# data[].attributes.body
What is it?
Model depicting the 5 levels of Human Needs. Starting from Base 1) Physiological 2) Safety 3) Love and Belonging 4) Esteem 5) Self-Actualization.
Why is it impactful?
Each level/category provides something for a human to survive.
How will it impact my practice?
Based on Marlow's hierarchy of Needs, I as an educator can find which category I can contribute to developing healthy students and a safe environment for them to grow.

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Use what we know about the brain to:

- Ensure that the class is a safe environment
- Make focusing attention a priority
- Use a variety of media and activities to teach and practice concepts and skills
- Repetitions (particularly in a lot of different ways) is essential.
- Emotional Connections (at facilitative levels) are essential.
- For teens in particular, make connections to their identities and support them in using higher-order thinking.

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There are no differences in Intelligence based on
- sex
- gender
- culture
- race

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https://drive.google.com/file/d/0ByKbdqBKsEuhTER2amNmdFlnSTQ/view
https://li.wsu.edu/2019/09/20/promoting-growth-mindset/

What is it?
- Growth Mindset is the belief that students (intelligence, personality, character) can be continuously developed. True potential is unknown and unknowable.
Why do I find it Impactful?
- Such knowledge and belief impacts the way I motivate my students to learn and find their true potential.
How will it impact my practice?
- Students are encouraged when they believe they can grow, build character and develop their intelligence and personality. Students will:
- have the desire to continuous learning,
- confront uncertainties,
- embrace challenges,
- not afraid to fail,
- put effort to learn
- feedback is about current capabilities.

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ONE DAY LAST NOVEMBER, psychology professor Carol Dweck welcomed a pair of visitors from the Blackburn Rovers, a soccer team in the United Kingdom's Premier League. The Rovers' training academy is ranked in England's top three, yet performance director Tony Faulkner had long suspected that many promising players weren't reaching their potential. Ignoring the team's century-old motto- arte et labore, or "skill and hard work"-the most talented individuals disdained serious training.

On some level, Faulkner knew the source of the trouble: British soccer culture held that star players are born, not made. If you buy into that view, and are told you've got immense talent, what's the point of practice? If anything, training hard would tell you and others that you're merely good, not great. Faulkner had identified the problem; but to fix it, he needed Dweck's help.

A 60-year-old academic psychologist might seem an unlikely sports motivation guru. But Dweck's expertise-and her recent book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success -bear directly on the sort of problem facing the Rovers. Through more than three decades of systematic research, she has been figuring out answers to why some people achieve their potential while equally talented others don't-why some become Muhammad Ali and others Mike Tyson. The key, she found, isn't ability; it's whether you look at ability as something inherent that needs to be demonstrated or as something that can be developed.

What's more, Dweck has shown that people can learn to adopt the latter belief and make dramatic strides in performance. These days, she's sought out wherever motivation and achievement matter, from education and parenting to business management and personal development.

As a graduate student at Yale, Dweck started off studying animal motivation. In the late 1960s, a hot topic in animal research was "learned helplessness": lab animals sometimes didn't do what they were capable of because they'd given up from repeat failures. Dweck wondered how humans coped with that. "I asked, 'What makes a really capable child give up in the face of failure, where other children may be motivated by the failure?'" she recalls.

At the time, the suggested cure for learned helplessness was a long string of successes. Dweck posited that the difference between the helpless response and its opposite-the determination to master new things and surmount challenges-lay in people's beliefs about why they had failed. People who attributed their failures to lack of ability, Dweck thought, would become discouraged even in areas where they were capable. Those who thought they simply hadn't tried hard enough, on the other hand, would be fueled by setbacks. This became the topic of her PhD dissertation.

Dweck and her assistants ran an experiment on elementary school children whom school personnel had identified as helpless. These kids fit the definition perfectly: if they came across a few math problems they couldn't solve, for example, they no longer could do problems they had solved before-and some didn't recover that ability for days.

Through a series of exercises, the experimenters trained half the students to chalk up their errors to insufficient effort, and encouraged them to keep going. Those children learned to persist in the face of failure-and to succeed. The control group showed no improvement at all, continuing to fall apart quickly and to recover slowly. These findings, says Dweck, "really supported the idea that the attributions were a key ingredient driving the helpless and mastery-oriented patterns." Her 1975 article on the topic has become one of the most widely cited in contemporary psychology.

Attribution theory, concerned with people's judgments about the causes of events and behavior, already was an active area of psychological research. But the focus at the time was on how we make attributions, explains Stanford psychology professor Lee Ross, who coined the term "fundamental attribution error" for our tendency to explain other people's actions by their character traits, overlooking the power of circumstances. Dweck, he says, helped "shift the emphasis from attributional errors and biases to the consequences of attributions-why it matters what attributions people make." Dweck had put attribution theory to practical use.

She continued to do so as an assistant professor at the University of Illinois, collaborating with then-graduate student Carol Diener to have children "think out loud" as they faced problem-solving tasks, some too difficult for them. The big surprise: some of the children who put forth lots of effort didn't make attributions at all. These children didn't think they were failing. Diener puts it this way: "Failure is information-we label it failure, but it's more like, 'This didn't work, I'm a problem solver, and I'll try something else.'" During one unforgettable moment, one boy-something of a poster child for the mastery-oriented type-faced his first stumper by pulling up his chair, rubbing his hands together, smacking his lips and announcing, "I love a challenge."

Such zest for challenge helped explain why other capable students thought they lacked ability just because they'd hit a setback. Common sense suggests that ability inspires self-confidence. And it does for a while-so long as the going is easy. But setbacks change everything. Dweck realized-and, with colleague Elaine Elliott soon demonstrated-that the difference lay in the kids' goals. "The mastery-oriented children are really hell-bent on learning something," Dweck says, and "learning goals" inspire a different chain of thoughts and behaviors than "performance goals."

Students for whom performance is paramount want to look smart even if it means not learning a thing in the process. For them, each task is a challenge to their self-image, and each setback becomes a personal threat. So they pursue only activities at which they're sure to shine-and avoid the sorts of experiences necessary to grow and flourish in any endeavor. Students with learning goals, on the other hand, take necessary risks and don't worry about failure because each mistake becomes a chance to learn. Dweck's insight launched a new field of educational psychology-achievement goal theory.

Dweck's next question: what makes students focus on different goals in the first place? During a sabbatical at Harvard, she was discussing this with doctoral student Mary Bandura (daughter of legendary Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura), and the answer hit them: if some students want to show off their ability, while others want to increase their ability, "ability" means different things to the two groups. "If you want to demonstrate something over and over, it feels like something static that lives inside of you-whereas if you want to increase your ability, it feels dynamic and malleable," Dweck explains. People with performance goals, she reasoned, think intelligence is fixed from birth. People with learning goals have a growth mind-set about intelligence, believing it can be developed. (Among themselves, psychologists call the growth mind-set an "incremental theory," and use the term "entity theory" for the fixed mind-set.) The model was nearly complete (see diagram).

Growing up in Brooklyn in the '50s, Dweck did well in elementary school, earning a spot in a sixth-grade class of other high achievers. Not just any spot, it turned out. Their teacher, Mrs. Wilson, seated the students in IQ order and even used IQ scores to dole out classroom responsibilities. Whether Mrs. Wilson meant to or not, she was conveying her belief in fixed intelligence. Dweck, who was in row 1, seat 1, believes Mrs. Wilson's intentions were good. The experience didn't scar her-Dweck says she already had some of the growth mind-set-but she has shown that many students pegged as bright, especially girls, don't fare as well.

Tests, Dweck notes, are notoriously poor at measuring potential. Take a group of adults and ask them to draw a self-portrait. Most Americans think of drawing as a gift they don't have, and their portraits look no better than a child's scribbles. But put them in a well-designed class-as Betty Edwards, the author of Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, has-and the resulting portraits look so skilled it's hard to believe they're the work of the same "talentless" individuals. The belief that you can't improve stunts achievement.

Culture can play a large role in shaping our beliefs, Dweck says. A college physics teacher recently wrote to Dweck that in India, where she was educated, there was no notion that you had to be a genius or even particularly smart to learn physics. "The assumption was that everyone could do it, and, for the most part, they did." But what if you're raised with a fixed mind-set about physics-or foreign languages or music? Not to worry: Dweck has shown that you can change the mind-set itself.

The most dramatic proof comes from a recent study by Dweck and Lisa Sorich Blackwell of low-achieving seventh graders. All students participated in sessions on study skills, the brain and the like; in addition, one group attended a neutral session on memory while the other learned that intelligence, like a muscle, grows stronger through exercise. Training students to adopt a growth mind-set about intelligence had a catalytic effect on motivation and math grades; students in the control group showed no improvement despite all the other interventions.

"Study skills and learning skills are inert until they're powered by an active ingredient," Dweck explains. Students may know how to study, but won't want to if they believe their efforts are futile. "If you target that belief, you can see more benefit than you have any reason to hope for."

The classroom workshop isn't feasible on a large scale; for one thing, it's too costly. So Dweck and Blackwell have designed a computer-based training module to simulate the live intervention. Their hip multimedia software, called Brainology, is still in development, but thanks to early buzz from a Time magazine article and Dweck's recent book, teachers have begun clamoring for it, one even asking to become a distributor.

Unlike much that passes for wisdom about education and performance, Dweck's conclusions are grounded in solid research. She's no rah-rah motivational coach proclaiming the sky's the limit and attitude is everything; that's too facile. But the evidence shows that if we hold a fixed mind-set, we're bound not to reach as high as we might.

Although much of Dweck's research on mind-sets has taken place in school settings, it's applicable to sports, business, interpersonal relationships and so on. "Lots and lots of people are interested in her work; it touches on so many different areas of psychology and areas outside of psychology," says Stanford psychology professor Mark Lepper, '66, who as department chair in 2004 lured Dweck away from Columbia, where she'd been for 15 years. "The social psychologists like to say she's a social psychologist; the personality psychologists say she's a personality psychologist; and the developmental psychologists say she's a developmental psychologist," Lepper adds.

By all rights, her appeal should transcend academia, says New Yorker writer Malcolm Gladwell, who is well known for making psychological research accessible to the general public. "One of the most popular pieces I ever did relied very heavily on work done by Carol Dweck," he said in a December interview in the Journal of Management Inquiry. "Carol Dweck deserves a big audience. It is criminal if she does not get that audience." Perhaps Mindset will help; it was written for lay readers.

It certainly cemented Tony Faulkner's belief that Dweck could help the Blackburn Rovers soccer team. Unlike the disadvantaged kids in Dweck's middle-school study, the Rovers didn't think they lacked what it took to succeed. Quite the opposite: they thought their talent should take them all the way. Yet both groups' fixed mind-set about ability explains their aversion to effort.

But aren't there plenty of people who believe in innate ability and in the notion that nothing comes without effort? Logically, the two ideas are compatible. But psychologically, explains Dweck, many people who believe in fixed intelligence also think you shouldn't need hard work to do well. This belief isn't entirely irrational, she says. A student who finishes a problem set in 10 minutes is indeed better at math than someone who takes four hours to solve the problems. And a soccer player who scores effortlessly probably is more talented than someone who's always practicing. "The fallacy comes when people generalize it to the belief that effort on any task, even very hard ones, implies low ability," Dweck says.

Her advice for the Rovers rings true for anyone stuck in a fixed mind-set. "Changing mind-sets is not like surgery," she says. "You can't simply remove the fixed mind-set and replace it with the growth mind-set." The Rovers are starting their workshops with recent recruits-their youngest, most malleable players. (Faulkner realizes that players who've already earned millions from being "naturals" have little incentive to reshape their brains.) The team's talent scouts will be asking about new players' views on talent and training-not to screen out those with a fixed mind-set, but to target them for special training.

In his 2002 essay that relied on Dweck's work, Gladwell cited one of her best-known experiments to argue that Enron may have collapsed precisely because of the company's talent-obsessed culture, not despite it. Dweck's study showed that praising children for intelligence, rather than for effort, sapped their motivation ( see sidebar). But more disturbingly, 40 percent of those whose intelligence was praised overstated their scores to peers. "We took ordinary children and made them into liars," Dweck says. Similarly, Enron executives who'd been celebrated for their innate talent would sooner lie than fess up to problems and work to fix them.

Business School professor Jeffrey Pfeffer says Dweck's research has implications for the more workaday problem of performance management. He faults businesses for spending too much time in rank-and-yank mode, grading and evaluating people instead of developing their skills. "It's like the Santa Claus theory of management: who's naughty and who's nice."

Leaders, too, can benefit from Dweck's work, says Robert Sternberg, PhD '75, Tufts University's dean of the School of Arts and Sciences. Sternberg, a past president of the American Psychological Association, says that excessive concern with looking smart keeps you from making bold, visionary moves. "If you're afraid of making mistakes, you'll never learn on the job, and your whole approach becomes defensive: 'I have to make sure I don't screw up.'"

Social psychologist Peter Salovey, '80, MA '80, dean of Yale College and a pioneer in the field of emotional intelligence, says Dweck's ideas have helped him think through a controversy in his field. Echoing an older debate about the malleability of general intelligence, some scholars say emotional intelligence is largely inborn, while others, like Salovey, see it as a set of skills that can be taught and learned. "People say to me all the time, 'I'm not a people person,' or 'I'm not good at managing my emotions,'" unaware that they're expressing a fixed mind-set, Salovey says.

Stanford psychology professor James Gross has begun extending Dweck's work to emotions. In a recent study, Gross and his colleagues followed a group of Stanford undergrads as they made the transition to college life. Those with a fixed mind-set about emotions were less able to manage theirs, and by the end of freshman year, they'd shown poorer social and emotional adjustment than their growth-minded counterparts.

As she approaches the end of her third year at Stanford, Dweck has embraced the challenge of cross-country culture shock in a manner consistent with the growth mind-set. Nearby San Francisco provides her with the benefits of a great city, she says, including a dining scene that rivals New York's; and the University supplies a more cozy sense of community. She's also brought a bit of the New York theater scene with her in the form of her husband, critic and director David Goldman. He founded and directs the National Center for New Plays at Stanford.

At the Association for Psychological Science convention in May, Dweck will give the keynote address. The topic: "Can Personality Be Changed?" Her short answer, of course, is yes. Moreover, holding a growth mind-set bodes well for one's relationships. In a recent study, Dweck found that people who believe personality can change were more likely than others to bring up concerns and deal with problems in a constructive way. Dweck thinks a fixed mind-set fosters a categorical, all-or-nothing view of people's qualities; this view tends to make you ignore festering problems or, at the other extreme, give up on a relationship at the first sign of trouble. (The growth mind-set, though, can be taken too far if someone stays in an abusive relationship hoping her partner will change; as always, the person has to want to change.)

These days, Dweck is applying her model to kids' moral development. Young children may not always have beliefs about ability, but they do have ideas about goodness. Many kids believe they're invariably good or bad; other kids think they can get better at being good. Dweck has already found that preschoolers with this growth mind-set feel okay about themselves after they've messed up and are less judgmental of others; they're also more likely than kids with a fixed view of goodness to try to set things right and to learn from their mistakes. They understand that spilling juice or throwing toys, for example, doesn't damn a kid as bad, so long as the child cleans up and resolves to do better next time. Now Dweck and graduate student Allison Master are running experiments at Bing Nursery School to see if teaching kids the growth mind-set improves their coping skills. They've designed a storybook with the message that preschoolers can go from "bad" one year to better the next. Can hearing such stories help a 4-year-old handle a sandbox setback?

Dweck's students from over the years describe her as a generous, nurturing mentor. She'd surely attribute these traits not to an innate gift, but to a highly developed mind-set. "Just being aware of the growth mind-set, and studying it and writing about it, I feel compelled to live it and to benefit from it," says Dweck, who took up piano as an adult and learned to speak Italian in her 50s. "These are things that adults are not supposed to be good at learning."

Read a January 2010 update on this story.

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ONE DAY LAST NOVEMBER, psychology professor Carol Dweck welcomed a pair of visitors from the Blackburn Rovers, a soccer team in the United Kingdom's Premier League. The Rovers' training academy is ranked in England's top three, yet performance director Tony Faulkner had long suspected that many promising players weren't reaching their potential.

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http://www.edutopia.org/blog/metacognition-gift-that-keeps-giving-donna-wilson-marcus-conyers?utm_content=blog&utm_campaign=metacognition-gift&utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=socialflow&utm_term=link

What is it?
- defined as "thinking about thinking" or in other words, understanding your own thinking and learning processes.
- one's ability to use prior knowledge to play a strategy for approaching a learning task, take necessary steps to problem solving, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one's approach as needed.
- ability to choose the right cognitive tool for the task leading to successful learning.
Why I find it impactful?
- It is important that I as the educator recognizes personal variable of my students, their strengths and weaknesses so that I know how to help them process information and learn better.
How it will impact my practice?
- It will be easy to strategize and set procedures for my students to be ready to accomplish each task. Giving them as much information before they are handed the task. They are able to reflect on the prior information and knowledge they've gained to complete a task successfully.

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Incorporating Metacognition Strategies Into The Classroom

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Dr. Saundra McGuire discusses "Incorporating Metacognition Strategies Into The Classroom". Visit http://www.innovativeeducators.org for more information.

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https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/behavior/learning-slug/a/classical-and-operant-conditioning-article

What is it?
- the idea of behaviorism is that learning consists of a change in behavior due to the acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between stimuli from the environment and observable responses of the individual.
Why do I find it impactful?
- It helps me as a teacher to have some type of way to measure and recognize the changes in behavior of my students.
How will it impact my practice?
- When I understand the different behaviors of my students towards learning, I can provide responses to encourage positive behavior. Consistency is the key; rewarding the right parts of the complex behavior reinforces it.

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Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century. The major concepts and theories of learning include behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology, constructivism, social constructivism, experiential learning, multiple intelligence, and situated learning theory and community of practice.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist perspectives of learning originated in the early 1900s, and became dominant in early 20th century. The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to the acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between stimuli from the environment and observable responses of the individual. Behaviourists are interested in measurable changes in behaviour. Thorndike, one major behaviourist theorist, put forward that (1) a response to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition. This view of learning is akin to the "drill-and-practice" programmes. Skinner, another influential behaviourist, proposed his variant of behaviourism called "operant conditioning". In his view, rewarding the right parts of the more complex behaviour reinforces it, and encourages its recurrence. Therefore, reinforcers control the occurrence of the desired partial behaviours. Learning is understood as the step-by-step or successive approximation of the intended partial behaviours through the use of reward and punishment. The best known application of Skinner's theory is "programmed instruction" whereby the right sequence of the partial behaviours to be learned is specified by elaborated task analysis.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late 1950s, and contributed to the move away from behaviourism. People are no longer viewed as collections of responses to external stimuli, as understood by behaviourists, but information processors. Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental phenomena, ignored by behaviourists, and was influenced by the emergence of the computer as an information-processing device, which became analogous to the human mind. In cognitive psychology, learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in memory. Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its most extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of knowledge by the teacher.
Constructivism
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive recipients of information, but that they actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures. Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but interpreting it. This view of learning led to the shift from the "knowledge-acquisition" to "knowledge-construction" metaphor. The growing evidence in support of the constructive nature of learning was also in line with and backed by the earlier work of influential theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. While there are different versions of constructivism, what is found in common is the learner-centred approach whereby the teacher becomes a cognitive guide of learner's learning and not a knowledge transmitter.
Social learning theory
A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation. His theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward "reciprocal determininsm" that holds the view that a person's behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each others. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from "model" behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.
Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the rise of the perspective of "situated cognition and learning" that emphasized the significant role of context, particularly social interaction. Criticism against the information-processing constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work of Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Rogoff and Lave came to the fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor for learning as "participation" and "social negotiation".
Experiential learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning, but situate experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the manners in which experiences - whether first or second hand - motivate learners and promote their learning. Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences - in everyday life - that lead to a change in an individual's knowledge and behaviours. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting that experiential learning is "self-initiated learning" as people have a natural inclination to learn; and that they learn when they are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put forward the following insight: (1) "learning can only be facilitated: we cannot teach another person directly", (2) "learners become more rigid under threat", (3) "significant learning occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum", (4) "learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is self-initiated" (Office of Learning and Teaching, 2005, p. 9). He supports a dynamic, continuous process of change where new learning results in and affects learning environments. This dynamic process of change is often considered in literatures on organizational learning.

Multiple intelligences
Challenging the assumption in many of the learning theories that learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his theory of 'multiple intelligences' in 1983. His theory also challenges the understanding of intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues that every person's level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct "intelligences". These intelligences include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal. Although his work is speculative, his theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening their conceptual framework beyond the traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and testing. The recognition of multiple intelligences, for Gardner, is a means to achieving educational goals rather than an educational goal in and of itself.

Situated learning theory and community of practice
"Situated learning theory" and "community of practice" draw many of the ideas of the learning theories considered above. They are developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning theory recognizes that there is no learning which is not situated, and emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. According to the theory, it is within communities that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking place within a community of practice - e.g. cooperation, problem solving, building trust, understanding and relations - have the potential to foster community social capital that enhances the community members' wellbeing. Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most effective when it takes place in communities. He argues that academic and social outcomes will improve only when classrooms become learning communities, and teaching becomes learner-centered. Communities of practice are of course not confined to schools but cover other settings such as workplace and organizations.
21st century learning or skills
Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has emerged from the concern about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st century, which is characterized as knowledge- and technologically driven. The current discussion about 21st century skills leads classrooms and other learning environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as new media literacies, critical and systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills. For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the following as key: core subjects (e.g. English, math, geography, history, civics) and 21st century themes (global awareness, civic literacy, health literacy, environmental literacy, financial, business and entrepreneurial literacy); learning and innovation skills (creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration); information, media and technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media literacy); and life and career skills (flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility). One main learning method that supports the learning of such skills and knowledge is group learning or thematic projects, which involves an inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses real-world issues and questions.

Source: The Office of Learning and Teaching, 2004. Melbourne: Department of Education and Training; OECD, 2010. Nature of Learning, Paris: Author; http://www.p21.org/

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Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century.

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7. Cognitivism (Information Processing): Learning is about memory and retrieval

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7. Cognitivism (Information Processing): Learning is about memory and retrieval

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https://sites.duke.edu/fasd/chapter-5-the-fasd-student-and-learning-issues/effective-strategies-for-information-processing-and-memory-difficulties/

What is it?
- learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stock it in memory.
Why do I find it impactful?
- I don't think this is the best way to help students maintain information, but there are people/students who learn better this way. It helps students to understand how memory works and they can evaluate themselves as to what best way for them to learn.
How will it impact my practice?
- There are students who learns to make sense of information after they memorize and reflect on them later. Their sensory memory have a very large capacity to process information, then their working memory is activated leading to an unlimited storage capacity in their long term memory. This is where information becomes permanent, which is a huge advantage for students when it comes to testing and other assessments.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century. The major concepts and theories of learning include behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology, constructivism, social constructivism, experiential learning, multiple intelligence, and situated learning theory and community of practice.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist perspectives of learning originated in the early 1900s, and became dominant in early 20th century. The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to the acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between stimuli from the environment and observable responses of the individual. Behaviourists are interested in measurable changes in behaviour. Thorndike, one major behaviourist theorist, put forward that (1) a response to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition. This view of learning is akin to the "drill-and-practice" programmes. Skinner, another influential behaviourist, proposed his variant of behaviourism called "operant conditioning". In his view, rewarding the right parts of the more complex behaviour reinforces it, and encourages its recurrence. Therefore, reinforcers control the occurrence of the desired partial behaviours. Learning is understood as the step-by-step or successive approximation of the intended partial behaviours through the use of reward and punishment. The best known application of Skinner's theory is "programmed instruction" whereby the right sequence of the partial behaviours to be learned is specified by elaborated task analysis.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late 1950s, and contributed to the move away from behaviourism. People are no longer viewed as collections of responses to external stimuli, as understood by behaviourists, but information processors. Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental phenomena, ignored by behaviourists, and was influenced by the emergence of the computer as an information-processing device, which became analogous to the human mind. In cognitive psychology, learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in memory. Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its most extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of knowledge by the teacher.
Constructivism
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive recipients of information, but that they actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures. Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but interpreting it. This view of learning led to the shift from the "knowledge-acquisition" to "knowledge-construction" metaphor. The growing evidence in support of the constructive nature of learning was also in line with and backed by the earlier work of influential theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. While there are different versions of constructivism, what is found in common is the learner-centred approach whereby the teacher becomes a cognitive guide of learner's learning and not a knowledge transmitter.
Social learning theory
A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation. His theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward "reciprocal determininsm" that holds the view that a person's behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each others. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from "model" behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.
Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the rise of the perspective of "situated cognition and learning" that emphasized the significant role of context, particularly social interaction. Criticism against the information-processing constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work of Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Rogoff and Lave came to the fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor for learning as "participation" and "social negotiation".
Experiential learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning, but situate experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the manners in which experiences - whether first or second hand - motivate learners and promote their learning. Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences - in everyday life - that lead to a change in an individual's knowledge and behaviours. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting that experiential learning is "self-initiated learning" as people have a natural inclination to learn; and that they learn when they are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put forward the following insight: (1) "learning can only be facilitated: we cannot teach another person directly", (2) "learners become more rigid under threat", (3) "significant learning occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum", (4) "learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is self-initiated" (Office of Learning and Teaching, 2005, p. 9). He supports a dynamic, continuous process of change where new learning results in and affects learning environments. This dynamic process of change is often considered in literatures on organizational learning.

Multiple intelligences
Challenging the assumption in many of the learning theories that learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his theory of 'multiple intelligences' in 1983. His theory also challenges the understanding of intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues that every person's level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct "intelligences". These intelligences include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal. Although his work is speculative, his theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening their conceptual framework beyond the traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and testing. The recognition of multiple intelligences, for Gardner, is a means to achieving educational goals rather than an educational goal in and of itself.

Situated learning theory and community of practice
"Situated learning theory" and "community of practice" draw many of the ideas of the learning theories considered above. They are developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning theory recognizes that there is no learning which is not situated, and emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. According to the theory, it is within communities that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking place within a community of practice - e.g. cooperation, problem solving, building trust, understanding and relations - have the potential to foster community social capital that enhances the community members' wellbeing. Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most effective when it takes place in communities. He argues that academic and social outcomes will improve only when classrooms become learning communities, and teaching becomes learner-centered. Communities of practice are of course not confined to schools but cover other settings such as workplace and organizations.
21st century learning or skills
Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has emerged from the concern about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st century, which is characterized as knowledge- and technologically driven. The current discussion about 21st century skills leads classrooms and other learning environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as new media literacies, critical and systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills. For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the following as key: core subjects (e.g. English, math, geography, history, civics) and 21st century themes (global awareness, civic literacy, health literacy, environmental literacy, financial, business and entrepreneurial literacy); learning and innovation skills (creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration); information, media and technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media literacy); and life and career skills (flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility). One main learning method that supports the learning of such skills and knowledge is group learning or thematic projects, which involves an inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses real-world issues and questions.

Source: The Office of Learning and Teaching, 2004. Melbourne: Department of Education and Training; OECD, 2010. Nature of Learning, Paris: Author; http://www.p21.org/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century.

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8. Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitivism

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8. Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitivism

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What is it?
- Learning is about observing others. People learn within a social context and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation.
Why do I find it impactful?
- It is important to me that I model my expectations of my students, especially when it comes to what I value in disciplining my students in not only to become educated but also as respectful human beings.
How will it impact my practice?
- It motivates my students to be positive and recognize the rewards of believing in themselves when they see that I model the same belief. When this happens, teaching and classroom management will become less difficult. They will know that my intentions are to help and motivate them to become the best that they can.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century. The major concepts and theories of learning include behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology, constructivism, social constructivism, experiential learning, multiple intelligence, and situated learning theory and community of practice.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist perspectives of learning originated in the early 1900s, and became dominant in early 20th century. The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to the acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between stimuli from the environment and observable responses of the individual. Behaviourists are interested in measurable changes in behaviour. Thorndike, one major behaviourist theorist, put forward that (1) a response to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition. This view of learning is akin to the "drill-and-practice" programmes. Skinner, another influential behaviourist, proposed his variant of behaviourism called "operant conditioning". In his view, rewarding the right parts of the more complex behaviour reinforces it, and encourages its recurrence. Therefore, reinforcers control the occurrence of the desired partial behaviours. Learning is understood as the step-by-step or successive approximation of the intended partial behaviours through the use of reward and punishment. The best known application of Skinner's theory is "programmed instruction" whereby the right sequence of the partial behaviours to be learned is specified by elaborated task analysis.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late 1950s, and contributed to the move away from behaviourism. People are no longer viewed as collections of responses to external stimuli, as understood by behaviourists, but information processors. Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental phenomena, ignored by behaviourists, and was influenced by the emergence of the computer as an information-processing device, which became analogous to the human mind. In cognitive psychology, learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in memory. Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its most extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of knowledge by the teacher.
Constructivism
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive recipients of information, but that they actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures. Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but interpreting it. This view of learning led to the shift from the "knowledge-acquisition" to "knowledge-construction" metaphor. The growing evidence in support of the constructive nature of learning was also in line with and backed by the earlier work of influential theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. While there are different versions of constructivism, what is found in common is the learner-centred approach whereby the teacher becomes a cognitive guide of learner's learning and not a knowledge transmitter.
Social learning theory
A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation. His theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward "reciprocal determininsm" that holds the view that a person's behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each others. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from "model" behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.
Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the rise of the perspective of "situated cognition and learning" that emphasized the significant role of context, particularly social interaction. Criticism against the information-processing constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work of Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Rogoff and Lave came to the fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor for learning as "participation" and "social negotiation".
Experiential learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning, but situate experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the manners in which experiences - whether first or second hand - motivate learners and promote their learning. Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences - in everyday life - that lead to a change in an individual's knowledge and behaviours. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting that experiential learning is "self-initiated learning" as people have a natural inclination to learn; and that they learn when they are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put forward the following insight: (1) "learning can only be facilitated: we cannot teach another person directly", (2) "learners become more rigid under threat", (3) "significant learning occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum", (4) "learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is self-initiated" (Office of Learning and Teaching, 2005, p. 9). He supports a dynamic, continuous process of change where new learning results in and affects learning environments. This dynamic process of change is often considered in literatures on organizational learning.

Multiple intelligences
Challenging the assumption in many of the learning theories that learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his theory of 'multiple intelligences' in 1983. His theory also challenges the understanding of intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues that every person's level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct "intelligences". These intelligences include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal. Although his work is speculative, his theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening their conceptual framework beyond the traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and testing. The recognition of multiple intelligences, for Gardner, is a means to achieving educational goals rather than an educational goal in and of itself.

Situated learning theory and community of practice
"Situated learning theory" and "community of practice" draw many of the ideas of the learning theories considered above. They are developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning theory recognizes that there is no learning which is not situated, and emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. According to the theory, it is within communities that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking place within a community of practice - e.g. cooperation, problem solving, building trust, understanding and relations - have the potential to foster community social capital that enhances the community members' wellbeing. Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most effective when it takes place in communities. He argues that academic and social outcomes will improve only when classrooms become learning communities, and teaching becomes learner-centered. Communities of practice are of course not confined to schools but cover other settings such as workplace and organizations.
21st century learning or skills
Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has emerged from the concern about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st century, which is characterized as knowledge- and technologically driven. The current discussion about 21st century skills leads classrooms and other learning environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as new media literacies, critical and systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills. For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the following as key: core subjects (e.g. English, math, geography, history, civics) and 21st century themes (global awareness, civic literacy, health literacy, environmental literacy, financial, business and entrepreneurial literacy); learning and innovation skills (creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration); information, media and technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media literacy); and life and career skills (flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility). One main learning method that supports the learning of such skills and knowledge is group learning or thematic projects, which involves an inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses real-world issues and questions.

Source: The Office of Learning and Teaching, 2004. Melbourne: Department of Education and Training; OECD, 2010. Nature of Learning, Paris: Author; http://www.p21.org/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century.

# data[].attributes.body
http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/Constructivism_and_Social_Constructivism_in_the_Classroom#:~:text=The%20main%20activity%20in%20a,continues%2C%20they%20revisit%20those%20conclusions

What is it?
- Learning is about gaining real-world experiences. Students actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures.
Why do I find this impactful?
- I believe that students are very capable young people. As long as I help facilitate and provide experiences, they become exposed to all sorts of feelings and knowledge they will ask the questions themselves.
How will this impact my practice?
- Creating environments and experiences that trigger questions and learning will be part of my practice. Significant learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is self-initiated. Learning is about meaningful experiences-in everyday life-that lead to a change in individuals knowledge and behavior.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century. The major concepts and theories of learning include behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology, constructivism, social constructivism, experiential learning, multiple intelligence, and situated learning theory and community of practice.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist perspectives of learning originated in the early 1900s, and became dominant in early 20th century. The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to the acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between stimuli from the environment and observable responses of the individual. Behaviourists are interested in measurable changes in behaviour. Thorndike, one major behaviourist theorist, put forward that (1) a response to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition. This view of learning is akin to the "drill-and-practice" programmes. Skinner, another influential behaviourist, proposed his variant of behaviourism called "operant conditioning". In his view, rewarding the right parts of the more complex behaviour reinforces it, and encourages its recurrence. Therefore, reinforcers control the occurrence of the desired partial behaviours. Learning is understood as the step-by-step or successive approximation of the intended partial behaviours through the use of reward and punishment. The best known application of Skinner's theory is "programmed instruction" whereby the right sequence of the partial behaviours to be learned is specified by elaborated task analysis.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late 1950s, and contributed to the move away from behaviourism. People are no longer viewed as collections of responses to external stimuli, as understood by behaviourists, but information processors. Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental phenomena, ignored by behaviourists, and was influenced by the emergence of the computer as an information-processing device, which became analogous to the human mind. In cognitive psychology, learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in memory. Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its most extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of knowledge by the teacher.
Constructivism
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive recipients of information, but that they actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures. Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but interpreting it. This view of learning led to the shift from the "knowledge-acquisition" to "knowledge-construction" metaphor. The growing evidence in support of the constructive nature of learning was also in line with and backed by the earlier work of influential theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. While there are different versions of constructivism, what is found in common is the learner-centred approach whereby the teacher becomes a cognitive guide of learner's learning and not a knowledge transmitter.
Social learning theory
A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation. His theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward "reciprocal determininsm" that holds the view that a person's behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each others. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from "model" behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.
Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the rise of the perspective of "situated cognition and learning" that emphasized the significant role of context, particularly social interaction. Criticism against the information-processing constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work of Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Rogoff and Lave came to the fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor for learning as "participation" and "social negotiation".
Experiential learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning, but situate experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the manners in which experiences - whether first or second hand - motivate learners and promote their learning. Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences - in everyday life - that lead to a change in an individual's knowledge and behaviours. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting that experiential learning is "self-initiated learning" as people have a natural inclination to learn; and that they learn when they are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put forward the following insight: (1) "learning can only be facilitated: we cannot teach another person directly", (2) "learners become more rigid under threat", (3) "significant learning occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum", (4) "learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is self-initiated" (Office of Learning and Teaching, 2005, p. 9). He supports a dynamic, continuous process of change where new learning results in and affects learning environments. This dynamic process of change is often considered in literatures on organizational learning.

Multiple intelligences
Challenging the assumption in many of the learning theories that learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his theory of 'multiple intelligences' in 1983. His theory also challenges the understanding of intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues that every person's level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct "intelligences". These intelligences include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal. Although his work is speculative, his theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening their conceptual framework beyond the traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and testing. The recognition of multiple intelligences, for Gardner, is a means to achieving educational goals rather than an educational goal in and of itself.

Situated learning theory and community of practice
"Situated learning theory" and "community of practice" draw many of the ideas of the learning theories considered above. They are developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning theory recognizes that there is no learning which is not situated, and emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. According to the theory, it is within communities that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking place within a community of practice - e.g. cooperation, problem solving, building trust, understanding and relations - have the potential to foster community social capital that enhances the community members' wellbeing. Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most effective when it takes place in communities. He argues that academic and social outcomes will improve only when classrooms become learning communities, and teaching becomes learner-centered. Communities of practice are of course not confined to schools but cover other settings such as workplace and organizations.
21st century learning or skills
Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has emerged from the concern about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st century, which is characterized as knowledge- and technologically driven. The current discussion about 21st century skills leads classrooms and other learning environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as new media literacies, critical and systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills. For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the following as key: core subjects (e.g. English, math, geography, history, civics) and 21st century themes (global awareness, civic literacy, health literacy, environmental literacy, financial, business and entrepreneurial literacy); learning and innovation skills (creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration); information, media and technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media literacy); and life and career skills (flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility). One main learning method that supports the learning of such skills and knowledge is group learning or thematic projects, which involves an inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses real-world issues and questions.

Source: The Office of Learning and Teaching, 2004. Melbourne: Department of Education and Training; OECD, 2010. Nature of Learning, Paris: Author; http://www.p21.org/

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Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century.

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What is it?
- Learning is about making connections across networks.
- theoretical framework for understanding learning in a digital age.
Why I find it impactful?
- Technology has evolved and it is the base of learning at this age and time. Utilizing technology as a resource for students to use will be very impactful to their learning.
How will it impact my practice?
- Networking and forming connections go hand in hand with what we've learned from our own experiences. Technology will be impactful to my students learning but also mine as the educator. We may not be able to experience everything, but we can learn from the experiences of others. Many of these experiences and knowledge are found on computer networks, power grids and social networks.

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What is it?
- information given to the learner(or teacher) about the learner's performance relative to learning goals or outcomes. It should aim towards improvement in students' learning.
Why do I find it impactful?
- Feedback is part facilitating learners; guiding their learning towards the right direction. Specific feedback impacts students to know exactly what needs attention in their learning and work to improve or make better.
How will it impact my practice?
- Students will understand specific goals to set according to the feedbacks they are given. Feedback will help them engage and be motivated to put in the hard work required to implement feedback. Once students understand the importance of improving in a specific area, the motivation to improve will follow naturally.

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So what can we do to help students become proactive recipients? Here are a few tips.

1. Understand the Barriers to Strong Engagement With Feedback

One reason feedback is often difficult to engage with, says Winstone, is the emotional reaction to it. "In many cases, feedback can seem like a threat to our self-esteem, and we often protect ourselves by limiting our engagement with the comments."

In some of her previous research, Winstone and Dr. Rob Nash uncovered four main barriers to strong engagement with feedback:

Awareness of what feedback means and what it's for: Learners may have a limited understanding of the purpose of feedback or the language used.

Knowledge of strategies by which the feedback could be implemented: We equip learners with many useful skills, but how often do we explicitly teach them how to use feedback?

Agency to implement strategies: Feedback may not always feel achievable or worthwhile. For example, learners may feel that feedback on one piece of work has little relevance to another piece of work.

Willingness to scrutinize feedback and implement strategies: Using feedback is hard. It requires a lot of effort to improve skills and techniques.

Once you understand these barriers, you'll be able to structure your feedback so that it's not only clear to the learner what needs to improve, but also what specific steps they should be taking and how this will benefit them in the future.

2. Help Students Develop the Skills to Use Feedback Well

Winstone says students often need support in developing the skills to engage with and implement feedback. She and Nash have identified four important skills, which they call "SAGE recipience skills."

Self-appraisal: Students need to be able to appraise their own skills, strengths, and weaknesses.

Assessment literacy: Students need an understanding of standards and criteria so they know what a good piece of work looks like.

Goal setting: Students need the ability to set goals for themselves and monitor their progress toward achieving these goals.

Engagement and motivation: Students need the engagement and motivation to put in the hard work required to implement feedback.

Once students understand the importance of improving in a specific area, the motivation to improve will follow naturally, so start by providing clear examples of high-quality work and then give students a chance to reflect on their own work to see if there are areas that need improvement.

3. Provide Students Opportunities to Implement Feedback

In addition to helping students develop the skills to engage with feedback, it's important to provide them with opportunities to use it.

Winstone says many teachers in the U.K. use Dedicated Improvement and Reflection Time, which entails using classroom time to help learners put the feedback they receive into practice. During this time, students might redraft a section of their work using the comments they received or practice a particular skill they need to improve. Allocating classroom time to implementing feedback helps students recognize the importance of acting on feedback rather than just passively reading it.

4. Help Students See That Improvement Is Achievable

Although Winstone's work focuses heavily on how feedback is used and implemented, she notes that there is still a place for well-crafted and encouraging feedback.

"When writing feedback, teachers can transmit subtle messages which may influence a learner's engagement," she says. "It's important that learners receive the implicit or explicit message that improvement is achievable." For example, instead of saying, "You're repeatedly making the same errors. Reread chapter X in your textbook," you could make the same feedback more encouraging by saying something like, "There are still some errors here, but I can tell you're making progress in your understanding of this topic. Focus on X and you'll soon be all the way there."

Most importantly, though, remember that even the most specific and well-timed feedback cannot be effective if students don't use it. So providing students with feedback is only the first step. We also need to motivate them to take ownership of their learning by equipping them with the skills necessary to engage with and implement that feedback.

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So what can we do to help students become proactive recipients? Here are a few tips. One reason feedback is often difficult to engage with, says Winstone, is the emotional reaction to it. "In many cases, feedback can seem like a threat to our self-esteem, and we often protect ourselves by limiting our engagement with the comments."

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What is it?
- Assessment help us understand how well our students are learning what teachers teach them.
- Assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use to evaluate, measure and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition or educational needs of students.
Why do I find this impactful?
- There is no use of teaching and giving students tasks to perform, setting goals and expectations when there is no way to know if learning is not happening. Assessments help both educator and students know that their efforts are put to good use and if there are results.
How will this impact my practice?
- Knowing the right type of assessment to evaluate each task will produce the proper measurement and result. Assessments will also help me determine if lessons are to continue or students need more time to understand specific concepts, theories, process etc.

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Assessment is an integral part of instruction, as it determines whether or not the goals of education are being met. Assessment affects decisions about grades, placement, advancement, instructional needs, curriculum, and, in some cases, funding. Assessment inspire us to ask these hard questions: "Are we teaching what we think we are teaching?" "Are students learning what they are supposed to be learning?" "Is there a way to teach the subject better, thereby promoting better learning?"

Today's students need to know not only the basic reading and arithmetic skills, but also skills that will allow them to face a world that is continually changing. They must be able to think critically, to analyze, and to make inferences. Changes in the skills base and knowledge our students need require new learning goals; these new learning goals change the relationship between assessment and instruction. Teachers need to take an active role in making decisions about the purpose of assessment and the content that is being assessed.

Grant Wiggins, a nationally recognized assessment expert, shared his thoughts on performance assessments, standardized tests, and more in an Edutopia.org interview. Read his answers to the following questions from the interview and reflect on his ideas:

Do you agree with his statements? Why or why not? Discuss your opinions with your peers.

When assessment works best, it does the following:

Provides diagnostic feedback

What is the student's knowledge base?

What is the student's performance base?

What are the student's needs?

What has to be taught?

Helps educators set standards

What performance demonstrates understanding?

What performance demonstrates knowledge?

What performance demonstrates mastery?

Evaluates progress

How is the student doing?

What teaching methods or approaches are most effective?

What changes or modifications to a lesson are needed to help the student?

Relates to a student's progress

What has the student learned?

Can the student talk about the new knowledge?

Can the student demonstrate and use the new skills in other projects?

Motivates performance
For student self-evaluation:

Now that I'm in charge of my learning, how am I doing?

Now that I know how I'm doing, how can I do better?

What else would I like to learn?

For teacher self-evaluation:

What is working for the students?

What can I do to help the students more?

In what direction should we go next?

Continue to the next section of the guide, Types of Assessment.

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Assessment is an integral part of instruction, as it determines whether or not the goals of education are being met. Assessment affects decisions about grades, placement, advancement, instructional needs, curriculum, and, in some cases, funding. Assessment inspire us to ask these hard questions: "Are we teaching what we think we are teaching?"

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What is it?
- a scoring guide used to evaluate performance, a product or a project. It defines what is expected and what will be assessed. It indicates that individuals will be evaluated according to specific criteria; this makes grading and ranking simpler, transparent and fair.
Why do I find it impactful?
- This takes serious consideration as to what exactly is expected from students in an assignment, project etc. I find this impactful as students will learn to follow direct instructions, reach expectations as they are set on purpose for their learning and produce the results expected.
How will it impact my practice?
- Clear rubrics help students understand my expectations on tasks. This impacts my practice as rubrics allow no grey areas for questioning or complaints about unfairness. Results will clearly depict students understanding and work ethics as they will all follow the same rubric.

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Whether you're new to rubrics, or you just don't know their formal names, it may be time for a primer on rubric terminology.
So let's talk about rubrics for a few minutes. What we're going to do here is describe two frequently used kinds of rubrics, holistic and analytic, plus a less common one called the single-point rubric (my favorite, for the record). For each one, we'll look at an example and explore its pros and cons.

Off we go!

A holistic rubric is the most general kind. It lists three to five levels of performance, along with a broad description of the characteristics that define each level. The levels can be labeled with numbers (such as 1 through 4), letters (such as A through F) or words (such as Beginning through Exemplary). What each level is called isn't what makes the rubric holistic - it's the way the characteristics are all lumped together.

Suppose you're an unusually demanding person. You want your loved ones to know what you expect if they should ever make you breakfast in bed. So you give them this holistic rubric:

When your breakfast is done, you simply gather your loved ones and say, "I'm sorry my darlings, but that breakfast was just a 2. Try harder next time."

The main advantage of a holistic rubric is that it's easy on the teacher - in the short run, anyway. Creating a holistic rubric takes less time than the others, and grading with one is faster, too. You just look over an assignment and give one holistic score to the whole thing.

The main disadvantage of a holistic rubric is that it doesn't provide targeted feedback to students, which means they're unlikely to learn much from the assignment. Although many holistic rubrics list specific characteristics for each level, the teacher gives only one score, without breaking it down into separate qualities. This often leads the student to approach the teacher and ask, "Why did you give me a 2?" If the teacher is the explaining kind, he will spend a few minutes breaking down the score. If not, he'll say something like, "Read the rubric." Then the student has to guess which factors had the biggest influence on her score. For a student who really tries hard, it can be heartbreaking to have no idea what she's doing wrong.

Holistic rubrics are most useful in cases when there's no time (or need, though that's hard to imagine) for specific feedback. You see them in standardized testing - the essay portion of the SAT is scored with a 0-6 holistic rubric. When hundreds of thousands of essays have to be graded quickly, and by total strangers who have no time to provide feedback, a holistic rubric comes in handy.

An analytic rubric breaks down the characteristics of an assignment into parts, allowing the scorer to itemize and define exactly what aspects are strong, and which ones need improvement.

So for the breakfast in bed example, an analytic rubric would look like this:

In this case, you'd give your loved ones a separate score for each category. They might get a 3 on Presentation, but a 2 on Food and just a 1 on Comfort. To make feedback even more targeted, you could also highlight specific phrases in the rubric, like, "the recipient is crowded during the meal" to indicate exactly what went wrong.

This is where we see the main advantage of the analytic rubric: It gives students a clearer picture of why they got the score they got. It is also good for the teacher, because it gives her the ability to justify a score on paper, without having to explain everything in a later conversation.

Analytic rubrics have two significant disadvantages, however: (1) Creating them takes a lot of time. Writing up descriptors of satisfactory work - completing the "3" column in this rubric, for example - is enough of a challenge on its own. But to have to define all the ways the work could go wrong, and all the ways it could exceed expectations, is a big, big task. And once all that work is done, (2) students won't necessarily read the whole thing. Facing a 36-cell table crammed with 8-point font is enough to send most students straight into a nap. And that means they won't clearly understand what's expected of them.

Still, analytic rubrics are useful when you want to cover all your bases, and you're willing to put in the time to really get clear on exactly what every level of performance looks like.

A single-point rubric is a lot like an analytic rubric, because it breaks down the components of an assignment into different criteria. What makes it different is that it only describes the criteria for proficiency; it does not attempt to list all the ways a student could fall short, nor does it specify how a student could exceed expectations.

A single-point rubric for breakfast in bed would look like this:

Notice that the language in the "Criteria" column is exactly the same as the "3" column in the analytic rubric. When your loved ones receive this rubric, it will include your written comments on one or both sides of each category, telling them exactly how they fell short ("runny eggs," for example) and how they excelled ("vase of flowers"). Just like with the analytic rubric, if a target was simply met, you can just highlight the appropriate phrase in the center column.

If you've never used a single-point rubric, it's worth a try. In 2010, Jarene Fluckiger studied a collection of teacher action research studies on the use of single-point rubrics. She found that student achievement increased with the use of these rubrics, especially when students helped create them and used them to self-assess their work.

The single-point rubric has several advantages: (1) It contains far less language than the analytic rubric, which means students are more likely to read it and it will take less time to create, while still providing rich detail about what's expected. (2) Areas of concern and excellence are open-ended. When using full analytic rubrics, I often find that students do things that are not described on the rubric, but still depart from expectations. Because I can't find the right language to highlight, I find myself hand-writing justifications for a score in whatever space I can find. This is frustrating, time-consuming and messy. With a single-point rubric, there's no attempt to predict all the ways a student might go wrong. Similarly, the undefined "Advanced" column places no limits on how students might stretch themselves. "If the highest level is already prescribed then creativity may be limited to that pre-determined level," says Fluckiger. "Students may surprise us if we leave quality open-ended."

The main disadvantage of single-point rubrics is that using them requires more writing on the teacher's part. If a student has fallen short in many areas, completing that left-hand column will take more time than simply highlighting a pre-written analytic rubric.

Need Ready-Made Rubrics?

My Rubric Pack gives you four different designs in Microsoft Word and Google Docs formats. It also comes with video tutorials to show you how to customize them for any need, plus a Teacher's Manual to help you understand the pros and cons of each style. Check it out here:

Sources:

Fluckiger, J. (2010). Single point rubric: A tool for responsible student self-assessment. Teacher Education Faculty Publications. Paper 5. Retrieved April 25, 2014 from http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/tedfacpub/5.

Mertler, C. A. (2001). Designing scoring rubrics for your classroom. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(25). Retrieved April 30, 2014 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=25.
Know Your Terms is my effort to build a user-friendly knowledge base of terms every educator should know. New items will be added on an ongoing basis. If you heard some term at a PD and didn't want to admit you didn't know what it meant, send it to me via the contact form and I'll research it for you.

Keep in touch.
Join the Cult of Pedagogy mailing list and get weekly tips, tools, and inspiration-in quick, bite-sized packages-all geared toward making your teaching more effective and fun. You'll get access to my members-only library of free downloadable resources, including my e-booklet, 20 Ways to Cut Your Grading Time in Half, which has helped thousands of teachers spend less time grading!

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Know Your Terms: Holistic, Analytic, and Single-Point Rubrics

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Whether you're new to rubrics, or you've used them for years without knowing their formal names, it may be time for a primer on rubric terminology.

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14. Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development

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14. Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development

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What is it?
- Piaget's theory centers on the idea that children are active and motivated learners. He advocated 'cognitive constructivism' which means that students create their own meaning through interaction with the environment. Social interaction with peers of a similar development level is important because it helps children figure things out.
Why do I find it impactful?
- I agree with Piaget's theory; children are active and motivated learners. If I help them organize their knowledge in their heads, they will adapt well and quickly.
How will it impact my practice?
- Understanding Piaget's stages will help me take the correct steps and plan well for the appropriate age group to assimilate and accommodate new information into their schema. From making gut decisions and not understanding other people's perspective to being able to reason about things they become familiar with to reasoning with concepts they have no experience with. This is how they learn to accommodate through deductive logic and abstract thinking.

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Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

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What is it?
- views human development as a socially mediated process in which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
Why do I find it impactful?
- Vygotsky's theory is impactful in recognizing all areas that contribute to developing each student. Their upbringing and social interactions contribute to what they value and their priorities in learning. This is impactful in knowing myself as well as the educator and what I value so I can be a positive model to my students.
How will it impact my practice?
- 'UBUNTU' which means 'I am because we are' in the Xhosa culture is a great example of how students develop their values, cultures and beliefs. As mentioned, this applies to myself as an educator; what do I value and what do I expect from my students? To understand the diversity of personalities in my classroom and being aware of all the areas that contribute to building these personalities, lesson plans, assessments, rubrics and tasks are planned accordingly so that learning becomes encouraging and fun.

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What is it?
- Neurobiologically, students can't learn if they don't feel safe, known and cared for within their schools. Unexpected responses from students due to childhood trauma. Triggers that may cause students to behave in ways that may interfere with teaching and learning.
Why do I find it impactful?
- It is important that an educator is mindful and considerate of students when behaving in ways that interrupts teaching and learning. It can be frustrating, but teachers must explore all reasons and backgrounds of such behavior before reacting. This might not be the best solution to the problem.
How will it impact my practice?
- As an educator, it's important to read and recognize behavior that may be caused by trauma. It is also important to know and perform strategies that will help calm students down or know events, actions, scenes etc that may be triggers to avoid. Make a list and study them so it becomes a natural reaction when a student is triggered. Again, it is difficult for a student to learn if he/she does not feel safe within the school or classroom.

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Vol. 77

No. 2

Abstract

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

4. Promote Predictability and Consistency

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

7. Create Islands of Competence

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Small changes in classroom interactions can make a big difference for traumatized students.

Credit: Shannon Fagan

Abstract

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

4. Promote Predictability and Consistency

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

7. Create Islands of Competence

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Up to two-thirds of U.S. children have experienced at least one type of serious childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, natural disaster, or experiencing or witnessing violence. Trauma is possibly the largest public health issue facing our children today (CDC, 2019). Traumatized students are especially prone to difficulty in self-regulation, negative thinking, being on high alert, difficulty trusting adults, and inappropriate social interactions (Lacoe, 2013; Terrasi & de Galarce, 2017). They often haven't learned to express emotions healthily and instead show their distress through aggression, avoidance, shutting down, or other off-putting behaviors. These actions can feel antagonistic to teachers who don't understand the root cause of the student's behavior, which can lead to misunderstandings, ineffective interventions, and missed learning time.

Neurobiologically, students can't learn if they don't feel safe, known, and cared for within their schools (Aupperle et al., 2012). When teachers are proactive and responsive to the needs of students suffering from traumatic stress and make small changes in the classroom that foster a feeling of safety, it makes a huge difference in their ability to learn. Here are some examples.

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

First, teachers must learn to put students' reactions into context-and not to take them personally. Students with trauma histories can react and behave in seemingly unexpected ways, such as having a sudden outburst during a favorite activity or crying out of the blue one second after laughing. Teachers may be taken by surprise. They say things like, "But he was fine this morning, I didn't see that coming!" or "She normally loves playing the drums in music class. I have no idea where her reaction came from." This uncertainty leaves the teacher in a constant state of hyper-alertness when interacting with the student. This in turn can result in fatigue, as the teacher is guarded and unable to predict what will happen from one moment to another.

One way to understand these reactions is to think of the student as a soda can, and events that may trigger their trauma stress as shaking that can. We can't tell by looking if the can was recently shaken, but if it was, opening the can results in an unexpected explosive, messy reaction. If a student is triggered and experiencing heightened emotion, even a benign direction such as, "Please move over to make room for Jenny" could result in an "explosion" that the teacher never saw coming. By using trauma-sensitive strategies in the classroom, we can help reduce the times our students are "shaken."

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

Traumatized students often behave in ways that may interfere with teaching and learning, which can be frustrating. Teachers are in a position of power, and these students may be overly defensive, anticipating adult criticism, or defiant, as a way to assert control (Jennings, 2018). Yet for traumatized students, the ability to learn and behave appropriately can be person-dependent. When they are with a safe and supportive adult, their behavior reflects that.

Consider this scenario drawn from schools I've worked with: Trevor, a 6th grader whose father overdosed on heroin two years ago and who has witnessed ongoing domestic abuse throughout his childhood, was in Ms. Carlton's class for part of the day and Ms. Finch's class for the other part. Ms. Carlton had a reputation of working well with hard-to-reach kids, and sure enough, Trevor behaved in a stellar way in her class. When he was with Ms. Finch, however, he was sent to the office nearly three times a week for explosive behavior.

The teacher is 50 percent of every interaction with a student: By changing the way we give a direction or respond, we can reduce problematic behavior. Ms. Carlton had taken the time to build a trusting relationship with Trevor and learned to give directions in a way that he would respond well to. Interaction strategies are a type of accommodation that typically go unnamed and unwritten, but they were the reason that Trevor could feel safe and access the curriculum (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012).

If Ms. Carlton had written down the successful strategies she used with Trevor, the list might have started with avoiding authoritative directives such as, "Pick that up." To give Trevor a sense of control, Ms. Carlton always embedded choice in her directions, asking, "Do you want to be in the front of the line or the back of the line?" instead of simply telling him to "line up." This helped prevent a poor reaction (Minahan, 2019).

Ms. Carlton also conveyed respect and transparency by providing the reason behind each direction. Instead of saying, "No backpacks on the floor. I don't want to trip and fall!" Ms. Carlton would say, "Oh dear, I hope I don't fall. I have a bad knee! Could you please move your backpack?" Stating the reason first assured that Trevor knew the context (and necessity) of the demand.

Conversely, Ms. Finch would often go up close to Trevor, tower over him, and say in front of his peers, "Stop tapping your pencil!" This typically ended in a power struggle and Trevor's escalating behavior. Trevor, like many traumatized students, had experienced a loss of control in his life, and power struggles with an authoritative figure were particularly triggering. Ms. Carlton instinctively knew that a more private nonverbal direction could be less confrontational for a student in "fight or flight" mode. She would write, "Please stop tapping" on a piece of paper, put it gently on Trevor's desk without his peers noticing, and then give him space by walking away quickly. When possible, she also gave Trevor extended time to comply with directions to avoid power struggles, asking, for example, "Can you please pick that up before lunch?" rather than, "Pick that up now" (Minahan, 2019). This allowed Trevor time to decompress and respond rationally.

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

At one point in the year, Ms. Carlton told Ms. Finch that building a relationship with Trevor was key to her success with him, and she suggested that Ms. Finch do the same. Unfortunately, saying, "Build a relationship" is too vague and leaves too much up to the teacher's instincts. Instead, Ms. Carlton could have told Ms. Finch that she greeted Trevor every day at the classroom door and asked him about the Avengers or basketball. She could have told Ms. Finch how she used the "two by ten" rule; she talked to him for two minutes a day for 10 days in a row about topics unrelated to academics or behavior. Whenever Ms. Carlton could see she wouldn't have time for this in the 10-day period, she asked the counselor or special education teacher to cover her class for two minutes so she could go for a walk with Trevor. She repeated this trust-building strategy several times throughout the year, especially after he exhibited anger or frustration and after school vacations and long weekends.

Ms. Carlton skillfully used relationship-building and interaction strategies to work with Trevor. Yet the impact could have been greater had she written and shared those strategies with Ms. Finch and the rest of Trevor's team via a shared document, behavior plan, or student success plan (Minahan, 2019). Likewise, if counselors, school nurses, and psychologists write and share such techniques with each classroom teacher, kids like Trevor, when triggered, wouldn't always have to leave class to find a safe adult.

Not knowing what is coming next can put anyone on high alert, especially traumatized students. Providing predictability through visual schedules of the class agenda or school day can help. Ms. Carlton was adamant about previewing any changes to the normal routine ahead of time (saying, "We are going to have indoor recess today because of the snow," or "The DVD player isn't working so we can't watch a science video at the end of class today"). This prepared Trevor and thus elicited a calmer response.

A teacher's behavior can also feel unpredictable to traumatized students. When students are working independently and quietly-doing what they are supposed to be doing-they don't know when they will get the teacher's attention. But when students are doing the wrong thing-like drumming on the desk with a pencil in each hand or swearing-teachers are more predictable and react quickly! Because predictability is comforting to students with anxiety and trauma histories, they may resort to getting the teacher's attention through inappropriate means. Trevor could get Ms. Finch to react immediately by flipping his water bottle noisily, but could go 20 minutes without so much as eye contact from her when he was quietly reading.

To counter this imbalance and create an overall feeling of safety, teachers can use predictable positive attention (Minahan, 2014). During independent work time, if a teacher says to a student "Great work! I'll be back to check on you," the student has no way of predicting how long they need to wait-and from past experience they know that the teacher may forget to return altogether. Using predictable positive attention, however, the teacher can say, "I am going to check on you in 10 minutes," put a timer on the student's desk, and add, "Come tap me on the shoulder when the timer goes off." If the teacher has many students in the class that could benefit from this, she could transfer the strategy to small groups: "I will check on this desk group at X time."

Another strategy for providing predictable attention, especially for middle and high school students, is to hand an anxious or traumatized student a sticky note with a time on it as they walk into class each day. The first time, the note will need to be explained: "If you don't understand something in class, please don't worry-I am going to check on you during independent work time at 11:45, and I will answer any questions you have then." Ms. Carlton found this strategy comforting to Trevor. This predictable check-in pairs the negative thoughts the student may have ("I don't know how to do this") with a reassuring thought ("But my teacher will be here in seven minutes!"). The student can better tolerate uncomfortable feelings when they know help and a positive interaction are coming. Telling the student what will happen and when and always following through establishes the teacher as a consistent, reliable adult.

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

Traumatized students often engage in inaccurate thinking, tending to focus on the negative. Common classroom management strategies often only exasperate this tendency. How many of us have seen frequent movement breaks on a student's IEP or student success plan? It is one of the most common accommodations that we offer to students who seem dysregulated. Unfortunately, during these breaks, students can ruminate on negative memories, current stressors, angry thoughts, or worries. If we ask a high school student who is getting angry and becoming agitated to take a walk, he may ruminate the whole time and return just as angry. Sending a 1st grader to a "calming chair" can leave her to perseverate on worrying thoughts. Instead, we need to help them "change the channel." Both Ms. Carlton and Ms. Finch used breaks with Trevor, but in vastly different ways.

When adults can't sleep, we often read a book or watch TV, which distracts us from uncomfortable thoughts so we can fall back asleep. Teachers can use the same principle for kids with trauma and anxiety: Teach students that their brain is like a remote control that they can use to "switch the channel" to help them calm down (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012). These switching activities are called cognitive distractions or thought breaks and are incompatible with negative thinking. A listening center or "find the picture" activity can be helpful to young children. For older students, you might try Mad Libs, trivia, or more abstract strategies such as counting all the green items in the room, saying the alphabet backwards, or thinking of the first 10 lines of a favorite movie. Ms. Carlton taught Trevor to do Star Wars trivia when he was upset, which helped him calm down quickly. Conversely when Ms. Finch had Trevor go for a walk, his negative thinking would escalate, and he would often not return to class.

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

Many traumatized students interpret information through a negativity amplifier. When a teacher says, "Please correct the first problem," the student might hear, "You are stupid." Or a student might report that the teacher screamed at her when the teacher was really using a calm tone, as even neutral facial expressions can be misinterpreted. It is helpful to smile and explicitly say when you are happy with the student, a strategy Ms. Carlton utilized. When giving negative feedback, teachers can use the positive sandwich approach-starting and ending with a positive comment: (1) "I love how you remembered the formula," (2) "You made a small calculation error there," (3) "Great job getting problem #3 correct."

7. Create Islands of Competence

Recognizing areas of strength in students is a powerful way to combat the poor self-concept and negative thinking associated with trauma (Jennings, 2018). To support a more accurate self-concept, teachers can provide what Robert Brooks calls "islands of competence" for students swimming in a sea of inadequacy (2003). When a student thinks negatively, the negative moments during the day tend to weigh more heavily than the positive moments. We need to counter this effect with positive experiences. Educator teams need to ask themselves, "Does the student feel competent during the day?" If the answer is no, contriving an island of competence for the student is in order. Ms. Carlton often asked Trevor to help a younger student or a peer who was struggling in an academic area Trevor was strong in, or had him fix the stapler when it was malfunctioning. She would also point out in a written note to Trevor that he was the first student to finish a math activity. In high school, educators may want to foster students' talents by never letting them drop electives (which might require creativity in scheduling academic support in core classes).

It is important that students experience competence to develop a more accurate self-narrative and to begin to create a positive future picture of themselves. We want them to say, "I really helped that student with her artwork. When I grow up, I could work with kids." Or "I am good at fixing things. I could be a mechanic someday."

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Behavior is communication, and we've looked at how traumatized students often communicate feelings through their behavior. Teachers' behavior is also communication-and it may not be communicating the message we are striving to send. Common teacher practices such as ignoring inappropriate behavior, sending students to the office, or sending younger kids to sit alone at a back table or in the hallway can unintentionally trigger students who have experienced abandonment or neglect. We need to remember that when some of our students were young and cried, no one came. Ignoring them can trigger a trauma response and make them feel the teacher doesn't like them or is even happy that they are upset.

Ms. Finch would ignore Trevor when he was expressing anger, such as by crumpling up a paper, growling, or slinging a book from his desk onto the floor. On the other hand, Ms. Carlton responded to such moments at the beginning of the year by validating Trevor's feelings ("I am sorry you are upset" or "I see that you are angry"). This is a much more empathetic approach, will preserve the relationship, and will avoid triggering a trauma response in the student.

Another practice to be cautious about is using time with a preferred adult as an incentive. For example, a principal might say, "If you get all your homework done this week, you and I will have lunch together!" The problem with this is that if the student doesn't get all their homework done, then the principal withholds their attention and time. This implies the relationship is conditional and can trigger an abandonment trauma response for some students. It is better to use one-to-one time with students in a noncontingent way. This way adults are communicating, "I like you for who you are," not "I like you when you behave the right way."

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Students can't learn unless they feel safe. When it comes to student trauma, there is much that is beyond educators' power, but there is also a great deal they can do to build a supportive and sensitive environment where students feel safe, comfortable, take risks, learn, and even heal.

Reflect & Discuss

➛ As Minahan writes, "Students can't learn if they don't feel safe." What small changes are you willing to try in your classroom to foster a sense of safety among traumatized students?

➛ Think about one of your students who struggles with behavior. How could you help him "switch the channel" when he is upset?

➛ Do you routinely share-and exchange ideas about-what's working with a traumatized student? How could you better improve lines of communication across the whole support team?

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Vol. 77 No. 2 Abstract 1. Expect Unexpected Responses 2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions 3. Be Specific About Relationship Building 4. Promote Predictability and Consistency 5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel" 6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking 7. Create Islands of Competence 8.

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https://www.edtpa.com/Content/Docs/edTPAMGC.pdf
https://www.thoughtco.com/strategies-for-building-rapport-with-students-3194262
What is it?
- Recognizing and utilizing the diverse backgrounds, values, cultures and assets that each student bring to class.
Why do I find this impactful?
- Culturally responsive teaching (CRT) is an approach to connecting students' cultures, languages and life experiences with what they learn in school. This is impactful as these are things that are familiar to students and will help them connect, relate and learn better.
How will it impact my practice?
- Multiculturalism is an asset. This opens a variety of strategies, activities, assessments etc that will help students understand what is taught by using what they already know, experienced and way of life. When students realize that their cultures are important in my classroom, they will feel safe, this becomes a huge step of building rapport, taking teaching and learning to the next level.

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At a glance

Culturally responsive teaching is a rich, intentional approach woven into every aspect of student learning.

It focuses on the assets students bring to the classroom rather than what students can't do.

It raises expectations and makes learning relevant for all students.

Culturally responsive teaching is a research-based approach to teaching. It connects students' cultures, languages, and life experiences with what they learn in school. These connections help students access rigorous curriculum and develop higher-level academic skills.

Our brains are wired to make connections. It's easier for our brains to learn and store information when we have a hook to hang it on. That hook is background knowledge. Students bring this knowledge to the classroom every day.

But for students of color, English language learners (ELLs), and other underserved student populations, those assets are often overlooked. When that happens, educators miss the chance to use them to support learning. (See recent work by Zaretta Hammond for the neuroscience behind this.)

Culturally responsive teaching values and reflects the assets of all students. By doing that, it raises academic expectations for all learners. It also sends the message that multiculturalism is an asset.

Dive deeper

The benefits of culturally responsive teaching

How culturally responsive teaching, UDL, and SEL work together

For educators: Culturally responsive teaching in the classroom

For educators: How to partner with families

About the author

About the author

Educators Team at Understood is made up of passionate writers, editors, educators, and subject matter experts who have worked in classrooms and with students who learn and think differently.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Karla Vigil, MAT is the chief executive officer and co-founder of the

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Culturally responsive teaching is a rich, intentional approach woven into every aspect of student learning. It focuses on the assets students bring to the classroom rather than what students can't do. It raises expectations and makes learning relevant for all students. Culturally responsive teaching is a research-based approach to teaching.