# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Citation: C N Trueman "Life in USSR under Stalin"
historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 25 May 2015. 15 Apr 2018.

Stalin's control over Russia meant that freedom was the one thing that people lost. The people of Russia had to read what the state allowed, see what the state allowed and listen to what the state allowed. The state's control of the media was total. Those who attempted to listen, read etc. anything else were severely punished. Everybody knew of the labour camps and that was enough of a deterrent.

Stalin developed what became known as a "personality cult". Artists painted pictures glorifying Stalin and he dominated many pictures. It was not unusual for Stalin to be in a white suit so that he stood out from the crowd. He gained the nickname "Uncle Joe" which was an attempt to develop an image of a kind, homely man who was the 'father' of all Russians. This was all called "Social Realism". Those who wrote poems and novels had to do the same - write about Stalin in a manner which gloried him. Some artists and authors were so depressed by all this that they committed suicide rather than do what the state ordered them to do. Many others tried to leave the country.

Education was strictly controlled by the state. In 1932, a rigid programme of discipline and education was introduced. Exams, banned under Lenin, were reintroduced. The way subjects were taught was laid down by the government - especially History where Stalin's part in the 1917 Revolution and his relationship with Lenin was overplayed. Books were strictly censored by the state and Stalin ordered the writing of a new book called "A short history of the USSR" which had to be used in schools.

Outside of school, children were expected to join youth organisations such as the Octobrists for 8 to 10 year olds and the Pioneers for the 10 to 16 year olds. From 19 to 23 you were expected to join the Komsomol. Children were taught how to be a good socialist/communist and an emphasis was put on outdoor activities and clean living.

There was a marked increase in the attacks on the churches of the USSR throughout the 1930's. Communism had taught people that religion was "the opium of the masses" ( Karl Marx) and church leaders were arrested and churches physically shut down. Stalin could not allow a challenge to his position and anybody who worshipped God was a challenge as the "personality cult" was meant for people to worship Stalin.

For a short time under Lenin, women had enjoyed a much freer status in that life for them was a lot more liberal when compared to the 'old days'. Among other things, divorce was made a lot more easy under Lenin. Stalin changed all this. He put the emphasis on the family. There was a reason for this. Many children had been born out of marriage and Moscow by 1930 was awash with a very high number of homeless children who had no family and, as such, were a stain on the perfect communist society that Stalin was trying to create.

The state paid families a child allowance if their were a married couple. It became a lot harder to get a divorce and restrictions were placed on abortions. Ceremonial weddings made a comeback. In the work place, women maintained their status and there was effective equality with men. In theory, all jobs were open to women. The only real change took place in the image the state created for women. By the end of the 1930's, the image of women at work had softened so that the hard edge of working became less apparent.

Living standards: these generally rose in the 1930's despite the obvious problems with food production and shortages elsewhere. Some people did very well out of the system especially party officials and skilled factory workers. Health care was greatly expanded. In the past, the poorer people of Russia could not have expected qualified medical help in times of illness. Now that facility was available though demand for it was extremely high. The number of doctors rose greatly but there is evidence that they were so scared of doing wrong, that they had to go by the rule book and make appointments for operations which people did not require!!

Housing remained a great problem for Stalin's Russia. In Moscow, only 6% of households had more than one room. Those apartments that were put up quickly, were shoddy by western standards. In was not unusual for flat complexes to be built without electric sockets despite electricity being available - building firms were simply not used to such things.

Leisure for the average Russian person was based around fitness and sport. Every Russian was entitled to have a holiday each year - this had been unheard of in the tsar's days. Clubs, sports facilities etc. were provided by the state. The state also controlled the cinema, radio etc. but an emphasis was placed on educating yourself via the media as it was then.

Was Stalin a disaster for Russia?

* the country did become a major industrial nation by 1939 and her progress was unmatched in the era of the Depression in America and western Europe where millions were unemployed.

* those workers who did not offend the state were better off than under the reign of the tsar.

* Russia's military forces were benefiting from her industrial growth.

* there was a stable government under Stalin.

* people had access to much better medical care some 10 years before the National Health Service was introduced in GB.

* millions had died in famine after the failed experiment of collectivisation.

* Russia's agriculture was at the same level in 1939 as in 1928 with a 40 million increased population.

* Russia had become a 'telling' society. The secret police actively encouraged people to inform on neighbours, work mates etc. and many suffered simply as a result of jealous neighbours/workers.

Also many of Russia's most talented people had been murdered during the Purges of the 1930's. Anyone with talent was seen as a threat by the increasingly paranoid behaviour associated with Stalin and were killed or imprisoned (which usually lead to death anyway). The vast Soviet army was a body without a brain as most of her senior officers had been arrested and murdered during the Purges.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Life in USSR under Stalin - History Learning Site

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Life in USSR under Stalin Stalin's control over Russia meant that freedom was the one thing that people lost. The people of Russia had to read what the state allowed, see what the state allowed and listen to what the state allowed. The state's control of the media was total.

# data[].attributes.body
American Vision

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Citation: C N Trueman "Life in Fascist Italy"
historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 25 May 2015. 16 Apr 2018.

Life in Mussolini's Italy was little different from other dictatorships which existed between 1918 and 1939. Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia were to use (and expand) on developments that had been in existence in Fascist Italy since the 1920's. People had little control over their personal life and the state controlled as much of you as they could. Those who opposed the state were suitably punished.

Dealing with opposition

All Italians were expected to obey Mussolini and his Fascist Party. Authority was enforced by the use of the Blackshirts - the nickname for the Fasci di Combattimenti. Those men in this unit were usually ex-soldiers and it was their job to bring into line those who opposed Mussolini. It was the Blackshirts who murdered the socialist Matteotti - an outspoken critic of Mussolini. The motto of the Blackshirts was "Me ne frego" (I do not give a damn")

Though they were probably less feared than Hitler's SS, the Blackshirts did maintain an iron rule in Italy. One favoured way of making people conform was to tie a 'troublemaker' to a tree, force a pint or two of castor oil down the victim's throat and force him to eat a live toad/frog etc. This punishment was enough to ensure people kept their thoughts to themselves. The murderous tactics used by the Gestapo and SS in Germany were rarely used in Italy.

When Mussolini said:

the message was clear - those who wanted to rock the boat would be suitably dealt with.
Mussolini in uniform
Italy did have a secret police under Mussolini. It was called the OVRA. It was formed in 1927 and was lead by Arturo Bocchini. The death penalty was restored under Mussolini for serious offences. Yet up to 1940 only ten people had been sentenced to death. Only 4000 people were arrested by the OVRA and sent to prison. This figure was massively overshadowed by the actions of the Gestapo and SS in Nazi Germany.

Prisons were set up on remote Mediterranean islands such as Ponza and Lipari. Condition for those sentenced to the prisons here were crude and many anti-Fascists simply left Italy for their own safety.
Education in Fascist Italy
Adults who opposed Mussolini were dealt with harshly. However, the children were the Fascists of the future and Mussolini took a keen interest in the state's education system and the youth organisations that existed in Italy. Hitler used the same approach in Nazi Germany.

Mussolini wanted a nation of warriors. Boys were expected to grow into fierce soldiers who would fight with glory for Italy while girls were expected to be good mothers who would provide Italy with a population that a great power was expected to have.

Children were taught at school, that the great days of modern Italy started in 1922 with the March on Rome. Children were taught that Mussolini was the only man who could lead Italy back to greatness. Children were taught to call him "Il Duce" and boys were encouraged to attend after school youth movements. Three existed.

Boys were taught that fighting for them was a natural extension of the normal male lifestyle. One of the more famous Fascist slogans was "War is to the male what childbearing is to the female." Girls were taught that giving birth was natural - while for boys, fighting was the same - natural.

Children were taught to obey those in charge. This was not an unusual move in a dictatorship. Once the OVRA had dealt with those adults who challenged the authority of the state, all future adults of Fascist Italy would be model civilians and not a challenge to those in charge.

Boys took part in semi-military exercises while members of the Balilla. They marched and used imitation guns. Mussolini had once said "I am preparing the young to a fight for life, but also for the nation."

Members of the Balilla had to remember the following:

The glory of the old Roman Empire always lurked in the background of much of what children did. A child in a youth movements was a "legionary" while an adult officer was a "centurion" - a throw back to the days of when the Ancient Roman army dominated much of western Europe.

Women in Fascist Italy

As in Nazi Germany, women were seen as having a specific role in Fascist Italy. The task of young girls was to get married and have children - lots of them. In 1927, Mussolini launched his Battle for Births.

Mussolini believed that his Italy had a smaller population than it should have. How could it possibly be a power to reckon with, without a substantial population and a substantial army? Women were encouraged to have children and the more children brought better tax privileges - an idea Hitler was to build on. Large families got better tax benefits but bachelors were hit by high taxation.

Families were given a target of 5 children. Mothers who produced more were warmly received by the Fascist government. In 1933, Mussolini met 93 mothers at the Palazzo Venezia who had produced over 1300 children - an average of 13 each!

Mussolini wanted Italy to have a population of 60 million by 1950. In 1920, it stood at 37 million so his target was a tall order. However, the Battle for Births was a failure. Though the population grew as people were living longer due to better medical care, the birth rate actually went down between 1927 and 1934.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Life in Fascist Italy - History Learning Site

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Life in Fascist Italy Life in Mussolini's Italy was little different from other dictatorships which existed between 1918 and 1939.Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia were to use (and expand) on developments that had been in existence in Fascist Italy since the 1920's. People had little control over their personal life and the state controlled as ...

# data[].attributes.body
Excerpt from a graphic novel history book

# data[].attributes.body
American Vision

# data[].attributes.body
Excerpt from a graphic novel history book

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Citation: C N Trueman "General Francisco Franco"
historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 25 May 2015. 27 Aug 2017.

General Franco was born in 1892 and he died in 1975. Franco is the man most linked to the army's victory in the Spanish Civil War.

Franco had been born into a military family. From 1907 to 1910, he was educated at Toledo Infantry Academy and he served in Spanish Morocco from 1910 to 1927. He made a name for himself leading attacks against Moroccan nationalists and in 1927 was promoted to full general and made principal of Saragossa Military Academy.

He stayed out of politics until he was ordered to put down a strike by coal miners in the Asturias. Here, the miners had created a soviet - a word that struck fear into many western Europeans. Franco suppressed the coal strike with efficiency but very ruthlessly. This one incident sealed his reputation for brutality though Franco saw it as he and his army simply carrying out an order to the best of his efficiency.

By 1936, Franco was chief of staff for the military. In July 1936, Franco lead a revolt against the Popular Front. It started in the Canary Islands, where Franco was governor and spread to Morocco where he had made many contacts in the 17 years he was based there.

In October 1936, Franco was appointed generalissimo of Nationalist Spain and head of state. This had the support of all those various factions on the right. In November 1936, Nazi Germany and Fascist Spain recognised Franco as the legitimate ruler of Spain. His government was recognised as legitimate by the French and the British in February 1939. In April 1939, America recognised Franco as head of Spain.

Why did Britain, France and America recognise a man associated with brutality and right wing politics? First, the Nationalists had won the civil war by April 1939 when Madrid surrendered to Franco's authority, so Franco as leader of Spain was a fait accompli. Second, the Popular Front was seen for right or wrong, as being associated with communism and the fear of this belief was still rampant in Europe. Franco was seen as the better bet of the two.

In 1940, Franco declined Hitler's request to join the Axis in World War Two.

From 1939 on, Franco was a dictator. His rule was law. Franco's Spain displayed all the usual characteristics of a right wing dictatorship. All opposition was ruthlessly dealt with; the nation had to endure the activities of a secret police force; all the aspects of politics that would have been taken

for granted in Europe, such as fair elections and political opposition, were not tolerated in Franco's Spain. In July 1947, a law was passed that made Franco head of state for life.

Opposition did occur. Students protested about a lack of personal freedom. The leaders of the Roman Catholic Church also complained about his dictatorship and Basque separatists were a constant problem.

Despite this, Franco was not a political pariah. In 1955, John Foster Dulles, America's highly influential Secretary of State, visited him. During the Cold War, Franco was seen as a safe bet against any spread of communism in western Europe.

When he died in November 1975, the monarchy was restored when Prince Juan Carlos became head of state, as Franco had decreed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
General Francisco Franco - History Learning Site

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
General Francisco Franco General Franco was born in 1892 and he died in 1975. Franco is the man most linked to the army's victory in the Spanish Civil War. Franco had been born into a military family. From 1907 to 1910, he was educated at Toledo Infantry Academy and he served in Spanish Morocco from ...

# data[].attributes.headline
Excerpt from "Cultural Periodicals in Francoist Spain and Communist Romania"

# data[].attributes.subject
Excerpt from "Cultural Periodicals in Francoist Spain and Communist Romania"

# data[].attributes.body
Edited and adapted by Sarah

# data[].attributes.body
Excerpt from BBC