the electric chair even though ethel might've not been guilty

All this led to all types of institutions wanting to get away from communism and subversives which led to a public figure coming out

McCarthyism

Joseph McCarthy was a senator from Wisconsin when he was in a speech and said he had a list of communists working in the State department which he would accuse and got him to be the leader against subversion

He kept accusing people in other agencies as well and though he never had conclusive evidence everyone loved him for his assaults on the government

The republicans liked him as he went against democrats and was too intimidating to oppose for a while until he he went too far and lost favor

This didn't happen before McCarthyism came to define the hysterical era surrounded by these unfounded accusations

The Republican Revival

Demos weren't good for the next election and Truman stepped off and let Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois to go for presidency as liberals and intellectuals liked him but the Repubs said he wasn't strong enough for fighting commies

The problem for him though was the opponent, Dwight D. Eisenhower as he was military hero, commander of NATO, and president of Columbia university w Richard Nixon as VP

Eisenhower said he would stop the Korean conflict and Nixon exploited issue of domesitic anticommunism by atttacking demos for cowardice and appeasement

This led to Eisenhower eventually winning

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The Cold War got to Asia when the North Korean Communists invaded the South and occupied the Capital which got the US involved immediately

The Divided Peninsula

After WWII ended, the US and Soviets had troops in Korea but neither wanted to leave so they divided it up along 38th parallel and departed leaving commies and anticommies respectively

The relative weakness of the South got the North to want to reunite and no one seemed to want to do anything about it so they attacked and were helped by Chinese and Soviets once the conflict began

Then Truman got American military in and asked UN to help which worked as Soviets couldn't veto since they were boycotting China not being recognized and thus troops went in though mostly US

After a good invasion at Inchon in september 1950 to push back across 38th, Truman told General Macarthur to keep going into North Korea w rollback ideology instead of containment

From Invasion to Stalemate

Invasion was going good until Chinese joined in and got US to retreat back under 38th, but they got everything back by 1951 in march but there was a stalemate

Truman didn't want direct conflict w China in case of WWIII but Macarthur wanted to bomb china but got taken out cuz this was too crazy

Many supported Macarthur and was received as a hero but things sort of died down when many other military dudes sided w Truman but there was still war and talks which lasted until 1953

Limited Mobilization

The Korean War only had limited military commitment and created a limited eco mobilization

Truman set up the Office of Defense Mobilization to hold down prices and stop high union wage demands but this wan't enough as workers in RR and Steel still striked and Truman tried to stop w seizing control but forced to relent by Supreme Court

The Korean war did boost eco growth but also brought anxiety as the US could not solve the problem as easily as it should and led to more campaign against communism

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Crises overseas came w some at home as economic difficulties were seen and a heated political climate came too

The Problems of Reconversion

After the war, eco growth continued as savings were now used w a tax cut too and the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 helped give housing, edu, and job training to veterans to get more spending

Though this act helped the gov assist citizens there was some inequality as not everything applied to women and blacks were excluded by local gov

This led to a lot of inflation and a lot of strikes like in Mines where many left and Truman had to seize mines for gov and also huge RR strike that had total shut down but all good once Truman threatened to have army run it and workers came back

Reconversion was difficult for minorities as they were pushed out of work especially women as some wanted to keep working due to inflation, consumerism and divorce rate which led them to service sector

The Fair Deal Rejected

After Japanese surrender, Truman submitted the Fair Deal to congress asking for:

More Social security benefits

Higher minimum wage

A program for full employment through fed spending

Permanent Fair Employment Practices Act

Public housing and slum clearance

Long range envicronmental and public works planning

Gov promotion of scientific research

Fed aid to edu

Gov health insurance

Prepaid medical care

Funding for the St. Lawrence Seaway

And Nationalization of atomic energy

This all didn't work though, as conservatives came with the same opposition as in New Deal and got control of Congress which led to less spending

They took down the wagner Act w the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 that said took away closed shop (only union workers) but kept union shops that you could join unions once you were hired

But states could pass right to work laws to prohibit that and gave president ability to call for cooling off period where he could stop work stoppage if it would endanger safety or health

There was opposition from labor and veto from pres, but overruled though didn't kill labor movement, only hurt lightly organized or not union members to organize

The Elections of 1948

Truman believed that the people didn't wanna get away from New Deal so they appealed to loyal demos by trying to get many reforms in but none worked as they were used for campaign issues

There were still problems as not everyone liked Truman and two factions left demos, conservatives mad over civil rights bills and went to make States' Rights party and left who didn't like his confrontation w Soviets so they went to Progressive Party

Many demo liberals didn't want to leave so they tried to get Eisenhower in w the Americans for Democratic Action group of liberal anticommies but that didn't work so they got Truman

The repubs got Thomas E. Dewey of NY who seemed dignified, austere, and competent and was a sure W

Only Truman thought he could win as he went against the do nothing Repub congress and even gave them a chance to enact their own measure for two weeks but could not do anything

The result was a surprise to all as Truman won barely and Demos got control of both houses again

The Fair Deal Revived

This congress wasn't much nicer but things went well as:

Minimum wage went from 40 to 75 cents per hour

Expansion of Social Security w 75% more benefits and getting to 10 mill additional peeps

And National Housing Act of 1949 that made 810k units of housing w long term rent subsidies

But other issues like health insurance, aid to edu, and civil rights legislation all didn't really work well

But Truman was strong against discrimination and did all he could to take it out of gov jobs and also got Court to help as well

The Nuclear Age

Americans saw nuclear power with fear, awe, and expectation of either bad use or good use that could come in the future

This was seen in popular culture, usually disguised, but sometimes not as seen in some shows that presented this explicitly

There was anxiety as there would b drills and homes and buildings would have fallout shelters w everything needed just in case

The US also saw this as good though as they thought of the good possibilities that could come from nuclear technology

Optimism was very widespread as people thought it would bring good and nuclear power plants came up w little to no thought about possible dangers

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Chapter 27 Notes The Collapse of the Peace 

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Chapter 27 Notes The Collapse of the Peace 

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Truman was new to all this but he thought, like many in gov, that Stalin and Soviets were untrustworthy and suspicious

The Failure of Potsdam

Truman met w Soviet foreign minister Molotov and was mad over violations but had little leverage as US forces busy in Pacific and the Soviets were doing well in Europe

Truman insisted to get US 85% of what it wanted but got a lot less

He first went gave Poland up when Stalin made some concessions to western exiles and Truman recognized Warsaw gov and hoped democracy would get power (it did not)

Then Truman, Attlee, and Stalin all met in Potsdam, Germany where Truman allowed changed to Polish German border but wouldn't let Russians get any reparations from Brits French or US

This left Germany for sure divided as it became East and West Germany, each following the nations that governed it

The China Problem and Japan

US hopes for peace needed independent China, but didn't work as Chiang Kai-shek's gov was not good and was busy fighting Mao Zedong and more commies

Some Americans wanted w third force to support, but Truman just gave weapons and money to Chiang even when things were bad

Truman didn't want to bring in troops to help though

So America began to look at Japan as it lifted strict occupation policies and let Japan grow economically

This all led to the world being more divided world w a pro American sphere of influence

The Containment Doctrine

By the end of 1945, the US decided to just contain Soviet expansion instead of destroying communism and unifying the world

Truman doctrine emerged as the Soviets were attacking Turkey and Greece and Truman asked congress to help free people being attacked

Truman got the money and was able to help Turkey and Greece stay free and solidified the Truman doctrine that would stay for a long time

The Conservative Opposition to Containment

There was a good amount of support for Containment, but the left thought peace could've been made and conservatives thought it was appeasement

One group was the John Birch Society led by Robert Welch who said thought that American gov was undermining America but as extremist though many shared the belief that commies were dangerous

The highest levels of opposition were seen by Eisenhower as some wanted a whole new war to take down the commies but this was never done

The Marshall Plan

Eco aid to Europe was quite important as the US was scared that if these nations could not stay then the Communist parties would take over

So Sec. of State in 1947, George C. Marshall made a plan for all Euro nations to get aid and Commies avoided but the West was all for it

There as little isolationist opposition because of a coup in Czechoslovakia in 2/1948 and Congress got the Eco Co-op Admin to administer the Marshall Plan and helped many nations stay w US

Mobilization at Home

In 1948, a new draft was put up and US began to increase nuclear weapons after no agreement w Soviets

Atomic Energy Commission oversaw everything and by 1950, the Truman admin allowed the development of a new bomb that was more powerful than the last one

The National Security Act brought about:

The Department of Defense instead of War and Navy

The National Security Council to govern foreign and military policy

CIA to collect info in any way and would be used a lot by US

This all gave the president more power to get nations goals

The Road to Nato

The US got more military in Western Europe and tried to get the Western zones of Germany combined including in Berlin which led to Soviet Blockade

This was ineffective as Truman avoided violence w an airlift to help the city out and got the blockade out

The Division was then made official as there was the Federal Republic in the West and the Democratic Republic in the East

This crisis led to the creation of NATO 4/1949 so that if one nation was attacked, then it was an attack against all and it would have standing army in Western Europe to fight possbile invasion

Soviets made their own alliance called the Warsaw Pact after as well to keep Communist governments together

Reevaluating Cold War Policy

The success of the first Soviet nuke and the collapse of Chiang Kai-shek's government was very scary to America

The fall of China led many American believe that it was weakness and treason that caused this, especially the State Department

With this, Truman had the foreign policy reviewed, and came up with NSC-68, where the US would now take the fight against communism upon itself and would try to expand military power to fully stop communist expansion

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Chapter 27 Notes Origins of the Cold War

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Chapter 27 Notes Origins of the Cold War

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Cold War has caused a lot of debate either being Soviet expansion fault or American provocations and ambitions

Sources of Soviet-American Tension

Besides eco and politics the difference between the two was also the view of post war as Americans liked democratic international affairs

The Soviets and sort of Brits liked the old ideas of keeping their own areas as Brits didn't like losing colonies and Soviets wanted buffer

This eventually led to the US following to protect its own spheres and to competition for influence and power

Wartime Diplomacy

Strain started when in 1/1943 in Morocco, FDR and Churchill would not fight in the Western front but would only accept unconditional surrender from Nazis so Soviets wouldn't have to fight anymore

Then in 11/1943, FDR and Churchill went to Iran to meet w Stalin and he agreed to help in the Pacific theater and US would make second front

They could not agree on Poland as they allowed Soviets to have it but not which kind of gov, pro commie or democratic

Yalta

Then in 2/1945, FDR and Churchill go to Yalta to see Stalin and get him to agree again to help in Pacific and US would give them land lost in Russo Japanese war

Agreed to plan for new United nations where every nation was repped and a Security Counsel of Brits, US, France, China, and Soviets could veto and started 4/25/1945 and were well accepted my US senate unlike league of nations

But with Poland, nothing changed as Stalin put Commies there but FDR and churchill wanted democratic and election to choose and Stalin agreed for future but that didn't happen till 1989

There was no agreement on Germany as FDR wanted reconstruction while the Soviets wanted punishment and keep it apart

There was vague and unstable agreement as the reparations would be referred to future people and each ally would have its zone

Though soviets had Berlin they split that up too and then at an unspecified date Germany would be reunited and the rest of Europe was supposed to have govs that were democratic and followed the will of the people

Yalta was more a sidestep of the most important issues and both returned home thinking the wrong which lasted only a bit as the Stalin kept occupying more nations

Thinking all good, FDR went on vacation but died of a stroke on 4/12/1945