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Principle 1

Multilingualism as an asset
Encouraging learners to use and develop their full linguistic repertoire is highly beneficial.
Learners' multilingualism - their ability to listen, speak, read and view, and/or write in one or more languages and/or scripts beyond English - is a valuable resource. Maintaining and further developing learners' home languages and other languages they know results in greater cognitive flexibility and stronger academic performance. Teachers and support staff should, where possible, deploy pedagogies which include the use of different languages. Learners using EAL should be encouraged to codeswitch and translate between any languages they know to support their subject content learning and the acquisition of academic English.

Principle 2
Having high expectations of learners using EAL while offering them the language support that they need is beneficial to their learning.
Principle 3

Integrated focus on content and language
Focusing on language while teaching subject content is crucial to the progress and attainment of learners using EAL .
Principle 4

Effective and holistic pupil assessment
EAL assessment builds a broad picture of the learner , which enables teachers to plan appropriate and targeted support.
Effective assessment provides teachers with the information needed to adapt teaching for EAL learners. Initial diagnostic assessment should gather linguistic and educational information, such as information about learners' language and literacy practices, prior education, and current cognitive skills. Initial assessment of learners' proficiency in English should include assessment of listening, speaking, reading and viewing, and writing.

Conducting a first language assessment provides useful information. Formal standardised tests designed to assess the reading age, verbal reasoning, spelling, and reading comprehension of first-language English learners are not always suitable for assessing learners using EAL.

When assessment is used to evaluate conceptual understanding, it helps to reduce the linguistic demands of the instructions. Continuous formative assessment should include both assessment of English language development using an EAL-relevant assessment framework, and teacher assessment of learning in different subjects.

Principle 5
Including learners using EAL and their family in all aspects of school life improves their wellbeing and motivation for learning and is beneficial for the school.
In order to have opportunities for success in school, learners using EAL need to feel safe and secure from day one and need not be excluded from any aspect of school life. Schools should foster an inclusive culture in which learners using EAL are encouraged to participate in extracurricular activities and to join mixed-language friendship groups.

Social inclusion is successful where schools create respectful relationships with learners' families and the wider communities, striving to understand families' backgrounds, cultures, and prior experiences. S ome parents of children who use EAL , especially those who are new to English and to the English school system themselves , face additional challenges to parental participation. Therefore, schools should have accessible communications and expectations for all staff, schoolwide, to build reciprocal relationships which actively promote family involvement and mutual understanding.

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Five Principles for Effective Teaching of EAL Learners

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The five EAL Principles are intended to guide schools as they develop and embed effective provision for EAL learners.

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This is a very brief overview of Neurodiversity

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Improving autism practice in college to support placement sustainability and to avoid escalation of need

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Why Autism is a Difference not a Deficit

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Why Autism is a Difference not a Deficit

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At the AET, we believe that autism is a difference not a deficit.

We want to promote wider understanding that autistic people have strengths and differences in three key areas of development.

Recognising and understanding these differences leads to better support being available for autistic children and young people in education.

Key to this understanding is recognising that the autistic spectrum is not a single line from low to high; it is a complex combination of many overlapping characteristics.

While there may be some shared characteristics, every autistic person is unique, with their own strengths, differences and needs.

We champion a world where being different is something to be celebrated and where all autistic learners experience a positive education that supports their well-being.

We’d love for you to do the same.

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Helping you support autistic children and young people since 2007

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Top tips for communicating effectively with autistic people

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Top tips for communicating effectively with autistic people

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Top tips from Ambitious About Autism

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Triple A is an autism charity working across all of Cumbria.

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Working towards eradicating the inequalities, challenges and difficulties faced by autistic people

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Celebrating Neurodiversity

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Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is one of the best-known theories of motivation. Maslow's theory states that our actions are motivated by certain physiological and psychological needs that progress from basic to complex.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow first introduced the concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper, titled "A Theory of Human Motivation," and again in his subsequent book, "Motivation and Personality." This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs.

While some of the existing schools of thought at the time-such as psychoanalysis and behaviorism -tended to focus on problematic behaviors, Maslow was more interested in learning about what makes people happy and what they do to achieve that aim.

As a humanist, Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be self-actualized, that is, to be all they can be. To achieve this ultimate goal, however, a number of more basic needs must be met. This includes the need for food, safety, love, and self-esteem.

Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior. There are five different levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, starting at the lowest level known as physiological needs.

Physiological Needs

The physiological needs include those that are vital to survival. Some examples of physiological needs include:

In addition to the basic requirements of nutrition, air, and temperature regulation, physiological needs also include shelter and clothing. Maslow included sexual reproduction in this level of the hierarchy as well, since it is essential to the survival and propagation of the species.

Security and Safety Needs

At the second level of Maslow's hierarchy, the needs start to become a bit more complex. At this level, the needs for security and safety become primary.

People want control and order in their lives. Some of the basic security and safety needs include:

Finding a job, obtaining health insurance and health care, contributing money to a savings account, and moving to a safer neighborhood are all examples of actions motivated by security and safety needs.

Social Needs

The social needs in Maslow's hierarchy include love, acceptance, and belonging. At this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behavior. Some of the things that satisfy this need include:

Friendships

Romantic attachments

Family relationships

Social groups

Community groups

Churches and religious organizations

In order to avoid loneliness, depression, and anxiety, it is important for people to feel loved and accepted by others. Personal relationships with friends, family, and lovers play an important role, as does involvement in groups-such as religious groups, sports teams, book clubs, and other group activities.

Esteem Needs

At the fourth level in Maslow's hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. Once the needs at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a more prominent role in motivating behavior.

At this level, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and appreciation of others. People have a need to accomplish things, then have their efforts recognized. In addition to the need for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, esteem needs include such things as self-esteem and personal worth.

People need to sense that they are valued by others and feel that they are making a contribution to the world. Participation in professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic or team participation, and personal hobbies can all play a role in fulfilling the esteem needs.

People who are able to satisfy esteem needs by achieving good self-esteem and the recognition of others tend to feel confident in their abilities. Conversely, those who lack self-esteem and the respect of others can develop feelings of inferiority.

Self-Actualization Needs

At the very peak of Maslow's hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their potential.

"What a man can be, he must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need people have to achieve their full potential as human beings.

Maslow's said of self-actualization: "It may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, potentialities, etc. Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing. They are people who have developed or are developing to the full stature of which they capable."

Progressing Through the Pyramid of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid of needs are made up of the most basic needs while the most complex needs are at the top.

Once lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs. As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social.

At the top of the pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority. Like Carl Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.

Different Types of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs can be separated into two types of needs: deficiency needs and growth needs.

Deficiency needs: Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs, which arise due to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences.

Growth needs: Maslow called the needs at the top of the pyramid growth needs. These needs don't stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.

While the theory is generally portrayed as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that the order in which these needs are fulfilled does not always follow this standard progression.

For example, he noted that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.

Criticisms of Maslow's Theory

Maslow's theory has become wildly popular both in and out of psychology. The fields of education and business have been particularly influenced by the theory. But Maslow's concept has not been without criticism. Chief among the long-held objections are:

Needs don't follow a hierarchy: While some research has shown support for Maslow's theories, most of the research has not been able to substantiate the idea of a needs hierarchy. Wahba and Bridwell (researchers from Baruch College) reported that there was little evidence for Maslow's ranking of these needs and even less evidence that these needs are in a hierarchical order.

The theory is difficult to test: Other critics of Maslow's theory note that his definition of self-actualization is difficult to test scientifically. His research on self-actualization was also based on a very limited sample of individuals, including people he knew as well as biographies of famous individuals who Maslow believed to be self-actualized.

Some of the more recent critiques suggest that Maslow was inspired by the belief systems of the Blackfoot nation, but neglected to acknowledge this. Maslow's studied the Northern Blackfoot tribe as an anthropologist. However, this foundational basis disappeared over time, causing him to misuse the concepts he was originally there to assess.

Impact of Maslow's Hierarchy

Regardless of these criticisms, Maslow's hierarchy of needs represented part of an important shift in psychology. Rather than focusing on abnormal behavior and development, Maslow's humanistic psychology was focused on the development of healthy individuals.

There has been relatively little research supporting Maslow's theory, yet the hierarchy of needs is well-known and popular both in and out of psychology. And in a study published in 2011, researchers from the University of Illinois set out to put this hierarchy to the test.

What they discovered is that, while the fulfillment of the needs was strongly correlated with happiness, people from cultures all over the world reported that self-actualization and social needs were important even when many of the most basic needs were unfulfilled.

Such results suggest that while these needs can be powerful motivators of human behavior, they do not necessarily take the hierarchical form that Maslow described.

The Expanded Hierarchy of Needs

In 1970, Maslow built upon his original hierarchy to include three additional needs at the top of his pyramid, for a total of eight:

Cognitive needs. This centers on knowledge. People generally want to learn and know things about their world and their places in it.

Aesthetic needs. This addresses the appreciation of beauty and form. People might fulfill this need through enjoying or creating music, art, literature, and other creative expressions.

Transcendence needs. Maslow believed that humans are driven to look beyond the physical self in search of meaning. Helping others, practicing spirituality, and connecting with nature are a few ways we might meet this need.

A Word From Verywell

Whether you accept Maslow's hierarchy of needs or not, his theory shines a light on the many needs we have as human beings. And even if we don't all place these needs in the same order, keeping them in mind when interacting with others can help make our interactions more caring and respectful.

Frequently Asked Questions

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How Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Explains Human Motivation

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs describes five levels of needs that motivate human nature. Learn more about the pyramid of needs and why it matters.

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Working with your LSAs and Leads

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Information and guidance on the Equality Act 2010, including age discrimination and the Public Sector Equality Duty.

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This handbook has been developed as a resource for teachers to use over time as they embed inclusive practice in their classroom

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nasen House
4/5 Amber Business Village
Amber Close
Amington
Tamworth
Staffordshire
B77 4RP

Tel: 01827 311500
Email: welcome@nasen.org.uk

Opening Hours:
Monday to Thursday 09:00 - 17:00
Friday 09:00 - 16:00

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The approach we have taken to writing this handbook reflects the approach that is needed to embed inclusive practice across schools - a shared vision and true collaboration, underpinned by professional challenge and respect for everyone's strengths

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Assistive Technology to Support Learners with SEND

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Assistive Technology to Support Learners with SEND

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Digital technologies have the potential to enhance the learning experience for learners with SEND when used appropriately. Understanding how to create accessible resources or being able to signpost learners to guides on how to change their own device to support their learning needs can really make a difference. This page brings together resources that will help you to use digital technology with SEND learners

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Making Learning Accessible - The Education and Training Foundation

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This page brings together resources that will help you to use digital technology with SEND learners.

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ADHD UK is by people with ADHD for people with ADHD

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Definition & Diagnosis

The definition commonly relied on is set out by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. These criteria are presented in shortened form and are for information only. Diagnosis can only be done by a medical professional.

Inattention

Six or more symptoms of inattention for children up to age 16 years, or five or more for adolescents age 17 years and older and adults; symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months, and they are inappropriate for developmental level:

Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or with other activities.

Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities.

Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.

Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., loses focus, side-tracked).

Often has trouble organising tasks and activities.

Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time (such as schoolwork or homework).

Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g. school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones).

Is often easily distracted

Is often forgetful in daily activities.

Hyperactivity and Impulsivity

Six or more symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity for children up to age 16 years, or five or more for adolescents age 17 years and older and adults; symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person's developmental level:

Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat.

Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected.

Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to feeling restless).

Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly.

Is often "on the go" acting as if "driven by a motor".

Often talks excessively.

Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed.

Often has trouble waiting their turn.

Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g. butts into conversations or game)

In addition, the following conditions must be met:

Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.

Several symptoms are present in two or more settings, (such as at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities).

There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning.

The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.

Diagnosing ADHD in Adults

ADHD often lasts into adulthood. To diagnose ADHD in adults and adolescents age 17 years or older, only 5 symptoms are needed instead of the 6 needed for younger children. Symptoms might look different at older ages. For example, in adults, hyperactivity may appear as extreme restlessness or wearing others out with their activity. If you are an adult looking for indications that you might have ADHD you can take the WHO screener survey here.

Presentation:

There is a persistent thought from some parts of the general population that ADHD requires some form of hyper-activity. This is not the case. Based on the above criteria there are three kinds (presentations) of ADHD that can occur. Because symptoms can change over time, the presentation may change over time as well

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Visual supports can help to:

provide structure and routine

encourage independence

build confidence

improve understanding

avoid frustration and anxiety

provide opportunities to interact with others.

They can make communication physical and consistent, rather than fleeting and inconsistent like spoken words can be.

Types of visual support

A wide range of items can be used as visual supports. For example:

These can be real objects, printed images, or on a smartphone, tablet or computer.

Uses of visual supports

Visual supports can be used in a range of ways, for example:

as a single message, eg the person takes a yellow card from their pocket when they need to go to the toilet, or a puts purple card on the board when they're feeling stressed

in combination to create a daily timetable, schedule, sequence or reward chart

to make a choice, eg the person can put the trampolining symbol in the 'afternoon' area of the board

to illustrate a social story or comic strip conversation.

Examples of visual supports

Make visual supports  portable, durable, easy to find, personalised and consistent.

Portable

Make the visual supports portable by:

using a visual supports app on the person's tablet

storing photos and pictures on the person's smartphone

putting symbols, pictures and schedules in a folder for the person to carry with them.

Durable

Laminate printed visual supports

Back up any app, photos and pictures you use on a smartphone, tablet or computer.

Easy to find

Ensure that visual supports are easy to find, for example by:

placing them in prominent places at eye level

putting them on an actual object

putting a single symbol in the person's pocket

distributing them throughout particular environments, eg objects and areas in the classroom and at home could be labelled

putting a shortcut to them from a tablet home screen

attaching symbols to boards so that people know where to go to look at them - you could also use Velcro strips to attach symbols to a board, meaning schedules can be easily altered, eg activities removed once completed.

Personalised

Visual supports are very personal and what works for one person may not work for another. Use the person's special interest, eg make a visual timetable in the shape of a rocket.

Remember that some autistic people have difficulties generalising, eg they may not realise that a Hula Hoop packet symbolises all crisps.

It can sometimes be helpful to use more than one type of visual support, but always introduce visual supports gradually. Start with one symbol and then build up a collection.

Consistent

If using pictures, once you choose a type or style (for example, line drawings), use it consistently. Ask family members, friends, teachers or support workers to use the same visual supports consistently.

Useful resources

There are lots of pictures you can download or buy as printed images and apps that you can use. Some examples are listed below. Inclusion does not mean that the National Autistic Society has endorsed them. You can search our Autism Services Directory or ask the community for suggestions of others.

You should always check the terms and conditions relating to the use of images that you download and any costs involved.

More information

Gerhardt, P, Cohen, M. (2014) Visual supports for people with autism: a guide for parents and professionals. Woodbine House

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Visual supports are a communication tool that can be used with autistic people. They can be used in most situations, and are adaptable and portable.

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Welcome to our TEACCH Tips page. We are working to put together a collection of tips to help provide support to our families and provide ideas on how to support individuals with autism during times of change. We can all benefit from having some type of structure during times of change to help us maintain well-being and a sense of productivity. We will be updating the TEACCH tips page regularly with more tips translated into Spanish.

In times of uncertainty, everyone benefits from predictability!

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Welcome to our TEACCH Tips page. We are working to put together a collection of tips to help provide support to our families and provide ideas on how to support individuals with autism during times of change. We can all benefit from having some type of structure during times of change to help us maintain well-being ...

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As an employer, you can help make the world a more autism-friendly place. We know that many of you are leading the way and making great progress in adapting your practice and making small adjustments that make a big difference to autistic employees.
In this guide we explain the benefits of employing an autistic person, offer tips for recruitment and interviewing, and provide advice for managing an autistic employee.

"Autistic people have some very valuable skills which can be applied in the workplace. They might have very good attention to detail, or be really good at sticking to routines and timetables. Therefore, they are likely to be very punctual and reliable. Everyone has different skills but there will always be something." An autistic job seeker

What is autism?

Autism is a lifelong developmental disability that affects how people perceive the world and interact with others.

Autistic people see, hear and feel the world differently to other people. If you are autistic, you are autistic for life; autism is not an illness or disease and cannot be 'cured'. Often people feel being autistic is a fundamental aspect of their identity.

Autism is a spectrum condition. All autistic people share certain difficulties, but being autistic will affect them in different ways. Some autistic people also have learning disabilities, mental health issues or other conditions, meaning people need different levels of support. With the right sort of support, all can be helped to live a more fulfilling life of their own choosing.

You can read more about autism.

Recruiting an autistic employee

As an employer, you may not realise that autistic people can be highly skilled and qualified, and may be extremely employable.

Why employ an autistic person?

Many autistic people have a variety of sometimes exceptional skills, that enable them to thrive in roles ranging from sales assistant to computer programmer, and journalist to statistician, to name just a few.

However, autistic people are often disadvantaged when it comes to getting and keeping a job because of other people's lack of understanding and support.

Autistic employees may need some, often simple, support within the workplace. As well as their individual strengths and talents, autistic candidates often demonstrate above-average skills in some or all of the following areas:

high levels of concentration

reliability, conscientiousness and persistence

accuracy, close attention to detail and the ability to identify errors

technical ability, such as in IT

detailed factual knowledge and an excellent memory

This means an autistic person may well be better at a particular job than someone who is not autistic. By gaining an understanding of autism, you can open up new possibilities for your organisation.

Employing an autistic person demonstrates your organisations commitment to equality and diversity and shows a positive attitude to disabled people. Having a diverse workforce brings benefits to staff and business alike, and managers and colleagues often describe working with an autistic colleague as an enriching experience that encourages them to think more carefully about how they communicate, organise and prioritise their work.

"Mark joined Max Fordham's in March 2002 as a drawing filer, quickly grasping the complex procedure. He applies care and attention to detail, constantly using his initiative to improve efficiency. He regularly attends progress meetings, where his input is invaluable and he supervises temporary cover within his group." M. Jones, Partner/Head of Administration, Max Fordham LLP

The recruitment process

Recruitment procedures often inadvertently create barriers for autistic people. There are many minor adjustments your organisations can make to your processes that will help autistic candidates to apply for jobs, and enable them to demonstrate their skills as potential employees. Many of these adjustments may also benefit other candidates and enhance overall efficiency in recruitment.

By taking these simple steps, your organisation will be meeting the Equality Act (2010) and Northern Ireland Disability Discrimination Act requirement for employers to make 'reasonable adjustments' for people with disabilities.

Job descriptions

Job descriptions often include skills that are not essential for the job to be carried out effectively. Qualities such as 'excellent communication skills' or 'good team player' are often included as default skills, even if they are not necessary - and many autistic people will not apply for jobs demanding these attributes. This can mean that suitable applicants may assume themselves to be ineligible for a job even where they have strong skills that are directly relevant to the tasks involved.

Application forms

It is not always obvious what information the applicant needs to provide on an application form. It is important to provide clear guidance on this, and to make sure that the form includes a space for applicants to highlight any support or adjustments they may need at an interview. If you are asking an applicant to write about their skills or suitability for a role, it can be helpful to include a word count limit.

Job adverts

Job adverts are not always concise and written in plain English. They should list essential skills, and avoid jargon or unnecessary information. The advert should be clearly presented, avoiding complex design. Try to be really objective about what abilities and experiences are genuinely essential for the job to be done well, and leave out any that are not.

Interviews

Interviews - particularly 'traditional' conversational type interviews - rely heavily on social and communication skills, so autistic candidates may well struggle to 'sell themselves' in an interview, even if they have all the right skills. In particular, they may face challenges with:

understanding body language and maintaining appropriate eye contact

knowing how to start, maintain and end conversations or answers to questions

judging how much information to give - especially if questions are open

thinking in abstract ways, or considering 'what if?' scenarios

varying their tone of voice and finding the appropriate level of formality.

Interview adjustments

Making reasonable adjustments during an interview is essential to allowing autistic candidates to portray their skills and competencies fully, so that you can make an informed choice about who to recruit.

If you want to interview the candidate, it is important to realise that asking each applicant exactly the same question does not always equate to equality of opportunity. You could adapt the interview for autistic candidates by:

providing interview questions in advance - up to two days before the interview

providing clear and concise written and visual information about the interview, including;

directions to, or maps of, the location of the interview and photographs of the entrance of the building (such as google street view)

the procedure for arriving at the interview location (e.g. sign in at front desk where you will be collected by Jane (name of the person) you shortly before your interview)

the names of the people who will be on the interview panel (with photographs) and information about what their role will be during the interview (e.g., note taking, or asking technical questions)

a clear timetable of events during the allocated interview time, for example, the first 30 minutes will focus on questions about your CV and experience relating to the role, and the second 30 minutes will be an aptitude test or technical trial

providing a quiet and calm space for the candidate to wait, prior to their interview, away from other visitors or general staff

avoiding general questions (e.g. 'Tell me about yourself')

asking specific questions based on the candidate's real/past experiences, e.g. 'In your last job, did you do any filing or data input?'; 'What processes/procedures did you use to do this effectively?'

avoiding hypothetical or abstract questions, e.g. 'How do you think you'll cope with working if there are lots of interruptions?' A better question would be 'Think back to your last job. Can you tell us how you coped with your work when people interrupted you?'

telling the candidate if they are talking too much as they may find it hard to judge how much information you need e.g. 'Thank you, you've told us enough about that now, and I'd like to ask you another question'.

prompting the candidate in order to extract all the relevant information and gather sufficient information

being aware that the candidate may interpret language literally e.g. asking, 'How did you find your last job?' may result in an answer of 'I looked on the map'

being aware that eye contact may be fleeting or prolonged, depending on the individual

providing adequate breaks during long interviews and prompt the interviewee to take a break when needed

allowing and prompting the candidate to refer, during the interview, to any written notes that they have made

Alternatives to the traditional interview

If adapting your interview skills to the needs of an autistic person sounds daunting, or if you feel that an interview might not be the best way to gauge the person's suitability for the post, there are other options:

Inviting a supporter to accompany the person

Many autistic people perform much better in interviews if they have a supporter with them. This person can act as a go-between to ease communication between the interviewer and the candidate, rewording any unclear questions for the candidate and helping them understand exactly what the interviewer wants.

The supporter will not answer on behalf of the person, but may help to rephrase unsuitably worded questions (although ideally the employer should do this in preparation for the interview). The supporter can help them to communicate with the interviewees, in order to clarify their relevant knowledge and skills. This does not only benefit the candidate: it can also help employers understand what the candidate has to offer.

Work trials

Some employers find that a work trial, or a period of work experience, is a better way of assessing skills than a formal interview. This approach may also help if you think that an autistic person is likely to do well in a job but you have concerns about how well they will cope in the workplace. If you would like to take this approach, our Employment Training Service can offer support and advice.

Thomas' story

Thomas applied for a position as a filing clerk at Camden Council. He was shortlisted and invited for an interview, which included a short filing test. During the interview, Thomas did not come across well. He tended to take questions very literally and gave 'yes' or 'no' answers to questions rather than elaborating on his experience. However, his prospective employers were extremely impressed when Thomas scored almost 100 per cent in the filing test - significantly higher than other candidates.

Following discussions with our employment service, which was supporting Thomas in his job search, Camden Council agreed to offer Thomas a work trial as an alternative method of assessing his ability to do the job. Thomas completed this with great success and was offered a four-week contract, working ten hours a week.

At the end of this time, his managers were delighted with his accuracy and reliability, and his contract was extended. Three years later, Thomas was still working for Camden as a filing clerk, enjoying and performing consistently well in his job.

Managing an autistic employee

Working with an autistic person can be an enriching experience for managers and colleagues alike, however support is important to make it successful.

Your organisation can avoid and overcome challenges in order to ensure enjoyable and effective working relationships via:

formal activities - from job coaches to state-funded initiatives to help with extra costs such as adaptations in the workplace

our Employment Training Service  can provide information about state-funded initiatives and the training and consultancy we provide

Autism at Work programme may be of interest if you are thinking about recruiting autistic people for a new role

informal activities -such as making sure communication is clear, that the  environment takes account of sensory needs, and the necessary support is at hand.

Understanding your autistic employee

"I have difficulty picking up social cues and difficulty in knowing what to do when I get things wrong." Autistic person

If an autistic person seems aloof or uninterested in talking to colleagues, or often says the 'wrong' thing, remember (and, where appropriate, remind colleagues) that this is probably unintentional and is likely to be due to communication challenges.

If an autistic person tries too hard to fit in and irritates colleagues by seeming to interrupt a conversation, be patient, and explain the boundaries if necessary. Other staff may also need reminding that their attitudes may have a strong impact on the job performance of their autistic colleague.

If an autistic person becomes anxious for any reason, try to find out what is causing the problem. One-to-one sessions are probably the best situation for doing this. You may need to think laterally. For example, the stress may not be caused by a difficulty in the job but by a colleague not being explicit in their instructions, by things not working efficiently (such as a computer crashing), or by difficulties in getting to their work. Trying to think around the immediate issue may help, as well as supportively asking the employee specific (though not invasive) questions to try to get to the root of the problem.

There may be occasions where problems do arise for an autistic person, particularly in social interactions, where communication can break down. If you become aware of any of these problems, try to deal with them swiftly and tactfully, and make colleagues aware of the potential for misunderstanding.

Your autistic staff member may also have some challenges in adapting their existing skills and knowledge to new tasks or environments. This can make the work environment hard and may cause misunderstandings among other staff, particularly as autism is an invisible condition. They may misconstrue the person's behaviour as rude, insensitive or unfriendly. However, the good news is that there are plenty of simple ways to make sure that the person has the support they need and to ensure good positive working relationships.

"I have an excellent memory for facts and figures for example, car number plates and timetables. I never have to write down telephone numbers. I have an excellent memory for jokes anecdotes and even whole movie scripts." Autistic person

Top tips

Clarify expectations of the job

You may need to be more explicit about your expectations for an autistic member of staff. As well as the job description, you need to explain the etiquette and unwritten rules of the workplace. Make it clear that any adaptations for them in the workplace are there to help them keep doing their job well, not because they are not good enough.

Provide training and monitoring

Clear and structured training is invaluable. This can be provided informally on the job, by a manager, colleagues or a mentor, or may take the form of more formal training. Various organisations and schemes offer job coaches, and funding for this form of training may be available from the Department of Work and Pensions. Our Employment Training Service can provide more information.

Make sure instructions are concise and specific

Try to give your employee clear instructions right from the start about exactly how to carry out each task, from start to finish, as this will lay the foundations for good working practices. Don't assume the person will infer your meaning from informal instructions - for example, rather than saying 'Give everybody a copy of this', say 'Make three photocopies of this, and give one each to Sam, Mary and Ahmed'. You may also choose to provide written instructions. It can be helpful to ask the person to repeat back instructions so you are sure they have understood.

Ensure the work environment is well-structured

Some autistic people need a fairly structured work environment. You can help by working with them to prioritise activities, organising tasks into a timetable for daily, weekly and monthly activities, and breaking larger tasks into small steps. Some people will appreciate precise information about start and finish times, and help getting into a routine with breaks and lunches.

Regularly review performance

As with any employee, line managers should have regular one-to-one meetings with the person to discuss and review performance and give overall comments and suggestions. For an autistic staff member, brief, frequent reviews may be better than longer sessions at less frequent intervals.

Provide sensitive but direct feedback

Autistic people often find it difficult to pick up on social cues, so make sure your feedback is honest, constructive and consistent. If they complete a task incorrectly, don't allude to, or imply, any problems - instead, explain tactfully but clearly why it is wrong, check that they have understood, and set out exactly what they should do instead. Be aware that some autistic people may have low self-esteem or experience of being bullied, so ensure that any criticism is sensitive, and give positive feedback wherever appropriate.

Provide reassurance in stressful situations

Autistic people can be quite meticulous, and can become anxious if their performance is not perfect. This means they may become stressed in a situation such as an IT failure. You can help by giving concrete solutions to these situations - for example, by explaining "If the photocopier breaks, use the one on the third floor." Similarly, reassure them that if they occasionally arrive late due to transport problems or other unpreventable factors, this is not a problem. Your employee may benefit from having a mentor or buddy in the workplace - an empathetic colleague who they can go to if they are feeling stressed, anxious or confused.

Support your staff member to prepare for changes

Give information about changes to the workplace or tasks well in advance.

Ask about sensory distractions

Autistic employees sometimes benefit from things like screens around their desk, noise-cancelling headphones, or their desk being in the corner.

Help other staff to be more aware

If your autistic employee consents to their condition being disclosed, then providing colleagues with information and guidance on autism can benefit everyone. Sometimes the employee may find it helpful to write a document for other staff explaining what their colleagues can do to support them. You could consider staff training, or our online modules.

David and Jacqui's story

"David already worked in my team as a Customer Sales Assistant when I became his line manager in 2002. I had no previous experience of working with people with autism, so I did some reading around the subject and David's  NAS support worker popped in and introduced herself early on, which was really helpful.

"David is very good with customers and has excellent interpersonal skills. In the time I've worked with him we haven't really had any particular challenges to overcome, mainly because Prospects has shown us how to prevent any difficulties from arising in the first place. But it's good to know that they are always there to provide back up if we need it. I feel I'm very fortunate to have someone like David in my team.

"Managing him has taught me that everyone is different, with their own individual strengths. Everyone in the team values David as a member of our working family." Jacqui Copas, Customer Reception Supervisor at First Great Western Railways

Our Autism at Work Programme

Our Autism at Work programme in association with the Bloomfield Trust aims to bridge the gap between skills shortages in industry and talented autistic candidates.

Through this programme, we support employers across a wide range of industries to create accessible job opportunities and to support candidates to access those opportunities. These opportunities could be in the form of:

paid internships

apprenticeships

paid roles (standard roles within the business)

We also support candidates to prepare for, and succeed in their employment.

Why should my organisation join?

We have a proven track record of working with employers as well as:

national reach

2000+ employees trained from a variety of sectors in 2018

working with prestigious organisations such as Virgin Loyalty, BT, Lloyds Banking Group, HMRC and Forever Beta

116 volunteer-run branches, 80 social care services and our schools (reach people in every county)

We campaign to improve public understanding, develop professional practices, and shaping government policies benefits a huge amount of autistic people and their families.

To find out about how your organisation can benefit from our programme and help bridge the gap between skills shortages and talented autistic candidates, please contact us.

Our hospitality work experience programme

HelmsBriscoe (HBcares) is our hospitality employment programme offering autistic people the opportunity to gain work experience opportunities within the hotel hospitality industry.

The programme comprises of:

an eight-week work experience placement for autistic adults (comprising of two days or 16 hours per week)

free autism awareness training for your staff from our team

free in-work support from one of our Job Coaches for your organisation and the work experience candidate

If your organisation would be interested in our programme, please contact us.

Further links and resources

Training

Sign-up for our half-day Recruiting Autistic Employees training course that aims to provide managers and HR professionals with the knowledge and skills they need to confidently recruit and support autistic employees into the workplace.

Complete our online training modules, developed by autistic people and autism specialists, and have been created to enhance your autism knowledge and fit into your busy schedule.

Find out more about our Employment training and consultancy services that include:

Useful articles

Useful books

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As an employer, you can help make the world a more autism-friendly place. We know that many of you are leading the way and making great progress in adapting your practice and making small adjustments that make a big difference to autistic employees.

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Strategies and habits that learners may use to help with sensory regulation

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Learning resources Archives - The Bell Foundation

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This KS3 EAL resource supports learners in Maths to develop their vocabulary around using money in daily life including the topics of banking, taxes, employment, shopping, commerce and travel. It will also be useful for new arrivals to the UK to introduce them to English currency and conventions around payment and banking.

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Topic: Fitness and giving opinions on a Joe Wicks fitness app after watching a video clip.

Uses NCFE spec for task 1 in listening and speaking exam. Teacher created content following NCFE guidance documents. I hope it is accurate and welcome feedback in case this does not represent the criteria.

Created for a student who needs a lot of support around speaking and listening. Can be adapted to much freer discussion with more cognitively able students.
Editor's note

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Topic: Fitness and giving opinions on a Joe Wicks fitness app after watching a video clip. Uses NCFE spec for task 1 in listening and speaking exam. Teacher created content following NCFE guidance documents. I hope it is accurate and welcome feedback in case this does not represent the criteria.

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Need help with your Texthelp software? Our technical support website is your starting point to access common support queries and resources. Check it out.

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Understanding Cognitive Load theory is essential if teachers are going to help students learn topics and concepts efficiently.

What is Cognitive Load Theory? Cognitive Load Theory explains that working (or short-term) memory has a limited capacity and that overloading it reduces the effectiveness of teaching. There are 3 types of cognitive load; Intrinsic (how complex the task is), Extraneous (distractions that increase load, and Germane (linking new information with the already stored in the long term memory).

If only we knew how students mentally process new information?

Oh, wait...We do!

Why it isn't the first thing taught to new teachers bewilders me!

Wanna know all about it?

I thought so, let's dive in.

What is Cognitive Load Theory?

Cognitive load theory builds on the premise that working (or short-term) memory has a limited capacity and that overloading it reduces the effectiveness of teaching. Much in the same way that having too many windows open on your computer, reduces its capability to work properly.

Given that the goal of learning is to move new information from the working memory into the long term memory, Cognitive load theory suggests that instructional materials and environments should be designed to reduce this load, thus removing distractions enables a more efficient passage of the desired learning from working memory to the long term memory.

Cognitive Load Theory was initially developed by Psychologist, John Sweller in 1988 (Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning), with further work done in 1998 (Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design).

What is Working Memory?

The working memory is responsible for rapid perceptual and linguistic processing. Put simply, it works out what the new information is all about and whether to store it in long term memory or discard it.

What are Schemas?

When a student (or anyone for that matter) is subjected to new information, their brain gives it a classification and stores it in the long term memory, this classification is known as schemas.

Schemas are like folders in your memory where you store similar information, i.e. you may have a file for all things to do with clothes or things to do with pasta etc. You also have behavioral schemas. Those that store all things to do with driving a car, making a sandwich or ice skating.

The more you use these schemas (practice) the easier the retrieval of the knowledge. Schemas are a very big part of cognitive load theory.

What is Cognitive Load?

Cognitive load refers to the amount of information the working memory can hold at any one given time. Most people can handle a cognitive load of between 3 and 7 separate pieces of information.

Cognitive load theory differentiates the types of cognitive load into 3 types; Intrinsic, Extraneous and Germane.

What are the 3 Types of Cognitive Load?

The three types of cognitive load build upon each other, too much of each of the first two (Intrinsic and Extraneoous) may not leave enough working memory to deal with the third (Germane).

Intrinsic Cognitive Load

Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the innate difficulty of the task. For example, recalling that Clownfish live in anemones would be low intrinsic load, whereas, explaining why both species benefit from this would be a higher level of intrinsic load.

Teachers can match the intrinsic load of a topic to the experience of the learner but can't do much to reduce the complexity of the topic.

We can, however, reduce extraneous load.

Extraneous Cognitive Load

Extraneous cognitive load is where we as teachers have the most control.

Extraneous cognitive load is concerned with the material and environment we subject the students to.

Poorly constructed materials and busy classroom environments can lead to the split-attention effect and add to extraneous cognitive load, it is our job to reduce this with the way we present our lessons.

Simply stated the split-attention effect is the distraction generated by using too many conflicting principles. It is detrimental to cognitive load.

Reducing the materials down to only contain the elements that are required is crucial.

Irrelevant images, distracting sounds or animations or even fonts that are difficult to read, a monotone voice and complicated vocabulary all add to the extraneous load.

If you don't manage the first two correctly, the next one can't happen...

...and that's a BIG problem!

I bet you're wondering how you can reduce extraneous load right?

Don't worry we'll get to that in a bit.

Germane Cognitive Load

Germane load is what we actually want to happen, it is the capacity of the working memory to link new ideas with information in the long term memory (It's the moment we've all seen, the "a-ha" lightbulb when a student finally gets it!).

The more prior knowledge a student has, the more effective the germane loading stage. Germane load is where metacognitive strategies come into play, it is where students are aware of their thinking processes and able to adapt new information accordingly.

Teaching students the prerequisite skills prior to having them undertake a more complicated task will help them construct new schemas that strengthen their working memory.

This means that pre-training, or teaching people prerequisite skills before introducing a more complex topic, will help them establish schemas that extend their working memory; and this then means that they can understand and learn more difficult information.

If we overload a student's working memory with intrinsic load (making the task too difficult to comprehend or carry out) or extraneous load (giving too many distracting stimuli), we don't leave enough to achieve the goal, the successful germane load.

This results in frustration (in both the student and the teacher) and a reduction in engagement in future tasks. How many times have you heard "I just don't get it, it won't stay in my head"?

Maybe analyzing the intrinsic and extraneous load you are putting the students under needs a rethink.

What are the 5 Principles of Reducing Cognitive Load?

I told you earlier when talking about extraneous load that I'd show you the best ways of reducing it. Well, as promised, here we go. (I'd never let you down!)

In his 2002 paper, Richard E. Mayer described five principles that teachers can use to help reduce cognitive load and thus, increase retention and progress by our students.

As an exercise, take a look through a few of your lessons and ask yourself, "Do my lesson designs to follow these principles?".

The Coherence Principle

Quite simply, the coherence principle involves reducing the amount of information on each slide/page/worksheet to only that that is necessary.

Images, sounds and words that are not essential, add to cognitive load.

Giving the student's working memory fewer stimuli to focus on enables more processing power to be used by the germane load (remember this is our goal).

The Signalling Principle

The signalling principle tells us to help our students focus on the information we are talking about by highlighting the important details.

We can do this via arrows or rings around the information. This reduces cognitive load by taking the work of scanning this visual away from the working memory.

This results in more juice for the germane load!

Winner!

The Redundancy Principle

Students learn best from images and narration, rather than text and narration. Images (visual) and narration (audio) do not compete with each other, therefore they use less cognitive load.

This is known as the "Modality Effect".

Basically, don't put lots of text on your resources and definitely don't just read out the text word for word (you might as well tell your students to go to sleep, they're going to be doing that anyway!).

In John Sweller's original paper " Cognitive Load Theory" he concludes that, "Working memory capacity can be effectively increased, and learning improved, by using a dual-mode presentation." (Cognitive Load Theory, 2011, Sweller, Ayres & Kalyuga).

Dual coding theory suggests that images, a small amount of text and narration (visual and verbal stimuli) are the most efficient way of reducing extraneous load. Just look at the two examples below that I have taken from Oliver Caviglioli's brilliant book " Dual Coding with Teachers "

Spatial Contiguity

Placing labels next to the thing they are describing, so students don't have to waste cognitive load juice working anything out.

It's all about making the working memory's job easier in terms of intrinsic and extraneous load so students have more use of germane load, the ability to make those connections with previously learned information.

Temporal Contiguity

Last but not least is temporal contiguity. This one is achieved simply by presenting the visual images and their labels at the same time. By doing this, the working memory knows they should be treated as an individual unit rather than separate entities.

Conclusion

Now you see why I'm convinced Cognitive Load Theory should be taught to all trainee teachers. It literally teaches us how to teach!

Along with Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction, Metacognition and Dual Coding Theory, Cognitive Load Theory, in my opinion, should be the basis of all teacher training.

What do you think? Comment below with your thoughts.

But first, there's a bonus poster at the bottom of this post from Oliver Caviglioli.

Cognitive Load Theory FAQ
What Is Cognitive Load Theory?
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The brand-new Transition to Employment Toolkit strives to improve opportunities for autistic people in their professional life. Through this collaborative project, Ambitious about Autism and Autism Education Trust intend to help tackle the low autism employment rate, which is currently at 22% according to the Office for National Statistics.

The resources will help employers to develop their awareness and understanding of autism. They will support the hiring and retaining of talented autistic young people, andhelp more autistic young people access sustainable and meaningful employment opportunities.

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The Tactile Sensory System

Tactile receptors exist all over our skin and send signals to our brains letting us know when we’ve touched something and providing us with information about what we’ve touched. Our tactile receptors are responsible for our experience of touch, pressure, pain, vibration temperature, and texture.

A person may be under-responsive (hypo-sensitive and sensory seeking) or over-responsive (hypersensitive and sensory avoidant).

​

Tactile Under-Responder (Hyposensitive)

A tactile under-responder has a dulled response to the experience of touch. They may bump into things or touch things without awareness of touching it. They may also create extra input (so they may fidget and touch things frequently to get more tactile input). They may also seek deep pressure as a form of sensory input.

Tactile Under-Responder May:

Not notice when touched

Have a good sense of pressure (may apply too much)

Enjoys roughhousing and play that involves deep pressure (wrestling, etc.)

Accidentally hurt others (unaware of pressure applied)

Seek pressure

Not notice when skin is dirty (may be prone to eat messily and be unaware food is on face)

Not aware when their nose is running

Enjoys fidgeting and to

Likes intense temperatures – a hot bath, hot food, chewing on ice

Strategies for Tactile Under-Responder:

Use fidgets (like Pop It Fidget Toys) (quick tactile input and provide something to fidget with)

Pressure: Consider constriction clothing (if they like pressure) or a weighted vest or weighted lap pad​

Explore Textures: Encourage children to explore different textures and talk about how they feel (nature is also a great place to do this).

Sensory Play: Provide messy play opportunities using bins and sensory play (water, sensory bins, sand, and kinetic sand, leaf piles, water tables, chalk on sidewalk, etc.)

Tactile Over-Responder (Hypersensitive)

Tactile over-responders are extra sensitive to touch. They may be labeled as overly “sensitive” and “overly reactive.”

Tactile Over-Responder May:

Have strong aversions to touch, clothing tags, certain fabrics, button closures

Avoid clothing with seams that contact the skin, or foods with certain textures

Not tolerate stickiness, mess, or dirt on hands

Experience difficulty touching specific textures

Appear to “over-react” when slightly touched or bumped

Be sensitive to temperature changes (and sensitive to heat and cold)

Have difficulty with grooming (hair care, nail cutting, washing)

Experience discomfort with food, facepaint, or makeup on the face

Strategies for Tactile Over-Responder:

Sensory-friendly clothing (find your ideal fabric and stick with it), remove tags, and use seamless socks​

Consider bathing over showering, use dry shampoo to provide a break from hair-washing

Model healthy body boundaries and help your child script out boundary statements they can comfortably say, such as “no thank you, I am not a hugger” or “please do not touch me, I have sensory sensitivities)

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Autism can present very differently in girls. This publication has some useful signs to look out for.

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The Know Yourself series is a set of free resources which includes videos and downloadable guides aiming to support autistic teens to understand what being autistic means.

In the resources you'll hear from young autistic people talking about their experiences and what has helped them. The aim is to offer information and ideas that will empower them to begin to explore their own experiences and understand themselves more.

The series will cover six topics in total over the course of three years. The first four topics, ‘understanding yourself’, ‘energy accounting’, ‘exploring your identity’ and ‘setting yourself up for success’ are available below.

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Further information on the differences between male and female autism.

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Autism is a lifelong developmental disability which affects the way a person communicates and how they experience the world around them. It is described as a spectrum condition because while autistic people share certain characteristics, they are highly individual in their interests, needs and preferences. Some autistic people live independently, but others need additional support.

When the earliest studies of autism were being carried out in the 1940s, the research involved many more autistic boys than girls, leading some to incorrectly view autism as a condition that only affected males. We now know that people of all genders can be autistic. However, autism is still diagnosed between three and four times more often in boys compared to girls, on average (Loomes et al., 2017). Girls on average tend to be diagnosed 1.8 years later than boys, and it can take longer for them to get a diagnosis after parents or teachers first raise concerns (Begeer et al., 2013). In other words, autistic girls are more likely to be 'missed' until later in life - even until adulthood.

Theories about the autism gender gap

Research about autism is evolving all the time and there are several theories as to why fewer women and girls are diagnosed as autistic. Some research says women are less likely to be autistic due to genetic and environmental factors (Robinson et al., 2013). However, there may also be biases that prevent girls from receiving an autism diagnosis, even though they are autistic.

One reason for this is that some autistic girls present differently to the 'typical' way that we think about autism. For instance, many autistic people have very intense interests around certain topics, which can give them a lot of joy. 'Typical' examples of these would be trains, or bus timetables, which are often thought of as stereotypically male and different to non-autistic children's interests. However, many autistic girls have interests that are similar in type to girls their age, such as animals or TV shows. Although these are much more intense than non-autistic girls' interests, they might not be picked up as autistic interests, and so might not be included when considering whether a child should be referred for an autism assessment.

"I thought that I was (autistic) for a long time but always decided I couldn't be because of one point which was that I understood autistics have no empathy and I drown in empathy. When I learned that this diagnosis is based on males and females can present differently including a lot of empathy it opened the door." Paula, 50, autistic woman.

Masking

Girls may also mask their autism more than boys do, hiding differences or difficulties, and causing less disruption, so that other people don't realise they are struggling. Masking involves copying the behaviour and manners of others, while hiding things that might be seen as 'different'. For example, a girl might hide sensory sensitivities at school to avoid being teased, which can mean they look 'less autistic' at school than at home. However, boys can also mask their autism.

"I was seen as shy and quiet and never needed help with schoolwork. I was academically ok, so nobody noticed my social struggles. Girls can easily disappear in the crowd when they are quiet." Leanne, 37, first thought she was autistic age 28.

Masking your true self has been associated with poor mental health outcomes for autistic people. Autistic people experience much higher levels of mental health problems, particularly anxiety and depression, compared to non-autistic people. Autistic girls in particular often have very high levels of depression, bipolar or personality disorders, and eating disorders. Research suggests that some mental health conditions such as eating disorders may work differently for autistic people, meaning the usual treatments are not as effective (Brede et al., 2020). This can be particularly challenging because these mental health conditions can 'overshadow' autism, meaning it is harder for girls to receive appropriate support for both their mental health and their autism.

"Boys' crisis moments tend to be more outward, aggressive, noticeable and stereotypically considered "autistic" whereas girls crises tend to be more inward, appear passive and are judged as mental health so as sent down the wrong pathways or given a lower priority for assessment." Anonoymous, 35, first thought she was autistic age 15.

Gender stereotypes and social expectations also play a role in the under diagnosis of females. Some describe feeling pressure to conform to the female gender stereotype of being a 'better' social communicator, more compliant and amenable. For this reason, some feel the need to supress their natural autistic ways of thinking, being and communicating.

"The gendered history of autism cannot be ignored, and sexism and influence of the patriarchy affects autism research like any other field." Al, 23, first thought they were autistic age 12.

Looking to the future

Receiving a diagnosis of autism can be life-changing - it can help everything make sense and give autistic people and their families strategies to make life easier. In a survey by Ambitious about Autism, 85% of autistic women said their lives were easier and better since getting a diagnosis. However, waiting lists for autism assessments are still very long, with many families waiting for two years or longer from first being referred to a specialist, to getting an outcome for their child. This can make life harder when families are already struggling and looking for support. Having shorter waiting times, and more support during and after the diagnostic process, would help families during this time. Ambitious about Autism is working with autistic young people to help them make sense of their autistic diagnosis.

"There should be more research about girls, women, and non-binary people that are autistic." Gabriel, 20, first thought he was autistic age 6.

Every autistic person is different so it's vital that diagnosticians and clinicians, as well as parents, teachers and the general public, move away from outdated stereotypes and focus on the individual. Increasing awareness of autistic girls and non-binary people will reduce stigma and produce a society in which autistic girls and women can flourish. We need to keep building our understanding of the great and diverse range of autistic people, so they can be heard, seen, and supported.
About the authors
This article was written collaboratively by Dr Laura Hull and Ambitious about Autism, using the views and experiences of autistic girls, woman and non-binary people. Dr Laura Hull is a researcher focusing on the mental health of autistic children and young people, with a particular interest in the experiences of girls and women. She has co-written a book (Autism and Masking) to help autistic people and those who support them understand more about masking and the impacts it can have.
References
Loomes, R., Hull, L., and Mandy, W. P. L. (2017). What is the male-to-female ratio in autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(6), 466-474.

Begeer, S., Mandell, D., Wijnker-Holmes, B., Venderbosch, S., Rem, D., Stekelenburg, F., and Koot, H. M. (2013). Sex differences in the timing of identification among children and adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(5), 1151-1156.

Robinson, E. B., Lichtenstein, P., Anckarsäter, H., Happé, F., and Ronald, A. (2013). Examining and interpreting the female protective effect against autistic behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(13), 5258-5262.

Brede, J., Babb, C., Jones, C., Elliott, M., Zanker, C., Tchanturia, K., Serpell, L., Fox, J., and Mandy, W. (2020). " For me, the anorexia is just a symptom, and the cause is the autism": Investigating restrictive eating disorders in autistic women. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(12), 4280-4296.

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Ambitious about Autism is the national charity for autistic children and young people. We stand with autistic children, young people and their families to champion rights, campaign for change and create opportunities.

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Every autistic person experiences autism differently, and it is important to recognise their individuality. Historically, research has focused on autism expression in men and boys, however society is now moving towards better understanding autism expression in women and girls.

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There are many ways in which teachers can support their autistic female students in the classroom across social, emotional, and academic areas. This blog provides tips and strategies for teachers and teacher’s aides.

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Twenty-Two Ways to Support Autistic Girls* at School

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By Dr. Michelle Garnett and Prof Tony Attwood In a previous blog, we discussed how to recognise an autistic girl in the classroom because she is often not discovered until after mental health concerns have begun. Once recognised and understood, there are many ways in which teachers can support their autistic female students in the [...]

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Learning Support Referral form 2024-2025

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A key skill for keeping safe and learning how to react to situations appropriately is problem solving. Problem solving stairs provide small steps to support in solving a problem.

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Example of Problem Solving Stairs Visual

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Example of Problem Solving Stairs Visual

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Visual frameworks of decision making charts.

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A key concept in education for the last decade has been the idea of scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to breaking up new concepts so that they can be learned more easily. It's a process that many teachers have used for decades but that has recently received much more attention as an instructional approach.

By implementing scaffolding, teachers can improve the likeliness that students will grasp new materials and retain what they've learned.

Scaffolding vs Differentiation

Occasionally, teachers confuse scaffolding and differentiation. However, the two are distinct. In a report issued by the Tennessee Department of Education, differentiation was defined as a framework in which different students received different methods of learning. Scaffolding, on the other hand, was defined as breaking up learning into chunks so that students tackled increasingly more complex material.

In practice, differentiated instruction is characterized by attempts to change the activities that students use to learn about a topic. This might mean providing different materials to students with different learning styles. For some students, highly visual materials may be appropriate, while other students might be more highly tactile learners.

Scaffolding, on the other hand, breaks up even differentiated lessons so that they are delivered in increasingly complex chunks. It breaks up learning new topics into stages in which old ideas are connected to new ones and students are led from guided to independent instruction. There are several ways that this can be done.

Scaffolding Techniques

There are many different scaffolding interventions that can support learning. Some of these interventions include hands-on activities while others rely on the teacher to explain related concepts. The task that teachers use should be appropriate to what is being learned and appeal to the strengths of the students working through the materials.

Throughout the scaffolding process, a heavy emphasis should be placed on connecting old concepts to new ones to set a foundation for learning. Here are just a few of the ways that teachers can set the stage for teaching difficult new concepts.

Advance Organizers

Advance organizers deliver a preview of more complicated materials yet to come. The organizer serves as an introduction and provides basic principles about how students should think about the material. The advance organizer also takes what students have already learned and connects it to the material yet to come. This helps provide a strong foundation for learning new materials.

What are some specific examples of organizers? Graphic organizers provide visuals that students can engage with. During the introductory lesson, students can fill in missing pictures of the visual. This extra level of engagement helps students to better understand the basic principles that will underlie more complex tasks.

Expository organizers are among the most common types of organizers because they are straightforward in their nature. This organizer only requires that teachers tell students what the goal of the lesson is. Teachers verbalize and connect previous lessons to the current lesson and how that sets the basis for future lessons.

A creative form of organizing includes storytelling. This takes the verbalized expository organizer and puts a creative spin on it. With this organizer, teachers take previous concepts and lessons and frame them in a story. The story also includes concepts that will be learned in upcoming lessons. By framing past and current principles in a narrative frame, the teacher creates a more engaging framework in which students learn their lessons.

Concept and Mind Maps

Concept and mind maps are simply visual graphics that show relationships between learning concepts. These maps show previous concepts students have learned related to new concepts that will be encountered. These kinds of maps are especially appealing to visual learners, making them valuable when differentiating and scaffolding learning for highly visual learners.

A mind map is drawn so that related topics are connected by branches, with one central concept uniting them all. For instance, take the concept of mind mapping to make it the central category. Now, think up three major 'branches' related to mind maps. One branch could be creativity, another could be planning, and a third one could be beneficial.

The creativity branch could be made of smaller branches such as ideas and innovation. The planning branch could be made of smaller branches that include strategies and goals. Finally, the benefits branch could include fun and simple. Now, you have a mind map as the central concept made of three branches, each with their own smaller branches. You can also find connections from different branches.

When applied to education, teachers can use this to connect almost any type of concept. For instance, you may be teaching a science class about cellular structure. As the central concept, you might have human cells. Then, the branches could be composed of stem cells, bone cells, blood cells, and so forth. Each cell could then possess its own set of smaller branches describing features unique to that cell. This approach helps students see the features of each type of human cell but also similar features between cells.

Instruction

Sometimes, the best scaffolding technique is the one that teachers are most familiar with. There's always a place for simply teaching students, and sometimes teachers can be most effective by giving a straightforward lesson that prepares students for more complex work to come. A prime example of this is language.

When dealing with language, students are given vocabulary lessons prior to reading something difficult. This helps them because students tend to become disengaged whenever they are reading and struggle to understand the words in their assignment. Reviewing particularly difficult vocabulary words before the reading helps students understand how to pronounce these words and what they mean.

Teachers can review the reading assignment and identify words that the students might find some particular difficulties with and provide handouts for the students for use during the vocabulary review.

Teachers can also add an engaging element to this process prior to reviewing the words with students. Before reviewing the word list, students can bring the students together in groups and ask them to brainstorm what the words might mean. The teacher can then review the class' ideas to see what similar words they came up with. Finally, the teacher can explain what the word means and the class can identify which brain stormed words were accurate.

The Benefits of Scaffolding

There are a number of benefits to scaffolding instructional approaches in the classroom. Some of these benefits are related to the fact that they have a personal, emotional impact on students. Other benefits to scaffolding include the positive outcomes in grades. Here are just some of the ways that scaffolding can benefit students.

Scaffolding Improves Comprehension

Each student is different and learns at a different pace. Because of this, some students often fall behind. They simply don't comprehend the material and find themselves being outpaced by their peers. Scaffolding can address this issue.

Scaffolding is particularly effective when teaching about a new topic, which is when many students struggle. New materials provide unique challenges since students are asked to learn about entirely new topics with which they have little experience. Scaffolding is an approach proven to increase learning outcomes.

Scaffolding Enhances Problem Solving

Scaffolding helps teachers to connect already learned concepts with material that is part of a new lesson. This previously learned material helps set a foundation for new materials to be learned. Students also start thinking about new materials using some of the same approaches they used to tackle their previously learned materials.

Connected old concepts to new ones guides students in understanding how to deal with new materials. This may involve seeing connections when discussing a new type of cell in a science class or could involve remembering how they dealt with math problems in previous lessons and using similar approaches to dealing with more complex math challenges.

Scaffolding Creates Higher Engagement

An important way that scaffolding works is by improving student engagement. There are a variety of activities that teachers can use that get students more directly involved with their class work. Plus, the close support teachers can provide during scaffolded instruction can keep students from becoming discouraged.

By building on knowledge a student already knows, it keeps the student from getting lost when learning new content and keeps them involved in their lessons. Scaffolding reduces student frustration and keeps them interested in what they're learning.

Scaffolding Creates a More Positive Classroom

Scaffolding is an approach that can help reduce frustration and anxiety in the classroom. These two factors can have a number of negative outcomes and push students away from learning. Scaffolding takes these negative factors out of the class by removing typical points at which students struggle. Traditionally, teachers teach a lesson and then students independently practice.

Scaffolding creates a supportive environment with higher levels of engagement between students, teachers, and their peers. Using scaffolding brings together a number of positive practices associated with improved academic outcomes, including peer learning and increased teacher support.

These classrooms integrate lower stakes activities in which students are free to fail without having to worry that they will have their grades suffer. They can feel free to experiment with a teacher providing support or can enjoy the support of their peers as they work through complex materials.

Scaffolding creates a more easygoing classroom with a much more supportive structure in which students don't have to stress themselves out about how well they do. This approach makes it easier to encourage student innovation and participation and lessons the anxieties students feel about coming to class.

Every student has one particular subject that they don't feel confident about, and scaffolding can remove the negative perceptions they might have of those classes.

Challenges of Implementing Scaffolding

There are challenges that every teacher has to face when it comes to implementing scaffolding. For instance, scaffolding can take a good bit of time to set up originally. Teachers have to review existing lessons, identify points in their lessons where scaffolding is needed, and come up with scaffolding activities that can enhance learning. This can be time consuming when teachers first attempt to implement scaffolding. However, as with many other shifts in teaching style, the bulk of the work needs to be done when a teacher is first changing their style. Activities can be reused later on and speed up the planning process.

It's choosing the activities themselves that can pose a problem for teachers. As previously pointed out, scaffolding is different from differentiated teaching. Scaffolding activities have to be able to meet the strengths of students with very different learning styles.

Teachers have to take the time to understand the strengths of their class and come up with activities that will be broadly appealing to students of many learning styles. Alternatively, they may have to identify different scaffolding activities individual students can complete that appeal to their strengths. It's this process of identifying strengths and weaknesses that can be time consuming.

Appropriately scaffolding instruction can be particularly difficult for novice teachers. More experienced teachers often have an easier time identifying different learning styles of students in their classes. These teachers often have an easier time adapting their lessons to meeting these different learning styles. For new teachers, it can be harder to identify what works within their classes and how to differentiate their scaffolding activities in such a way that no student is left behind.

However, one of the most difficult aspects of scaffolding can be knowing when to let go and stop scaffolding for students. After a period of introducing students to new materials, teachers have to be able to let their students work independently on their materials.

It can sometimes be difficult to understand just when to let go. It's also human nature to want to retain control. However, it's important for teachers to understand when to stop holding their students' hands and let them progress forward independently instead of providing scaffolding for the students to use. However, if teachers adhere to a four-stage format, they are more likely to implement successful scaffolding in the classroom.

The Four Stages of Scaffolding

North Illinois University recommends a four-stage method of scaffolding that progresses from teacher led activity to independent learning. In the first stage, an instructor introduces the subject and performs a task related to that subject. During this period, they connect previously learned material to material that is about to be introduced and show how a newly learned task can be completed. This is a period that allows students to observe and later model the teacher's behavior.

Afterward, the teacher can ask for the class as a whole to participate in completing a similar activity. During this time, the teacher takes feedback from the class about what to do next when completing the task. Some activities may lend themselves to the teacher writing a list of these recommendations and trying out each of them.

Regardless of whether a list can be created, the third step of the lesson involves bringing groups together to complete a similar activity. In groups, students can work together and use peer instruction to help guide each other through the activity.

The last stage of the lesson involves teachers allowing students to complete a similar task on their own. At this stage, the teacher removes the scaffolding entirely and allows the students to work independently.

Building on the knowledge they've gained over the three previous stages, they can more effectively tackle a similar problem independently. Of course, even with a four-stage process, some students may not have fully grasped the lesson. This fourth stage is an important point in which teachers can assess student progress but also determine how effective their scaffolding process was.

It should be noted that while the four-stage process provides a framework for teachers to follow, they should only use it as a loose framework and not a rigid structure. For instance, the model provided by North Illinois University assumes that the teacher acts primarily as a lecturer during the first stage and doesn't include some of the introductory activities we've previously discussed, like the creation of mind maps.

However, the first stage of a teacher's instruction can be brief and be merged into the second stage, with students filling out activities as the teacher introduces the concepts and completes related tasks. Then the class can break out into groups and finish tasks before moving to independent work. The four-stage model provides an outline that teachers can learn from, but they should feel free to compress it when necessary or make some stages longer if the topic is particularly complex.

Conclusion

Scaffolding can be a little time intensive when first attempting to implement in the classroom and can be particularly difficult for new teachers to grasp. However, it's a powerful means of helping students learn new concepts and helps them retain new information more easily.

By connection old ideas to new ones, teachers set a foundation for learning those new concepts. Then, by gradually working toward independent practice, teachers can progressively challenge students to successfully deal with these new concepts on their own.

Read Also:
- Teaching Methods and Strategies: The Complete Guide
- Blended Learning Guide
- Collaborative Learning Guide
- Flipped Classroom Guide
- Game Based Learning Guide
- Gamification in Education Guide
- Holistic Education Guide
- Maker Education Guide
- Personalized Learning Guide
- Place-Based Education Guide
- Project-Based Learning Guide
- Social-Emotional Learning Guide

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Scaffolding means breaking up new concepts so that they can be learned more easily. It helps students to grasp new materials.

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The British Dyslexia Association is the voice for the 10% of the population that are dyslexic

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Visual reading problems & Coloured Filters

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Visual reading problems & Coloured Filters

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Coloured Filters

Olive Meares in Australia was the first to suggest that children with visual reading difficulties may see print more easily through certain coloured filters. This was taken up commercially in the USA and UK. But these systems require that each child is individually prescribed a special colour; so the glasses tend to cost a lot! However since the visual magnocellular system is mainly influenced by just yellow or blue light, John & Sue argue that these are the only two colours that will really make much difference.

Yellow filters

Blue Filters

Melanopsin retinal ganglion cells and their projections (melanopsin RGCs)

These RGCs are spread diffusely forming a photoreceptive net that samples the whole retina. They project strongly to the 'biological clock', the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus, which controls the body's diurnal rhythms. This retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) input synchronises this clock to seasonally changing day length to entrain our endocrine, physiological and cognitive rhythms to sunrise and sunset.

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Coloured Filters for Dyslexia | Dyslexia Research Trust

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Reading problems and dyslexia symptoms related to visual processing problems can be treated with coloured lenses. Read more from the DRT.

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Online Resources & Support for College Students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, or Dyscalculia

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Online Resources & Support for College Students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, or Dyscalculia

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Written By
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Expert Review
Dr. Manfredi

- Bio

Dr. Manfredi is a neuropsychologist and certified school psychologist in private practice in Bensalem, PA. She specializes in the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders throughout the lifespan, with particular emphasis on learning differences and disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders. For more information about Dr. Manfredi or her practice, please visit www.neuroassessconsult.com.

Dyslexia can affect the way a person reads, writes, spells, and speaks. How dyslexia presents is unique to the individual, but for the most part, it's a condition in which the brain has trouble putting together the sounds that letters and words make. Signs can include difficulty spelling, slow reading, mispronouncing words, a delay in learning to read, and trouble with understanding text.
Dyslexia & College
College requires a great deal of reading and writing. From reading long assignments and novels in history class to taking notes in a lecture course, students are constantly with pen and paper. Those with dyslexia can find that these tasks seem simple for others but very difficult for them. Even with increased study time and paying perfect attention in class, those who have not been diagnosed might find themselves falling behind without understanding why.

Everyone is different when it comes to their preferred learning environment, whether they are dealing with a disability or not. But some might find that certain environments make it easier to handle their disability and still succeed in school.

For instance, smaller class sizes can provide more one-on-one instruction. The option of having a tutor, or extra time with the professor after class, can work wonders for those who have further questions. Along that same vein, students might want to look for classes that are shorter but meet more frequently, rather than long classes that meet only once or twice a week. There are small changes a person can make as well, such as a person with dysgraphia testing out different pens and paper to find one that makes writing work better for them.

It's also important to consider study environment. A quiet, stress-free, comfortable place can help you think through every word, question, or answer in a methodical way. Since it can take longer for those with these conditions to get their homework or studying done, count on taking more hours outside of class than peers in order to handle the workload.

Though you do have many rights as a college student with a disability, you also have some responsibilities. One of those is ensuring good communication with your professors to ensure accommodations can be met in their classroom. Here are some ways to help open up that dialogue.

Share information from the disability office Provide each professor with information from the disability office on the accommodations you need. Remember, you don't have to disclose your disability, just the accommodations required.

Discuss solutions if necessary If a particular accommodation will be difficult to achieve in the classroom, brainstorm with your professor about how to find other ways to make it work.

Explain what to expect If you have trouble paying attention in class, let them know. If you have difficulty with reading aloud, let them know. The more details they have, the more they can help you.

Have regular "catch up" meetings Speak with your professors on a regular basis throughout the year. Talk to them about how the accommodations are working. You might also want to meet with them when a test grade is low, or you see other problems beginning to creep in that might indicate changes are needed.

Don't hesitate to report problems Though most professors will be supportive, some might be annoyed or believe that the problems aren't as bad as the documentation says they are. If you ever feel discriminated against at all, don't hesitate to get in touch with the disability services office or representative.

Dr. Manfredi is a neuropsychologist and certified school psychologist in private practice in Bensalem, PA. She specializes in the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders throughout the lifespan, with particular emphasis on learning differences and disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders. For more information about Dr. Manfredi or her practice, please visit www.neuroassessconsult.com.

A. One of the essential components of success is to have a thorough understanding of how they learn best and what strategies are most effective for them. With this understanding, students with learning disabilities can begin to map out exactly what supports and accommodations they need to be successful. Often, this understanding starts with a comprehensive evaluation from a psychologist or neuropsychologist, who can explain how they learn best and help to identify the strategies that might be helpful to them.
ADA.gov. Assistive Technology Tools. College and Dyscalculia. Council for Learning Disabilities. Dyscalculia.org. Dyslexia Research Institute. Dyslexic Advantage. Ghotit Real Writer. LD Online. Learning Ally. Understood.

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Online Resources & Support for College Students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, or Dyscalculia

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Written By Edumed Staff Expert Review Dr. Manfredi - Bio Dr. Manfredi is a neuropsychologist and certified school psychologist in private practice in Bensalem, PA. She specializes in the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders throughout the lifespan, with particular emphasis on learning differences and disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders.

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Dyspraxia: My life with the misunderstood condition

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Dyspraxia: My life with the misunderstood condition

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BBC presenter Xanthe Palmer has dyspraxia, a complex and life-changing disorder she says is frequently misunderstood. She wanted to change that, so set out to speak to others with the condition to shine a spotlight on the challenges they face.

Xanthe, now 23, was told she had dyspraxia - a lifelong condition affecting movement and co-ordination - when she was a 19-year-old university student. In some ways it explained a lot. "Clumsy", "fidgety" and "lazy" are labels often applied to people with dyspraxia, and ones that many without a diagnosis accept.

The most common symptoms affect motor skills and balance. Dyspraxia isn't linked to intelligence, but experts say it can interfere with executive functions such as time management and short-term memory. It's thought the extra concentration needed to perform everyday tasks can cause fatigue, and many with the condition describe feeling frequently exhausted.

Xanthe says: "You battle against it every single day. It isn't life threatening but it is life-changing."

Her own experience was the inspiration for a radio documentary. She spoke to doctors and professors. but also people around the UK who, like Xanthe, face their own daily battle with dyspraxia.

"I didn't really know what dyspraxia was, I'd never heard of it and I didn't realise that was what made me different or made me awkward or weird or clumsy," says Victoria Roberts.

"If there's something to fall over, or something to break or something to burn myself on or cut myself on I will do it."

The 50-year-old, from Sheffield, was not diagnosed until she was 40, and her co-ordination issues make her feel very self-conscious.

"Clumsiness can be quite cute, but it makes me feel like a battleship in full force and I am never going to be the most feminine person in the room," she says.

Her diagnosis did explain some of the issues she had in childhood and the struggles she had with handwriting. "I was never as graceful as some of my friends were. I was just mega, mega clumsy," she says.

Victoria describes her brain as a filing cabinet where, sometimes, a drawer jams and it cannot find the file it needs.

"It's not pretty in my head sometimes."

'A big mountain to climb'

According to the Dyspraxia Foundation, the condition affects about 5% of school-aged children, 2% severely. Eleven-year-old Jacob, from Doncaster, is one of them.

His mum, Tracie, says his obvious symptoms are related to his co-ordination. "Walking, talking, getting from A to B, organising ourselves... Jacob struggles with that," she says. "Everything has to be at a slower rate, everything has to be methodically thought out."

For Jacob it means working harder than somebody who is not dyspraxic, which Tracie says can be "exhausting" for him. And if his routine is disrupted or he forgets something then the day can quickly go downhill.

"It's not gone right, he can't get past that," Tracie says.

At its worst, Jacob's dyspraxia can have a knock-on impact upon his emotional wellbeing, and Tracie says he has mentioned wanting to hurt himself. "He's felt really, really down," she says.

"It's devastating. It's knowing that there is nothing you can do as a parent other than try and build up his self-esteem."

Symptoms continue into adolescence and adulthood in most cases, something that causes Tracie to worry for her son's future.

"I know he is going to face difficulties that I've faced, going from being a child to an adult. And I don't have any disabilities, so for him it is going to be a bigger mountain to climb than it ever was for me."

The demands of dealing with daily life mean some with dyspraxia can find themselves unable to process all the information coming in, something Robert Hodge, an administrator from Plymouth, has experienced.

"When it comes to processing the world such as the environment, I can get overwhelmed with too much information," the 29-year-old says. "If am in a bright environment, lots of sound, lots of instructions, it can overwork my brain and it just shuts down."

Robert says he needs to have an escape route if he is going to a meeting or a new place in order to ease any anxiety.

"I just feel emotions more heavily," he says. "That includes positive ones. There can be times when I can have an overwhelming positive emotion that can cause me to shut down."

Like many others with the condition, Robert has so-called "dyspraxic days" when his co-ordination becomes a real issue.

"I will end up dropping everything, bumping into everything. Then I just write the day off and say 'tomorrow is a new day'," he says. "If I try to avoid having a dyspraxic day I think it just ends up making it worse. It is so exhausting to really be careful of every object."

Drag performer Raspberry the Dyspraxic Diva of Dundee describes her brain as "a monkey clanging cymbals".

"I am trying to get through life, I am trying to do it as smoothly as possible, but this monkey is clanging those cymbals whenever I am trying to have a sensible thought."

She describes it as one of the most "tedious" disabilities of all time. "It is always just there niggling in the background," she says.

The symptoms affect her speech, conversational flow and make it impossible to stand still, she says, things can imply a lack of confidence when performing.

"People look at you differently, they feel like they are seeing you crack a little bit," she says. "I may be dyspraxic, but I am a lot more than that."

"I want to be just as respected and just as admired, just a confident, strong person. It is frustrating, because sometimes I feel I have to prove that harder than anyone else."

Despite the difficulties faced by people with dyspraxia some like Robert Hodges could not imagine not having it.

"It's just a part of who I am, it's not something I could wish away, but I don't think I would want it permanently gone and without dyspraxia who would I be?"

It is a sentiment shared by Victoria Roberts.

"If I wished I didn't have dyspraxia that would be wishing I was somebody different and it's taken me a very long time to like who I am."

My Dyspraxic Life, presented by Xanthe Palmer, is available on BBC Sounds here.

Follow BBC Yorkshire on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram. Send your story ideas to yorkslincs.news@bbc.co.uk.

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Dyspraxia: My life with the misunderstood condition

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Radio presenter Xanthe Palmer speaks to others with the condition and the daily battle they all face.

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What is ADHD?

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a type of condition known as a neurodevelopmental condition.

Neurodevelopmental conditions like ADHD affect the way your brain develops and works, which can impact your behaviour and the way you experience the world around you.

Around one in 20 young people have ADHD. While it is not a mental health condition or a learning disability, some people with ADHD might experience mental health conditions as well.

If you have ADHD your brain might work differently to other people's. It means that the way your brain controls your concentration, activity levels and impulses is a bit different - this is a form of neurodiversity.

For example, you might act without thinking about the consequences or be very easily distracted. However, it's important to remember that people with ADHD can and do live happy and healthy lives.

Show/hide caption

Artwork credit: @the_mini_adhd_coach. The artwork depicts a person with a pink bob hairstyle and a peaceful expression. Their head sits on a light blue background. Text placed around the person reads 'it's ok to feel overwhelmed'.

Symptoms tend to start very early in life, before the age of six. Lots of people will get an ADHD diagnosis at this age, but you can be diagnosed at any stage in your life and you might not realise you have ADHD until you're much older.

Symptoms for ADHD can be different for everyone and can depend on your age, sex, gender identity and whether you have any other neurodevelopmental conditions.

ADHD can run in families, but the cause is mostly unknown.

I have ADHD and other people will have it too, so don't think you're alone because you are not. I know it's hard but we can all get through it if we stay strong, be brave and overcome our worries and fears.

How can ADHD affect me?

If you experience any of these symptoms it doesn't mean you definitely have ADHD. But if any of them are affecting your everyday life, you should talk to your GP or a trusted adult for advice.

Symptoms can include:

feeling restless or fidgety (e.g. struggling to sit still in class)

talking a lot and interrupting others

becoming easily distracted or having difficulty concentrating, like finding it hard to watch a film at the cinema

having difficulty making or keeping friends

being forgetful or missing important appointments

feeling very sensitive or overly emotional

saying or doing things without thinking

For a long time, it was thought that women and girls were much less likely to have ADHD than boys and men. This is not true, however women and girls might experience ADHD differently to boys and men.

For example, female-identifying people might be more likely to experience symptoms such as:

struggling to relax or unwind

feeling overwhelmed when making decisions

your mind often drifting when other people are talking

feeling overwhelmed in social situations

For a long time I thought I couldn't have ADHD because I didn't relate to the hyperactivity.

What to do if you think you might have ADHD

If you think you might have ADHD, it's important to remember that you don't have to go through it alone and there is help available.

Tell your GP about your symptoms. We know it can be challenging to talk to your GP, but they may be able to support you, refer you to a specialist for an ADHD assessment, or refer you to Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) if you need any mental health support before or after your assessment.

To find out if you have ADHD you'll need to talk to an expert, like a specialist child or adult psychiatrist.

They'll ask you some questions and you will fill in some questionnaires about how you're feeling and the symptoms you've experienced - this is called an assessment. They will also ask your permission to speak to your parents and teachers as part of the assessment.

Your family might not be supportive of you being assessed but it's important for you to get the right support for you.

There might be other reasons for your ADHD symptoms such as anxiety or depression. The ADHD specialist will be able to tell you more following your assessment.

Advice on how to manage your ADHD

There are many things you can do to help manage your ADHD. Below are some ideas based on what young people have told us helps them.

It is very comforting and validating to see other people have similar struggles. We talk a lot about the way things are going and give each other tips or help around things.

ADHD and your mental health

ADHD can leave you feeling out of control and overwhelmed.

People might not understand what you're going through and could think you are acting out or being difficult, or criticise and punish you unnecessarily. This can make you feel isolated and depressed, or it can lead to feelings of low self-esteem, especially if you're comparing yourself to your friends who might behave differently to you.

You might also find it hard to sleep, meaning you feel tired, run down and struggle to concentrate. It can help to cut down on caffeine or other stimulants after 4pm as this can also impact your sleeping patterns.

However, having ADHD can also mean that you're really passionate about lots of things. Our brains all work differently and there is no "right way" to be - recognising that is what neurodiversity is all about. If you're struggling with your mental health, these can be positive things to focus on.

It can be really helpful to talk to your friends, family and teachers about how you feel and how they can support you. Let them know what you do and don't find helpful so that they can do their best to help.

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Artwork credit: @authenticallyadhd. The artwork features drawings of stars, moons and planets on a light blue background. One larger planet with arms is giving itself a hug and the text reads: 'don't forget to give yourself the same love you give everyone else'.

Some tips from our Activists that can help with your ADHD symptoms include:

taking time out and finding ways to relax, or taking regular breaks

letting teachers/lecturers know about your ADHD so you can come up with helpful strategies together

registering with the disabilities services at university so you can get the right support in lectures and exams as well as with assignments

regular exercise and eating healthily

making notes or keeping lists to stay on top of things

Tips for managing your mental health if you have ADHD include:

creating a routine for the day

setting clear boundaries in your personal, school or professional life

reflecting on the day and what you achieved - this can be as small as getting to school/work or getting through a lesson

removing yourself from any stressful situations

finding the best ways for you to cope in social situations

looking at local support groups

recognising potential triggers that might make your symptoms worse; these will be unique to each person but could include being over-stimulated

Other common questions people ask about ADHD

ADHD is something that you're born with so you won't 'grow out of it'. However, lots of people do say that their symptoms get a bit better as they get older.

What medicines are used to treat ADHD symptoms?

The below medicines are most frequently prescribed to people with ADHD. These are not a cure, but can help many people to manage some of the symptoms. The medication must be prescribed and checked by a doctor. Click each medication to find out more about what it does and potential side effects.

What support groups are there for people with ADHD?

There are lots of support groups across the UK for children, young people and their families to get help and advice around coping with ADHD. Visit ADHDUK for more information on the groups in your area.

More help and advice

We have information and advice on a range of subjects

Get help now

If you're worried, stressed or struggling to cope you are not alone. Here are some services that can help you.

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ADHD and Mental Health | Signs and Symptoms of ADHD

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What is ADHD? Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a type of condition known as a neurodevelopmental condition. Neurodevelopmental conditions like ADHD affect the way your brain develops and works, which can impact your behaviour and the way you experience the world around you. Around one in 20 young people have ADHD.

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There is separate information about ADHD in adults.

Symptoms of ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)

Symptoms of ADHD usually start before the age of 12. They involve a person's ability to pay attention to things (being inattentive), having high energy levels (being hyperactive) and their ability to control their impulses (being impulsive).

A child or young person may show signs of being inattentive, such as:

being easily distracted

finding it hard to listen to what people are saying or to follow instructions

forgetting everyday tasks, like brushing their teeth or putting on socks

They may show signs of being hyperactive and impulsive, including:

having high energy levels

fidgeting or tapping their hands and feet

talking noisily

feeling restless, or getting up and moving around when they're supposed to sit still

finding it hard to wait their turn, or interrupting conversations

Most children and young people with ADHD have symptoms of both the inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive type. Some only show signs of one type.

ADHD is thought to be recognised less often in girls than boys. This may be because girls with ADHD more commonly have inattentive symptoms and these can be harder to recognise.

Many children are easily distracted, impulsive and have high energy levels, particularly if they're under the age of 5. This does not mean they have ADHD. It could be a sign of something else, like being tired, anxious or stressed.

Getting help for ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)

If you're worried that ADHD may be affecting your child, talk to one of their teachers. An older child or teenager may choose to speak to a teacher themselves.

The teacher will usually make a referral to the school's special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCO).

The SENCO can discuss support in the classroom or with homework, or help with building confidence and friendships.

If you're still worried or you think your child needs additional support, you may want to make an appointment with a GP.

At the GP appointment, the doctor will ask about the child or young person's symptoms and how these affect their life. They may consider other conditions that could cause these symptoms, such as autism, Tourette's or anxiety.

People with ADHD may often have other conditions too, such as depression, anxiety or addictions, or a learning difficulty such as dyslexia.

The GP or SENCO may recommend support groups or training for parents in your area.

Asking for an ADHD assessment

If support at home and at school is not helping your child, you may want to ask for an ADHD assessment. Speak to a GP or SENCO to request a referral for an ADHD assessment.

While waiting for a referral or assessment, the child or young person should continue to get support at home and in school. You can also contact your local council for advice, and to ask if there's a family hub in your area.

Family hubs support children and young people aged 0 to 19 (and up to 25 for people with special educational needs or a disability).

What happens at an ADHD assessment

The assessment will be with one or more ADHD specialists, such as a paediatrician, or a child and adolescent psychiatrist.

The specialist will talk with you and your child to find out more about any symptoms, and about family life. They'll also ask about your child's development, such as how old they were when they learned to do things like walking or reading.

There may be some forms to fill in before the appointment or as part of the assessment.

The ADHD specialist will usually contact a SENCO or teacher, or both, to see how your child is doing at school.

They may also ask your child to do a computer-based test to help assess their symptoms.

If your child is diagnosed with ADHD, the specialist will discuss what this means and what happens next, including what treatment and support may be available.

Waiting times for ADHD assessments

Waiting times vary and your child may have to wait several months or years for an ADHD assessment.

You may be able to find a clinic with shorter waiting lists through your GP using the Right to Choose scheme. Read about Right to Choose and your choices in the NHS.

You can ask for an NHS appointment at any clinic, including a private clinic, if it provides ADHD services for the NHS in England.

Find out more about diagnosis pathways for children on the ADHD UK website.

How to manage ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)

There are different ways to support a child or young person with ADHD, including lifestyle changes, changes at school and at home, or medicines.

It depends on their symptoms, and not every child needs help or support from a health professional.

Talk to a SENCO (special educational needs coordinator), or a school nurse where available, about changes that could help a child or young person.

Finding out more about ADHD can also help parents, children and young people better understand the condition.

If your child or teenager has been referred to an ADHD service, a specialist will be able to give you more information and advice about how to help them.

Lifestyle

There are things you can do to help support a child or young person with their ADHD symptoms.

Support at school and at home

Discuss with a SENCO what adjustments or support may help at home and school.

This may include:

splitting up tasks, like doing homework or sitting down to eat, into 15 to 20 minute slots with a break in between each slot

giving clear and simple instructions one at a time in a calm voice

writing a to-do list and putting it somewhere easy to see

giving praise when a child or young person does well, or making a reward chart

Medicine

ADHD medicines must be started and monitored by an ADHD specialist. This includes:

medicine to help with ADHD symptoms, such as methylphenidate

melatonin for problems sleeping, when other methods for improving sleep have not worked

Children and teenagers may need to try more than one medicine to find out what works for them.

A GP may be able to take over prescribing ADHD medicines, but only if there is a "shared care agreement" between the GP and the ADHD specialist. To find out more, talk to your ADHD specialist or GP. Not everyone with ADHD needs to or wants to take medicine.

Talking therapies

Talking therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) might be recommended to help a child or young person with ADHD with problem solving and expressing their feelings.

ADHD and mental health

People with ADHD may be more likely to have mental health issues, such as anxiety or depression.

They are also at higher risk of suicide.

If you're concerned about a child or young person, help and support is available right now if they need it. They do not have to struggle with difficult feelings alone.
Find out about mental health support for children and young people

What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

The cause of ADHD is not always known. ADHD may be caused by genetic differences and often runs in families.

There are several other things linked to ADHD, including being born premature (before 37 weeks of pregnancy), having epilepsy, a brain injury or being autistic.

Some people with ADHD call themselves neurodivergent. Neurodiversity describes the range of different ways our brains work.

Help and support for ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)

If your child or teenager has ADHD, there are ways you can help them manage their symptoms with support from their school or a doctor.

There are ADHD support groups locally and online.

There are also a number of organisations and charities that offer information and support about ADHD.

ADHD UK

Information and support for anyone affected by ADHD.

ADHD Foundation

Information for anyone affected by a neurodivergent condition, including ADHD.

ADHD Adult UK

Information and peer support for parents of children with ADHD, and for adults with ADHD.

Young Minds

Mental health support for young people.

AADD-UK

Charity which lists support groups across the UK, including groups for adults, parents and carers.

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Find out about ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) in children and teenagers, the symptoms of ADHD, how to get a diagnosis and how to manage it.

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If you’re affected by sight loss, we’re here for you

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In the UK, more than 2 million people are living with sight loss. Of these, around 340,000 are registered as blind or partially sighted.
Being told you have a visual impairment that can't be treated can be difficult to come to terms with.

Some people go through a process similar to bereavement, where they experience a range of emotions including shock, anger, and denial, before eventually coming to accept their condition.

Specialist referral

If you're blind or partially sighted, you may be referred to a specialist low-vision clinic, which is often located within a hospital. Staff at the clinic can help you understand your condition and come to terms with your diagnosis.

They can also advise you about practical things, such as lighting and vision aids, and let you know about further sources of help and support.

Ask your local hospital if they have an Eye Clinic Liaison Officer (ECLO), whose role involves providing support to people with vision loss in eye clinics.

Support groups

If you're blind or partially sighted, you may find it helpful to contact a support group for people with vision loss.

Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB)

The RNIB is the UK's leading charity for people with vision loss. The RNIB website offers useful information, such as coming to terms with sight loss.

The RNIB's helpline is open Monday to Friday from 8am to 8pm and Saturday from 9am to 1pm. The number is 0303 123 9999, with calls costing no more than a standard rate call to an 01 or 02 number. You can also email helpline staff ( helpline@rnib.org.uk).

The RNIB's website is specially designed for people with sight loss and provides a wide range of useful information and resources, including an online community and RNIB online shop.

Other national charities

Other national charities that specialise in vision loss and you may find useful include:

Local organisations

There are also many local voluntary organisations around the country that help and support people with vision problems. You can find local support organisations on the RNIB's Sightline Directory.

Registering as blind or partially sighted

If your vision has deteriorated to a certain level, you may choose to register as visually impaired. Depending on the severity of your vision loss you'll either be registered as sight impaired (previously "partially sighted") or severely sight impaired (previously "blind").

Your eye specialist (ophthalmologist) will measure your ability to see detail at a distance (visual acuity) and how much you can see from the side of your eye when looking straight ahead (your field of vision).

These measurements will help your ophthalmologist determine whether you're eligible to be certified as sight impaired or severely sight impaired. If you are, they will complete an official certificate with the results of your eye examination.

In England and Wales this certificate is called the Certificate of Vision Impairment (CVI), in Scotland it's called the CVI (Scotland) form, and in Northern Ireland it's called an A655.

Your ophthalmologist will send a copy of the certificate to you, a copy to your GP and a copy to your local social services department. Upon receiving the certificate, your local social services team will contact you to ask whether you want to be added to its register of visually impaired people. If you say "yes" then you become registered.

After you're registered, social services will contact you again to arrange for an assessment to be carried out. The aim is to assess your needs and find out what help you require to remain independent, such as help with cleaning and cooking, or help with mobility and transport.

Registering as visually impaired isn't compulsory, but it can help you to get a range of benefits, including:

Find out more:

Changes to your home

Most visually impaired people can continue to live at home. However, you'll probably need to make some changes to your home, particularly if you live on your own.

Below is a list of some important pieces of equipment you may find useful.

Big-button telephone - both landline and mobile phones are available from the RNIB online shop.

Computer, smartphone or tablet - the internet can provide a real sense of connection to friends and family as well as other people with a visual impairment. It's also a practical way of finding out information and obtaining goods and services. Big-button keyboards, screen display software and text readers are available from the RNIB.

Community alarm - this small, wearable device has an alarm button which, if pressed, sends an alarm signal to a response centre, which will alert a nominated friend or carer. Your local authority should be able to provide you with further information.

Bright lighting - bright light bulbs and adjustable lights are essential for your home, particularly in the kitchen and the stairs (areas where you're most likely to have an accident). Fluorescent bulbs are recommended because they produce the most light and tend to be cheaper in the long term than conventional bulbs. Lighting in and around the home: A guide to better lighting for people with visual impairment by the Thomas Pocklington Trust, contains more information on the importance of lighting.

The way your house is painted can also make it easier to find your way around. Using a two-tone contrast approach, such as black and white, can make it easier to tell the difference between nearby objects, such as a door and its handle or the stairs and its handrail.
Read more from the RNIB about adapting your home

Reading and writing

There are several options available if you're having problems reading standard text in books, newspapers and magazines.

One of the simplest options is to use a magnifying device that can make print appear bigger to help you read. These can be obtained from a number of places including hospital low-vision services, optometrists, local voluntary organisations, and the RNIB.

The RNIB also has a collection of large-print publications you can borrow, as do most libraries.

You could also use an e-reader to help you read. E-readers are handheld devices that allow you to download books and subscribe to newspapers and magazines on the internet. You can choose a setting that allows you to display text at a larger size. Or you can use text-to-speech software.
The RNIB has more information on text-to-speech in eBooks
If you're unable to read at all you could listen to audio recordings. You can sign up to the:

RNIB's Newsagent scheme, which provides more than 200 magazine and newspaper titles in different formats, such as online or on CD.

RNIB Talking Books Service, where you can download audio books to listen to on your smartphone, tablet or computer or on a device known as a DAISY player. You can also get books on CD or USB stick, delivered to your door.

You can also install screen-reading software on your computer that will read out emails, documents and text on the internet.
The RNIB has more information about using screen-reading software
There are also voice recognition programmes where you speak into a microphone and the software translates what you say into writing. These programmes can also be used to issue commands, such as closing down the internet and moving from one website to another.

Braille

Some people with severe sight loss, particularly those who've had the problem from a young age, choose to learn Braille. Braille is a writing system where raised dots are used as a substitute for written letters.

As well as Braille versions of books and magazines, you can buy Braille display units, which can be attached to computers that allow you to read the text displayed on a computer screen. Braille computer keyboards are also available.
The RNIB website has more information about reading and Braille

Getting around

There are several different methods you can use to get around independently if you have a problem with your vision.

Long cane

You may find a long cane useful when travelling. These canes are usually foldable and can help you get around by detecting objects in your path. The cane will also make drivers and other pedestrians aware that you have sight loss.

To get the most from a long cane, it's a good idea to attend a training course that will teach you how to use it.
The charity Guide Dogs has more information about getting around safely with a long cane
Guide dogs

Guide Dogs has been providing guide dogs for people with vision loss for many years. Guide dogs can help you get around, and provide both a sense of independence and companionship.

If you apply for a guide dog, Guide Dogs provide all the essential equipment free of charge and can also offer financial assistance if needed for things like food or vet costs.

You don't need to have lost all your sight to benefit from a guide dog and you don't have to be officially registered as blind or partially sighted to apply for one.
Guide Dogs has more on applying for a guide dog
Guide Dogs also offer a number of other services for people with a visual impairment (even if you don't have a guide dog), such as Help for children and families and mobility training.

The Guide Dogs' Sighted guiding service aims to reduce the isolation that many people with sight loss experience, helping to rebuild their confidence and regain their independence.

Global positioning system (GPS)

A global positioning system (GPS) is a navigational aid that uses signals from satellites to tell you where you are and help plan your journeys.

GPS devices are available as standalone units that can be programmed using a Braille keyboard, which tell you your current location and give you directions to where you want to go.

If you have a smartphone, there are a number of GPS apps you can download.
The RNIB website has more information about using GPS
Driving

If you're diagnosed with a condition that affects your vision, you have a legal obligation to inform the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA). Failure to do so is a crime and can result in a fine of up to £1,000.
GOV.UK has more on driving with a disability or a health condition
If you're registered as having a sight impairment, the DVLA will assume your driving licence is no longer valid and you'll no longer be able to drive.

Exceptions are occasionally made for people with mild vision impairment. If you think this applies to you, then your doctor will need to fill in a DVLA medical information questionnaire.

You're only legally allowed to drive if you can read a number plate from a distance of 20 metres (65 feet), and an eye test shows your visual acuity is at least 6/12. You're allowed to wear glasses or contact lenses when reading the plate or letter chart.

There are also standards relating to your visual field and driving. If you have a condition that may reduce your visual field, the DVLA may ask you to complete a visual field test to demonstrate you're safe to drive.

Technology

Technology to help you live well and safely with sight loss is developing all the time. You can read:

Employment

If you're currently employed and have recently been diagnosed with a visual impairment, you should contact the GOV.UK: Access to Work scheme.

Access to Work is a scheme run by Jobcentre Plus that provides advice and support about what equipment and adjustments may be required to enable you to do your job.

They also offer a grant to contribute towards the costs of any equipment or training you may need, such as voice recognition software, a Braille keyboard and display unit and a printer that can convert text into Braille (Braille embossers).

Depending on the size of the company you work for, the grant can pay for 80% to 100% of costs, up to £10,000.

Find out more:

You don't have to disclose that you have a visual impairment when applying for a job, but it's usually recommended that you do.

If you feel you've been turned down for a job because of your disability, and you were capable of doing the job, you can make a complaint under the Equality Act 2010.

Some people with a visual impairment decide to become self-employed, often because it allows them the flexibility to work at home for hours they choose.
The RNIB website has more information and advice about equality, rights and employment
Regular sight tests

If you have vision loss, it's still important to have regular sight tests so your optometrist (eye specialist) can check for further changes in your eyes and give you advice about how to make the best use of your vision.

Find an optician or more about NHS eyes services.

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Information for people with vision loss including details of support organisations, plus advice about specialist equipment, home modifications and mobility.

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1. How many people in the UK are experiencing sight loss?

Almost 2 million people in the UK live with sight loss (1 in 30). Of these, 360,000 are registered with their local authority as blind or partially sighted. They have experienced some degree of irreversible sight loss, which glasses or contact lenses cannot correct. (Source: NHS)

The number of people with sight loss is set to increase dramatically, growing to 2.7m by 2030 and could double to 4m by 2050 due to an ageing population and the growing incidence of long-term conditions that cause sight loss, including obesity and diabetes.

2. Assistive technology for visual impairments and sight loss

Increasingly, assistive technology comes as standard with the devices you have on your desk or in your pocket.

Tech giants including Apple, Google and Microsoft are working hard to make devices accessible to all. So, you can adjust desktop computers, tablets, and smartphones to make them more accessible if you have sight loss and visual impairments.

In addition, you can buy add-on hardware and software to make devices easier to use.

3. Assistive technology in tablets and smartphones

Intelligent personal assistants - like Siri and the Google Assistant - are a key feature of all modern tablets and smartphones. You can simply 'ask' the assistants to carry out tasks including answering queries, sending messages and emails, adding events to your calendar, taking notes and setting reminders.

iOS (Apple) devices include a screen reader called VoiceOver, and a magnifier called Zoom; the latest versions of Android contain a reader called TalkBack.

Combined with the million-plus apps now available for iOS, Android and other mobile devices, such innovations are helping to transform education, work, and leisure opportunities for people with a visual impairment.

Many blind or partially-sighted people now use their smartphone more than any other computing device - with it offering a relatively low-cost and completely mobile solution to many of their requirements.

4. Standalone screen readers for blind or low vision computer users

New computers, and most smartphones, have a screen reader: Narrator, for Windows, and VoiceOver for Apple Mac (also on iPad and iPhone). There's also a range of specialist screen readers available for people who are blind:

JAWS (Job Access With Speech)

A popular, inexpensive screen reader providing text-to-speech and Braille output for a wide range of computer applications on Windows computers, including the most popular - Microsoft Office, Internet Explorer, Firefox and PDF documents. JAWS is also fully compatible with MAGic screen magnification software. Suppliers of JAWS include Adapt-IT, Keytools, RNIB, and Sight and Sound Technology.

A FREE alternative to JAWS. Hear the text on screen being read or have it converted into Braille on a compatible display. Users report that while it works extremely well with web browsers, it can be more problematic dealing with Office applications.

5. Screen magnification for low vision users

For those with low vision, investing in a larger screen is worth considering. There are also ways of magnifying on-screen information within operating systems and programmes.

How to adjust a web browser for low vision

You can adjust your web browser in several ways: zoom in and make text bigger (select View from the main menu). Popular browsers also allow you to adjust colour settings or to turn on a Reader mode and remove visual clutter.

Operating system accessibility options

People with low vision will benefit from the 'Accessibility' options in Windows and macOS to increase the display size of text, menus, folders, icons, and the mouse pointer. The high resolution will mean that even zoomed-in, the screen's contents should remain sharp and clear.

Many people with impaired vision can see some colour combinations (such as white text on a black background) better than others. Different colour options are available in most programmes. The majority of computer, tablet and smartphone operating systems have a wide range of pre-defined colour schemes to choose from, or you can create your own.

Zooming in

Zooming increases the size of whatever is displayed in the document window, and many programmes include easy-to-use options to achieve.

On a Windows computer: Press the "Ctrl" key, use the wheel on your mouse, or slide two fingers together down the mousepad to zoom in and out.

On an Apple computer: Place two fingers on the trackpad and opening out (like a pinch in reverse).

However, there are other options if these shortcuts are not practical for you. Zooming in does not affect the size in which the document is printed out.

6. Specialist screen magnification programmes

Specialist magnification software programmes enlarge and enhance everything on your computer screen. As the size of the enlargement increases, the amount of the original screen image being displayed reduces - but you can use the mouse (or cursor) to select where you want to focus. Many programmes also include options for enhancing and customising screen colours and pointers.

Specialist software options for Windows computers are ZoomText Magnifier Reader, Dolphin Supernova Magnifier and Screen Reader.

Compatible keyboards are also available for Dolphin. These include dedicated function keys for operating the programmes' most used features. Dolphin Supernova also provides full Braille support for blind users and is compatible with the latest Braille displays.

Specialist solutions for Mac users are ZoomText Mac and MagniLink iMax.

Suppliers of integrated magnification and reading software include Adapt-IT; Hands Free Computing; Inclusive Technology; Professional Vision Services; RNIB; and Sight and Sound Technology.

7. Adaptive hardware for people with low vision or who are blind

For those with vision impairment, alternative keyboards can be a big help. There are several different options:

High visibility keyboards

The letters on a standard computer keyboard are small and can be hard to see. A simple alternative option is to purchase a high contrast keyboard or modify the keys on your existing keyboard by covering them with high contrast stickers. These use larger letters and come in upper- and lower-case sets.

Larger keys

People with impaired vision who are learning to type often find it difficult to locate keys accurately on a standard-sized keyboard. It can be much easier for many to use a high-visibility keyboard with a smaller number of larger keys - such as the BigKeys, Jumbo, XL or KeyMonster keyboards.

TechSilver lists seven of the best keyboards for visual impairment.

Specialist keyboards

Some keyboards have been designed specifically to work with specialist software programmes to assist people with visual impairment.

These include Dolphin Large Print, The Jumbo Keyboard from Inclusive Technology, which features large print, high contrast keys - many of which give quick access to the associated software's most useful features.

Chording keyboards

Chording keyboards like the CyKey are another important option, especially for people with more limited dexterity. This is because they only require you to press a few keys in combination (like a chord on the piano) to generate letters.

8. Braille Displays

Another option for blind users is a Braille display. Although these can be very expensive, they serve a dual function. Utilising just a few keys, Braille displays allow you to enter data and control your computer and to read documents, web pages and email using Braille.

9. Touch-typing skills for inputting data

Using a keyboard is often faster than using a mouse, and for people with little or no vision, it can be the most practical way to input data and interact with a device. In addition, working with keyboard shortcuts or 'hotkeys' is an effective and efficient method for anyone to control a computer ( more about hotkeys at My Computer My Way).

Learning to touch type

There are many software programmes available aimed at helping people with sight loss learn how to touch type.

Dedicated reading machines will read out printed documents using a synthetic voice. They use a scanner or a camera with optical character recognition (OCR) software to convert printed materials into electronic text that can, in turn, be either displayed on a screen, or read out by a screen reader, or both.

10. Reading machines for printed materials

There are three main types of reading machines:

Standalone devices - combine a camera/scanner, OCR software, screen reader and/or monitor in a single device. They are easy (but not very flexible) to use and can be very expensive.

Computer-based devices - connect a camera/scanner and OCR software to your computer, allowing you to take advantage of your existing screen display options, as well as utilising screen reading.

Portable devices -are lightweight and easy to use on the move.

Suppliers include Adapt-it; Enabling Technology; Humanware; Sight and Sound Technology; and VisionAid.

Many apps run on standard smartphones and tablets that will provide very similar functionality to the above specialist options and are much cheaper if you already own a smartphone or tablet (see below for more details).

11. Video magnifiers

Video magnifiers (or closed-circuit televisions - CCTVs) connect a high definition camera to a monitor display. This allows you to magnify different types of printed documents or handwritten text to a high level.

You can read and navigate your document by moving it around on the table below the camera.

There are three different types of video magnifiers:

Desktop video magnifiers - have the highest degree of magnification and often allow you to adjust the text and background display colours.

Portable video magnifiers - can either be standalone devices or connect to a laptop computer, utilising software on the laptop to control the display, use OCR, or capture and store images of printed text. Some magnifiers enable distance viewing - for example, presentations.

Pocket video magnifiers - are small enough to use on the go for reading a wide range of everyday materials, including documents, letters, bills, menus, timetables and instructions etc. Typical features include the ability to take a snapshot of something that can subsequently be magnified, rather than having to hover with the magnifier in place.

The distinction between reading machines and video magnifiers has significantly reduced in recent years, with many video magnifiers now also including the option to hear documents and read aloud.

Suppliers include Adapt-it; Enabling Technology; Humanware; RNIB; Sight and Sound Technology; and VisionAid.

Please note that many apps run on standard smartphones that will provide similar functionality to the above specialist options. These apps make use of the camera on the phone to scan the page and will use text-to-speech to read it out. For example, Microsoft's "Seeing AI" is a free app that provides useful features for blind or low-vision users, including a text reader.

It can also identify objects in pictures and recognise handwriting. Currently, Seeing AI is only available on Apple's iPhones and iPads.

12. Notetakers

Notetakers are small computers designed for use by the visually impaired. They can either have a standard or Braille keyboard, with information being either read out, displayed in Braille or both.

Braille notetakers are portable devices, including email and internet capabilities, a calendar, and an address book. They can usually be connected to a computer or a printer for transferring information, and some can print to a Braille embosser. Notetakers also enjoy a shorter start-up time and a much longer battery life than conventional computers. They are, however, significantly more expensive in most cases and far more limited in the apps and functions they can include.

Suppliers include Humanware, Sight and Sound Technology, and VisionAid.

13. Useful apps for people with low vision or who are blind

It is only possible here to point to a few of the apps available from the App Store (for iOS devices) and/or Google Play (for Android devices). For more comprehensive information and reviews about specialist apps for the iPad and iPhone, visit the AppleVis website for blind and low-vision users at www.applevis.com

Blind and partially sighted people have found the following apps to be particularly useful:

Seeing AI

A free app (iOS only) provides features such as face and object recognition, international currency identification, text and handwriting recognition and a barcode scanner for product identification.

Be My Eyes

Connects blind or low-vision users with sighted volunteers who can give visual assistance with tasks such as product identification. Be My Eyes has also partnered with Lloyds Banking Group and Microsoft to provide trusted, specialist support in these areas.

KNFB Reader

Provides fast and easy access to any type of printed text, including letters, receipts, menus, books and many other documents, with high-quality speech or Braille output.

Talking Goggles

Can recognise almost any image and text in seconds and speak out what it finds, including logos, signs, landmarks, products, artwork and text.

Evi

Draws on a vast database to answer everyday questions about books, music, films, history, people, places and much more. You can ask your questions by talking and get a vocal response.

iBrailler Notes

Offers an easy way for iPad users to type Braille notes and perform basic word processing on a touchscreen (for iOS only).

Google Maps

Helps you find your way to your destination by giving turn-by-turn spoken directions

AccessNote

A powerful and efficient notetaker that takes advantage of the built-in accessibility of Apple devices by working with VoiceOver (iOS only).

Vokul

A personal assistant that provides complete voice control for dictating text, messages and emails, connecting to social media, listening to music, and calling contacts in your address book (for iOS devices)

Synapptic

An all-in-one software package for people who are blind or partially sighted. It runs on Android tablets and smartphones and has been specifically designed to be very easy to use.

Synapptic's simple menu structure and intuitive design mean most new users can learn how to use its wealth of features in just a few minutes. Utilising text-to-speech and voice control includes sending and receiving texts and emails, making calls, browsing the web, taking photos, scanning and reading, making notes and voice memos, listening to music, and talking books, and watch YouTube and catch-up TV.

Users can customise the software to suit their particular needs and preferences, selecting from a wide range of viewing and listening options. It can be purchased ready installed on a tablet or smartphone or as a standalone product for installing on your own Android device.

Suppliers include RNIB; and Synapptic.

Guide Connect

A software package made by Dolphin Software and will run on several devices, including desktops, laptops and even TV's. Like Synaptic, the interface is straightforward to get to grips with, and this software has been designed to be as intuitive to use as possible. You can easily send and receive emails, browse the web, read newspapers and listen to radio stations. If you have access to a scanner, you can also have your mail read out to you! Users can even decide to access the system via remote control, which may be a really simple way to control their technology.

Suppliers: Dolphin, RNIB

In Your Pocket

In Your Pocket is the simplest way for blind and partially sighted people to access the RNIB Library and RNIB Newsagent services, as well as make phone calls. In Your Pocket is updated with new capabilities every month and now includes the Be My Eyes vision assistant. The "In Your Pocket" device is a subscription device that the RNIB provides.

Supplier: RNIB

Kapsys

A french-based company that offers an all in one package (Smart Vision 2) includes an Android smartphone with a straightforward and intuitive interface.

Supplier: Sight and Sound Technology

14. Guidance for employers and employees

It's important to recognise that there are adaptations your employer should make if you're working and experiencing sight loss. Training can also help people adjust to using technology if they have low vision or are blind.

What should employers do?

Under the Equality Act, employers have a duty to ensure that employees with a disability (including visual impairment) can perform effectively.

To meet the requirements of the Equality Act, employers may need to make 'reasonable adjustments to ensure that disabled members of staff have equal access to everything involved in doing and keeping their job as any non-disabled colleague. Employers who fail to meet their responsibilities under the Act may be vulnerable to discrimination claims and could be taken to an employment tribunal.

Any adjustments required do not necessarily need to cost a lot of money and depend partly on the size and nature of the organisation. For blind or partially sighted employees, reasonable adjustments could include:

* adapting the workplace

* introducing some changes to the work organisation

* providing personal training and support

* making use of relevant assistive technologies.

Advances in technology mean that anyone who is losing, or who has already lost, their sight can now overcome many of the barriers previously faced and continue to be a highly productive employee. Government schemes like 'Access to Work' can also help meet some of the additional employment costs.

Training for employees and students with sight loss

Students, employees and other users will only realise the full potential of some of the solutions outlined in this factsheet if they receive adequate training and have sufficient opportunity to become familiar and proficient with the products.

Training is most effective when it is spread over time and geared towards the individual, focusing on their particular tasks, abilities and challenges. Periodic training helps users to practice and consolidate new skills between sessions.

A wide range of private and voluntary organisations offer computer training services (some training costs). In addition, many specialist suppliers and software producers provide online guidance and tutorials about how to get the most from their products. There is also a wealth of free training resources available online, including on YouTube.

Useful tutorials, guides and reviews about assistive technology for people with sight loss are available from:

15. Useful contacts

RNIB

The RNIB is a UK-wide charity providing practical advice and emotional support to help blind and partially sighted people live independently, whether you need help with technology or ways to continue reading or advising on staying at work. The RNIB also has an online store (see 'Specialist suppliers' below) selling a wide range of assistive products. Visit www.rnib.org.uk

TAVIP (Technology Association of Visually Impaired people)

TAVIP (Technology Association of Visually Impaired people) - formerly BCAB (British Computer Association for the Blind) is a lively, self-help community of blind and partially sighted computer users of all skill levels, ages and interests. Visit https://www.tavip.org.uk/

Royal National College for the Blind (RNC)

The RNC is a specialist residential college of further education for people with a visual impairment. Visit www.rnc.ac.UK

16. Specialist suppliers - contact details

Adapt-IT

Suppliers of assistive technology and computer adaptations for special needs, mobility issues, visual impairment, learning difficulties and RSI.
www.adapt-it.co.uk sales@adapt-it.co.uk
0208 736 0542

Bellaire Electronics

Enabling Technology

Hands Free Computing

Humanware

Inclusive Technology

Keytools

Optelec (part of Vispero)

Low vision solutions for people with macular degeneration and other eye conditions.
lowvisionshop.co.uk
0800 145 6115

Portset

Designers and manufacturers of products for the visually impaired, including EnglishType software.
www.portset.co.uk
01489 893919

Professional Vision Services

RNIB

Sight and Sound Technology

Synapptic

VisionAid

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This factsheet covers how assistive technology can help people with vision impairment. Many features are standard within computers, tablets, and smartphones. You can also use standalone products with devices to make them easier to use for people with a visual impairment or who are blind.

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World Health Organisation - Blindness and Vision Impairment

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World Health Organisation - Blindness and Vision Impairment

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WHO fact sheet on blindness and visual impairment providing key facts, definitions, causes, who is at risk, global and WHO response.

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Anxiety can affect our mind, body and behaviour, for instance we might feel tearful, get stress headaches, or start avoiding things or people that trigger anxiety.

Common symptoms of anxiety include:

feeling tired, restless or irritable

feeling shaky or trembly, dizzy or sweating more

being unable to concentrate or make decisions

trouble sleeping

worrying about the past or future, or thinking something bad will happen

headaches, tummy aches or muscle pain

dry mouth

pins and needles

noticing your heartbeat gets stronger, faster or irregular, or you get short of breath when you start feeling anxious

If you cannot tell if shortness of breath is from ​​anxiety or if you are worried about any other symptoms, see a GP.

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Find out about common causes and symptoms of anxiety. Plus get tips on dealing with anxiety and a personalised plan of self-care tips tailored to you.

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How can you better understand and identify maths anxiety in your school? Rob Brown, a maths teacher at West Lakes Academy and panelist at our 2019 Power of Maths Roundtable, shares insights from their in-school research project.

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Types of mental health problems | about self-esteem | Mind

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Learn what self-esteem is, what can cause low self-esteem and how it relates to your mental health. You may also think of this as self-confidence.

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We all have times when we lack confidence and do not feel good about ourselves.
But when low self-esteem becomes a long-term problem, it can have a harmful effect on our mental health and our day-to-day lives.

What is self-esteem?

Self-esteem is the opinion we have of ourselves.

When we have healthy self-esteem, we tend to feel positive about ourselves and about life in general. It makes us better able to deal with life's ups and downs.

When our self-esteem is low, we tend to see ourselves and our life in a more negative and critical light. We also feel less able to take on the challenges that life throws at us.

What causes low self-esteem?

Low self-esteem often begins in childhood. Our teachers, friends, siblings, parents, and even the media send us positive and negative messages about ourselves.

For some reason, the message that you are not good enough is the one that stays with you.

Perhaps you found it difficult to live up to other people's expectations of you, or to your own expectations.

Stress and difficult life events, such as serious illness or a bereavement, can have a negative effect on self-esteem.

Personality can also play a part. Some people are just more prone to negative thinking, while others set impossibly high standards for themselves.

How does low self-esteem affect us?

If you have low self-esteem or confidence, you may hide yourself away from social situations, stop trying new things, and avoid things you find challenging.

In the short term, avoiding challenging and difficult situations might make you feel safe.

In the longer term, this can backfire because it reinforces your underlying doubts and fears. It teaches you the unhelpful rule that the only way to cope is by avoiding things.

Living with low self-esteem can harm your mental health and lead to problems such as depression and anxiety.

You may also develop unhelpful habits, such as smoking and drinking too much, as a way of coping.

How to have healthy self-esteem

To boost your self-esteem, you need to identify the negative beliefs you have about yourself, then challenge them.

You may tell yourself you're "too stupid" to apply for a new job, for example, or that "nobody cares" about you.

Start to note these negative thoughts and write them on a piece of paper or in a diary. Ask yourself when you first started to think these thoughts.

Next, start to write some evidence that challenges these negative beliefs, such as, "I'm really good at cryptic crosswords" or "My sister calls for a chat every week".

Write down other positive things about yourself, such as "I'm thoughtful" or "I'm a great cook" or "I'm someone that others trust".

Also write some good things that other people say about you.

Aim to have at least 5 positive things on your list and add to it regularly. Then put your list somewhere you can see it. That way, you can keep reminding yourself that you're OK.

You might have low confidence now because of what happened when you were growing up, but we can grow and develop new ways of seeing ourselves at any age.

Other ways to improve low self-esteem

Here are some other simple techniques that may help you feel better about yourself.

Recognise what you're good at

We're all good at something, whether it's cooking, singing, doing puzzles or being a friend. We also tend to enjoy doing the things we're good at, which can help boost your mood.

Build positive relationships

If you find certain people tend to bring you down, try to spend less time with them, or tell them how you feel about their words or actions.

Try to build relationships with people who are positive and who appreciate you.

Be kind to yourself

Being kind to yourself means being gentle to yourself at times when you feel like being self-critical.

Think what you'd say to a friend in a similar situation. We often give far better advice to others than we do to ourselves.

Learn to be assertive

Being assertive is about respecting other people's opinions and needs, and expecting the same from them.

One trick is to look at other people who act assertively and copy what they do.

It's not about pretending you're someone you're not. It's picking up hints and tips from people you admire and letting the real you come out.

Start saying "no"

People with low self-esteem often feel they have to say yes to other people, even when they do not really want to.

The risk is that you become overburdened, resentful, angry and depressed.

For the most part, saying no does not upset relationships. It can be helpful to keep saying no, but in different ways, until they get the message.

Give yourself a challenge

We all feel nervous or afraid to do things at times. But people with healthy self-esteem do not let these feelings stop them trying new things or taking on challenges.

Set yourself a goal, such as joining an exercise class or going to a social occasion. Achieving your goals will help to increase your self-esteem.

Where to find help for low self-esteem

Talking therapies like counselling or cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help.

You can refer yourself for talking therapies on the NHS.

If you prefer, you can talk to a GP first and they can refer you.

You could also find a private therapist. Make sure they're registered with a professional body.

Visit healthtalk.org to hear young people talking about their experiences of low self-esteem

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Find out why some people have low self-esteem and how it can affect your mental health. Plus, simple tips on how to give your confidence a boost.

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What is it?

Health anxiety is an anxiety condition that is often housed within the Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) spectrum of disorders. Those affected by health anxiety have an obsessional preoccupation with the idea that they are currently (or will be) experiencing a physical illness. The most common health anxieties tend to centre on conditions such as cancer, HIV, AIDs, etc. However, the person experiencing health anxiety may fixate on any type of illness. This condition is known as health anxiety, illness phobia/illness anxiety or hypochondriasis. Those who are affected by health anxiety/illness phobia are convinced that harmless physical symptoms are indicators of serious disease or severe medical conditions. For example, if a person experiencing health anxiety feels their chest is getting tight, they may believe that they are having a heart attack. Those with health anxiety frequently misinterpret physical symptoms of anxiety as a sign of an impending physical health problem.

DIY self diagnosis

If you can answer YES to most of the questions it is likely that you are affected by health anxiety.

During the last 6 months:

Have you experienced a preoccupation with having a serious illness due to bodily symptoms that has been ongoing for at least six months?

Have you felt distressed due to this preoccupation?

Have you found that this preoccupation impacts negatively on all areas of life including, family life, social life and work?

Have you felt that you have needed to carry out constant self-examination and self-diagnosis?

Have you experienced disbelief over a diagnosis from a doctor or felt that you are unconvinced by your doctor's reassurances that you are fine?

Do you constantly need reassurance from doctors, family and friends that you are fine, even if you don't really believe what you are being told?

Anxiety UK strongly advises that people seek further information and guidance from their GP who will be able to make a formal diagnosis.

How we can help

By becoming a member of Anxiety UK - for just £40 per year (see all our membership) you enjoy a range of support services and resources, including:

Access to reduced cost therapies

One year's free subscription to Headspace (worth approx. £72), more details here

Access to specialist email and helpline support

Subscription to Anxious Times magazine (worth £12 annually)

Access to our Member's area and other free online resources

Access to our exclusive member's only online message boards

Free copy of Understanding Anxiety booklet (worth £3.99)

20% discount on purchases of Kalms Lavender One-A-Day Capsules made via www.kalmsrange.com. This discount is exclusively for Anxiety UK members.

10% off a Listening Books membership (normally between £20 and £45 per year).

Total value of more than £90 annually!

Health Anxiety fact sheet

This fact sheet gives a detailed overview, as well as a look at some of the evidence based approaches to treating health anxiety.
Buy now

Recommended resources

Overcoming Health Anxiety is an excellent self help resource based on cognitive behavioural therapy. It provides information on a range of techniques to look at the thoughts and behaviours that keep health anxiety going. You can purchase this book from the Anxiety UK shop here.

Pain Control is a CD that offers suggestions to boost the immune system and raise the endorphin levels. You can purchase this book from the Anxiety UK shop here.

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Health anxiety is an anxiety condition that is often housed within the Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) spectrum of disorders. Those affected by health anxiety have an obsessional preoccupation with the idea that they are currently (or will be) experiencing a physical illness. The most common health anxieties tend to centre on conditions such as cancer, HIV, AIDs, etc.

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Language and communication approaches for deaf children

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Find out about the different ways deaf children and young people can communicate.

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Hearing loss affects 12 million people in the UK. Find out about the different types of hearing loss, how to get your hearing tested, and what can help you hear better and overcome communication challenges.

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Hearing loss affects 12 million people in the UK. Find out about the different types of hearing loss, how to get your hearing tested, and what can help you hear better and overcome communication challenges.

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By helping others through volunteering, we too are able to #MakeADifference and improve our own wellbeing. In the spirit of #VolunteersWeek2021, we hope to promote the positive benefits that volunteering produces in our own lives, as well as the lives of the people that you help by choosing to volunteer. It is within our nature as human beings to feel good when we are given purpose, especially after helping someone out. Thus, in this article we hope to promote and explore the many positive benefits which volunteering brings to the community it serves.

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By helping others through volunteering, we too are able to #MakeADifference and improve our own wellbeing. In the spirit of #VolunteersWeek2021, we hope to promote the positive benefits that volunteering produces in our own lives, as well as the lives of the people that you help by choosing to volunteer.

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Not a member, but want EAL Journal amongst other benefits? Join NALDIC

Please click on the thumbnails below to for each issue

Click here to view digital edition (members only)
Autumn 2018 | Grammar for EAL Learners

EDITORIAL | EAL and grammar ... p 3

POLICY POSITION | National data on English language proficiency helps to improve student outcomes. The DfE was wrong to scrap the requirement to assess and report it. ... p 6

LETTER FROM THE CHAIR | A reflection on NALDIC's work ... p 7

NEWS & EVENTS ... pp 8-9

Ofsted news ... p 8

Deaf pupils with EAL ... p 8

Three new reports ... p 9

RESEARCH SHORTS ... pp 10-11

RIG REPORTS ... pp 12-15

Convenor News ... p 13

Special Interest Groups (SIGs) ... p 15
WORLD NEWS
CLIL in Madrid | Angus Maxwell ... p 16

COVER FEATURE | Grammar for EAL learners ... pp 17-25

EAL and Grammar in the 21st century curriculum - Are we on the right track? | Paul Nancarrow ... pp 18-19

Ron Carter: Grammar and EAL | Frank Monaghan ... pp 20-21

Making Sense of the Sentence | Paul Nancarrow ... pp 22-23

Teaching Grammar with The Brontës | Harriet Crossley ... pp 24-25
BEST OF THE BLOG
Finding Young EAL Learners' Voices | Joshua Martin and Mindy McCracken ... p 27

Language Diversity and Educational attainment of Eastern European pupils in Primary schools in England | Feyisa Demie ... p 28

THE EAL COORDINATOR | The EAL Coordinator: the first one hundred days - A NALDIC Booklet ... pp 30-31

Questions you need to ask ... p 31
ONLINE
Online Courses | Understanding Classroom Interaction | Kamil Trzebiatowski ... pp 32-33

BOOKS ... pp 34-35

100 ideas for Primary Teachers: Supporting EAL Learners | Chris Pim

100 ideas for Secondary Teachers: Supporting EAL Learners | Catharine Driver and Chris Pim

RESEARCH IN DEPTH | The acquisition of grammar in bilingual children | Anna Wolleb and Ludovica Serratrice ... pp 37-42

THE LAST WORD | Two stars and a wish | Jane Jones ... p 43

EDITOR | Robert Sharples

DEPUTY EDITORS | Frank Monaghan | Paul Nancarrow | Christina Richardson

ASSOCIATE EDITORS | Hamish Chalmers | Catharine Driver | Diane Leedham | Constant Leung | Vicky Macleroy | Nicky Vangalis Stobbs | Manny Vazquez

Click here for sample pages Click here to view digital edition (members only)
Spring 2017 | CPD & Conference 24

EDITORIAL | Professional Development in EAL ... p 3

POLICY POSITION | Newly Arrived Beginners of English as an Additional Language ... p 6

LETTER FROM THE CHAIR | Developing the field ... p 7

NEWS ... pp 8-9

RESEARCH SHORTS ... pp 10-11

RIG REPORTS ... pp 12-13

WORLD NEWS

LUXEMBOURG | Exploring Digital Creation (Conference at the University of Luxembourg) | Gabriele Budach, Vicky Macleroy, Bo Chapman, Zoe Flynn, Chryso Charalambous, Mirela Dumić & Marc Smith ... pp 14-15

HAWAII (USA) | Becoming whole: bringing the land back into the curriculum | Jane Spiro ... p 16

COVER FEATURE | The NALDIC guide to CPD

Introduction ... p 17

Things to consider when choosing CPD | Nandhaka Pieris ... pp 18-22

"From my own experience..." | Diana Mann ... p 24-25

NALDIC Associates ... p 27

TRAINING | EAL in the Mainstream Classroom: new training | Stefani Shedden ... p 28

EAL POLICY | Setting the EAL agenda and not following it | Diana Sutton ... p 29

NALDIC CONFERENCE | Addressing diversity in EAL

Overview ... p30

Starting again: refugee children, school and belonging | Bill Bolloten ... pp 31-32

Caught on camera ... pp 33-34

TRIED AND TESTED | Coaching the Coaches: adapting GCSE PE for EAL learners | Catharine Driver ... pp 35-37
COMMENT
L1 COGNATES | Drawing on L1 to develop students' conceptual language | Paul Nancarrow ... pp 38-39

MIGRATION | Putting research into practice: refugee education in Greece | George Androulakis ... p 40

TEACHER EDUCATION | Talking about EAL with student teachers | Shiv Quinlan ... p 41
ONLINE
POLICY | A great meritocracy? BME, EAL and 'White British' pupils | Sameena Choudry ... p 42

Online Courses | Teaching EFL/ESL Reading: A Task-Based Approach | Kamil Trzebiatowski ... p43
BOOKS
The best of Social Media ... p 44

Growing Up With Languages: Reflections on Multilingual Childhoods by Claire Thomas (Multilingual Matters, 2012) | Vicky Macleroy ... p 45

Asylum, Migration and Community by Maggie O'Neill (Policy Press, 2010) | Sadia Habib ... p 45

RESEARCH IN DEPTH | Why dropping a language is not going to help language impairment, but keeping two might | Lisa-Maria Müller ... p 46-50

THE LAST WORD | Critical thinking: something to teach or something to do? | Lynne Isham ... p 51

Click here for sample pages Click here to view digital edition (members only)
Autumn 2016 | Where are we now?

EDITORIAL | EAL in a changing world ... p 3

POLICY POSITION | What is 'English as an Additional Language'? ... p 6

LETTER FROM THE CHAIR | Mapping the field ... p 7

NEWS ... pp 8-9

RESEARCH SHORTS ... p 10

RIG REPORTS ... pp 12-13

WORLD NEWS

GERMANY | Supporting 40,000 New Students | Constant Leung with Brandenburger ... pp 14-15

DENMARK | Language hierachies in Danish schools | Line Møller Daugaard ... p 16

USA | The Facebook Debate on Labelling Learners | Suresh Canagarajah ... p 17

COVER FEATURE | EAL: Where Are We Now?

Working as an EAL teacher in a South London Primary School | Anita Conradi ... pp 18-19

Language Assessment | Constant Leung ... p 19

'United Mothers' - a partnership ESOL/EAL project | Sheila MacDonald ... p 20

Linking Theory and Practice to Realise the Potential of our EAL Pupils | Jean Conteh ... p 20

Differentiating curriculum language for pupils with different levels of English | Jonathan Brentnall ... p 21

EAL and 'Translanguaging' | Li Wei ... p 21

TRIED AND TESTED | Developing Reading in a Year 10 Science lesson | Shafi Sultana Ahmed and Manny Vazquez ... pp 22-24

STAGES OF PROFICIENCY

The new EAL 'stages of proficiency' ... p 25

Lessons from Wales | Jonathan Brentnall with Diane Vanstone and Lisa Davies ... pp 26-27
COMMENT
The implications for national data collection | Feyisa Demie ... p 28

TEACHER EDUCATION | The new landscape for Initial Teacher E ducation and EAL | Moira Brazil ... p 29

MIGRATION | How to talk about pupils' multilingual repertoires | Tony Capstick ... p 30

POLICY | Ofsted's changing attitudes towards EAL | Graham Smith ... p 31
SOCIAL MEDIA
THE LANGUAGE OF... | The Language of Mathematics | Frank Monaghan ... pp 32-33

Blogging for EAL Teachers | Kamil Trzebiatowski ... p34
BOOKS
The best of Social Media ... p 35

Talking About Global Migration: Implications for Language Teaching by Theresa Catalano (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2016) | Robert Sharples ... p 37

Children's Literature in Multilingual Classrooms by Crhistine Hélot, Raymonde Sneddon and Nicola Daly (Trentham Books / IoE Press, 2014) | Vicky Macleroy ... p 37

RESEARCH IN DEPTH | Phonics instruction and children with English as an Additional Language | Victoria A. Murphy & Destiny Franco ... p 38-42

THE LAST WORD | Trust the Teacher | Urszula Clark ... p 43

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Not a member, but want EAL Journal amongst other benefits? Join NALDIC Please click on the thumbnails below to for each issue Click here to view digital edition (members only) Autumn 2018 | Grammar for EAL Learners EDITORIAL | EAL and grammar ...