# data[].attributes.body
This article explores the moral aspect of the film by viewing Lady Bird through a lens of her dishonesty. Her motives and her character are challenged throughout the film and this article discusses these aspects.

# data[].attributes.body
This scholarly article discusses the effects of the mother/daughter relationship and the importance of this bond. Lady Bird and Marion have a very complicated relationship and my thesis explores how the suffocating and negative dynamic has a direct impact on Lady Bird's urgent desire to grow up and get out of her parents house.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Fathima Wakeel, Academic Editor

Abstract

Despite the understanding that differentiation is a lifelong process crucial for psychological adaptation, there is limited knowledge regarding how parent-child differentiation in adulthood is associated with the psychological well-being of both parents and adult children. Furthermore, empirical research has yielded inconclusive results regarding whether the parental status of adult children influences the parent-child relationship. Consequently, the current study focuses on the moderating effect of adult daughters' parental status on the association between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being. The study utilized data from 167 pairs of Korean aging mothers and adult daughters to examine two main aspects: (1) the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being; and (2) the moderating role of adult daughters' parental status on the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being. The findings revealed that both the differentiation of adult daughters and mothers was positively associated with their respective psychological well-being. However, no significant cross-interactional effects of aging mother-adult daughter differentiation on psychological well-being were observed. Notably, there was a positive moderating effect of the adult daughter's parental status on the association between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being for aging mothers.

Keywords: aging mother-adult daughter differentiation, psychological well-being, moderating effect, parental status, Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM)

1. Introduction

The bond between mothers and daughters has been characterized as the most intimate and robust within families [ 1, 2]. According to Chodoro [ 3], as the mother identified her daughter as her expanded self, the mother saw double identification between her daughter and her mother. Due to this dual identification relationship, psychological separation is not achieved. Research has shown that the mother-daughter relationship significantly influences women's mental well-being throughout their lives [ 4, 5]. While scholars have examined parent-child relationships and their impact on psychological well-being in adulthood [ 6, 7], limited knowledge exists regarding how parent-adult child differentiation influences each other's psychological well-being. According to Bowen's observations [ 8], individuals with high self-differentiation tend to experience lower levels of anxiety, while those with low self-differentiation tend to experience higher levels of anxiety. The concept of convergence stands in opposition to self-differentiation. Convergent relationships are characterized by excessive dependence, misunderstandings, and difficulties disengaging from one another. In highly fused families, it becomes challenging to distinguish one's own identity from that of others within the family unit. The concept of family differentiation, which involves managing the balance between intimacy and individuality within a family [ 9], has received limited attention in the study of adult households. Korean aging mothers and their adult daughters face challenges in regulating their emotions. The Korean culture has made progress in promoting women's education and social involvement. Although there have been shifts in gender roles and perspectives, an underlying patriarchal culture still persists, resulting in gender inequality. Within patriarchal societies, women are traditionally responsible for household duties and raising children. There is a desire for spouses who are both career-oriented and capable of managing multiple roles while maintaining a harmonious work-life balance. Mothers tend to be more involved in their children's lives compared to fathers. This heightened involvement, along with societal pressures, leads full-time caregivers and socially active women to excessively intervene in their children's development to prevent feelings of neglect. Despite the evolving role of women in society, their fixed role within the household, which is slow to change, contributes to an increasing burden on women to fulfill multiple roles [ 10]. Within this sociocultural context, it is important to examine the psychological inclination of mothers to form emotional connections with their same-sex daughters within their relationships with their children.

Despite receiving a westernized education that promotes independence and differentiation, Korean daughters continue to maintain emotional attachments to their parents even after becoming married [ 11]. Likewise, Korean aging mothers remain closely connected to their adult daughters [ 12]. The relationship between adult daughters and their mothers can have impact on the mental well-being of both parties. However, research on parent-adult child dynamics often overlooks the significance of differentiation patterns. Furthermore, studies examining the influence of parental status on psychological well-being have produced inconsistent findings [ 13, 14]. These conflicting results emphasize the need for further empirical investigation to gain a better understanding of how parental status affects the relationship between adult children and their parents.

The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of emotional dynamics between Korean aging mothers and their adult daughters on their psychological well-being. By employing the concepts of linked lives and historical time and place within the life course perspective, the study aims to examine two main aspects: (1) the influence of parent-child differentiation and psychological well-being on the parent-child relationship, and (2) the moderating role of adult daughters' parental status in the association between parent-child differentiation and psychological well-being.

The study will utilize the concept of linked lives, which views the family as a cohesive unit and emphasizes the shared life opportunities and development among family members [ 15]. Previous empirical research has consistently shown that the quality of parent-child relationships significantly impact individuals' overall well-being [ 16, 17]. Additionally, the study will incorporate the concept of historical time and place from the life course perspective, which recognizes the interplay between microsocial and macrosocial influences on families [ 15].

While differentiation is considered important for psychological adaptation throughout life [ 18], there is a scarcity of studies focusing on older generations [ 18]. Existing research on differentiation has mainly concentrated on individual psychological well-being during adolescence and early adulthood [ 19, 20]. Moreover, limited knowledge exists regarding how mother-daughter differentiation in adulthood affects the psychological well-being of both individuals. Exploring this dynamic is particularly crucial in Korean culture, as previous studies have indicated that aging parents tend to exert excessive control over their adult children [ 21], while other research has shown that the adult daughters in Korea may remain excessively emotionally close to their biological parents [ 22]. This blurred psychological boundary may hinder appropriate independence in adulthood and potentially impact psychological well-being. To date, only two studies have investigated intergenerational self-differentiation in the mother-daughter relationship. Kim's study [ 23] focused solely on the influence of mothers on daughters, neglecting the influence of daughters on mothers. Choi's study [ 22] examined the connection between mother-daughter differentiation and parental role satisfaction, but it did not assess psychological well-being. To bridge this gap, the present study adopts a dyadic approach to enhance our understanding of intergenerational relationships between mothers and daughters in adulthood, especially exploring the association between mother-daughter differentiation and their psychological well-being. The association between parent-child differentiation and psychological well-being may be influenced by the parental status of adult daughters. A recurring question in intergenerational relationships is whether adult children become closer to their parents upon becoming parents themselves. However, previous studies investigating the connection between parental status and relationship quality have yielded inconsistent results [ 14, 24]. These inconsistent findings suggest that the significance of parental status may vary across culture or society [ 17]. In the Korean context, parenthood has traditionally been valued both at the individual level, associated with personal happiness, and at a societal level, linked to societal contributions. However, there has been a recent increase in the proportion of individuals expressing preference for a childless family [ 25]. Parental status is considered one of the social structural characteristics that can associate the quality of relationships between older parents and their adult children. Hence, the present study aims to examine the moderating effect of adult daughters' parental status on the relationship between parent-child differentiation and psychological well-being.

Based on the life course perspective, this study examined two research questions and their corresponding hypotheses:

Research Question 1. Does the aging mother-adult daughter differentiation correlate with the psychological well-being of both parties?

Hypothesis 1.1.

Adult daughters with higher levels of differentiation will experience greater psychological well-being (actor effect).

Hypothesis 1.2.

Aging mothers with higher levels of differentiation will experience greater psychological well-being (actor effect).

Hypothesis 1.3.

Adult daughters with higher levels of differentiation will be associated with greater psychological well-being in their aging mothers (partner effect).

Hypothesis 1.4.

Aging mothers with higher levels of differentiation will be associated with greater psychological well-being in their adult daughters (partner effect).

Research Question 2. How does the parental status of adult daughters relate to the association between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being?

Hypothesis 2.1.

Being a parent will be linked to positive aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and greater psychological well-being.

2. Materials and Methods

The study utilized data from 167 pairs of Korean aging mothers and their adult daughters in a dyadic format. The survey was conducted in Korea between 2014 and 2015 and encompassed inquiries about triad family relationships, especially involving adult daughters, their mothers, and their husbands. However, the primary focus of this study was solely on examining the relationship between adult daughters and their aging mothers.

2.1. Procedures

The data for this study were collected from the Project on Mother and Daughter Differentiation, Solidarity, and Relationship Satisfaction between Mother-in-law and Son-in-law. Convenience sampling was employed, and recruitment strategies included posting on various websites, distributing flyers at coffee shops, subway stations, and bus stations. In addition, potential participants were contacted through counseling centers, senior welfare centers, and family centers. The survey was conducted from December 2014 to February 2015, involving a total of 167 families. Although the project involved three individuals (adult daughters, their mothers, and adult daughters' spouses) within each family unit, this study focused solely on the data obtained from adult daughters and their aging mothers.

During the data collection phase, the study included participants who met the following criteria: (1) Families residing in Daegu and North Gyeong-buk provinces, where an adult daughter and her mother live; (2) Families in which the adult daughter has been married for a minimum of one year; and (3) Families in which the aging mother possesses the necessary literacy skills to respond to the questionnaire items. Each participant was provided with a 15$ (USD) compensation for their participation in the survey. Initially, a total of 180 families took part in the study, but ultimately, 167 families successfully completed the entire research process; 13 families were excluded from the analysis for specific reasons. Among these, seven families were excluded as they resided in different provinces meaning that the mothers, who briefly visited their adult daughters' homes on the survey date, did not meet the inclusion criteria. Additionally, six families were excluded because the adult daughters were already grandmothers.

For this study, a sample of 167 Korean aging mothers and their adult daughters residing in Daegu and Gyeong-buk provinces in the southern region of Korea was utilized. The average age of the aging mothers was 59.61 years with a standard deviation of 4.83, while the average age of the adult daughters was 34.22 years with a standard deviation of 4.83. Regarding education, more than half of the mothers had completed middle school (29.9%) or high school (33.5%). In contrast, a plurality of adult daughters had completed a four-year university degree (49.1%). In terms of employment, 37% of the mothers and 62.9% of the adult daughters had a job. The average monthly household income was lower for the mothers, at KRW 2,995,500 (USD 2668.36), compared to the adult daughters, whose average monthly income was KRW 4,739,329 (USD 4221.74). Approximately 25% of adult daughters did not have children, while around 75% reported having at least one child. A summary of the demographic information for both the mothers and adult daughters can be found in Table 1 .

Table 1

Adult Daughters (n = 167)

Aging Mothers (n = 167)

N (%)

N (%)

Age

Level of education

Job status

Total income (per month, Korean currency; KRW)

KRW 1,900,000-
KRW 14,500,000
(USD 1692.50-USD 12,916.44)

KRW 400,000-
KRW 25,000,000
(USD 356.32-USD 22,269.73)

Adult daughter's parental status

2.2. Measurement

2.2.1. Psychological Well-Being

To assess the level of psychological well-being in mothers and their adult daughters, the Korean-translated version of Ryff 's 18-item scale [ 26] was utilized [ 27]. The Psychological Well-Being Scale [ 26], a theoretically-grounded instrument specifically designed to measure various aspects of psychological well-being, was used as an indicator of individuals' quality of life. This scale consists of six subscales (autonomy, self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, and positive relationship with others). Each subscale consists of three items, with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A higher score indicates a greater level of well-being for each subscale [ 28]. While it is possible that psychological well-being can be characterized by a six-factor structure, the items proposed by Ryff to represent this structure lack sufficient evidence to substantiate its existence. The discrepancy could arise from shortcomings in the measurement tools, the underlying theory, or a combination of both. To address this issue, Springer et al. [ 29] suggested analyzing the covariance structure of the items and their associations with other variables. In light of this, they proposed two potential approaches. The first approach involves consolidating all the items into a comprehensive well-being index that encompasses various dimensions of psychological well-being. The second approach consists of merging the four overlapping subscales into a single index while treating the remaining two dimensions separately, allowing for a more detailed examination of the construct. Consequently, item-parceling was employed in the present study.

When the sample size is relatively small and fewer parameters are desired, item parcels are a preferred method of breaking down multiple item scales into two or more groups [ 30, 31]. The use of item parcels offers several advantages to researchers, including (1) reducing sampling errors, (2) obtaining more stable parameter estimates with a more concise model, and (3) achieving better model fit [ 30, 32].

In this study, the creation of item parcels involved several steps. Initially, exploratory factor analysis with a single factor extraction using SPSS 24.0 and principal axis method was employed. Subsequently, the items were ranked based on their factor loadings, from the highest to lowest scores. To achieve a more parsimonious model considering the six dimensions of psychological well-being, the domain-representative approach, as suggested by Little and colleagues [ 31], was utilized. Each parcel included multiple facets divided into item sets. For example, the first parcel consisted of autonomy 1, self-acceptance 1, personal growth 1, purpose in life 1, environmental mastery 1, and positive relationship with others 1. Similarly, the second parcel included autonomy 2, self-acceptance 2, personal growth 2, purpose in life 2, environmental mastery 2, and positive relationship with others 2. The third parcel comprised autonomy 3, self-acceptance 3, personal growth 3, purpose in life 3, environmental mastery 3, and positive relationship with others 3. Finally, the three parcels were created by calculating the average loadings of each set of items [ 33]. Higher scores on the parcels indicate a higher level of psychological well-being. The Cronbach's alpha values for each subscale of psychological well-being were 0.48-0.71 for adult daughters and 0.46-0.78 for aging mothers, respectively. More detailed information is as follows: (1) autonomy (Cronbach's α = 0.61 for adult daughters, Cronbach's α = 0.67 for aging mothers); (2) self-acceptance (Cronbach's α = 0.71 for adult daughters, Cronbach's α = 0.78 for aging mothers); (3) personal growth (Cronbach's α = 0.48 for adult daughters, Cronbach's α = 0.57 for aging mothers); (4) purpose in life (Cronbach's α = 0.53 for adult daughters, Cronbach's α = 0.48 for aging mothers); (5) environmental mastery (Cronbach's α = 0.50 for adult daughters, Cronbach's α = 0.46 for aging mothers); (6) positive relationship with others (Cronbach's α = 0.68 for adult daughters, Cronbach's α = 0.60 for aging mothers).

2.2.2. Aging Mother-Adult Daughter Differentiation

To assess the level of differentiation between aging mothers and their adult daughters, the Parent-Child Differentiation Scale [ 34] was employed. This scale, initially developed in English by researcher Chun [ 34] was translated into Korean and utilized in the current study. The scale consists two dimensions, namely, intimacy and individuation, each comprising 10 items. Examples of these items include statements such as, "I am satisfied with the current relationship with my mother/daughter" and "My mother/daughter does things that embarrassed me". Participants rated their agreement with these statements on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A higher score on the intimacy subscale indicates greater connectedness between generations, while a lower score suggests disengagement or cut-off. Similarly, a higher score on the individuation subscale reflects greater separateness between generations, while a lower score indicates an enmeshed or fused relationship [ 8, 34]. To determine the level of differentiation, Chun [ 34] calculated total scores for each subscale (ranging from 10 to 50) and multiplied them together, resulting in a differentiation score ranging from 100 to 2500. For instance, if someone obtained a total score of 30 on the intimacy scale and 30 on the individuation scale, their differentiation score would be 900. However, the multiplication of these total scores raised concerns about non-normality. To address this issue during the analysis, item parcels were created. First, an "a priori questionnaire construction" approach based on the nature of the scales was employed to create item parcels [ 31]. The parent-child differentiation scale contained both positively and negatively worded items, and, following the recommendation of Little et al. [ 31], the negatively worded items were reverse-coded. Exploratory factor analysis with a single-factor extraction was then conducted and items were rank-ordered based on their factor loadings. Finally, three parcels were formed by calculating the average loadings of each set of items [ 33].

Higher scores on the scale indicate a greater degree of differentiation in the parent-child relationships. In other words, higher scores suggest that well-differentiated parent-child dyads have a flexible and complementary relationship, while lower scores indicate that poorly differentiated dyads have a rigid or overly close relationship. The Cronbach's alpha values for the intimacy and individuation subscales were 0.92 and 0.82 for adult daughters and 0.90 and 0.79 for mothers, respectively.

2.2.3. Parental Status

The parental status of the adult daughters was assigned a code of 1 if they had their own children and 0 if they did not. Out of the total sample, there were 125 adult daughters who had children, while 42 adult daughters did not have children.

2.2.4. Control Variables

While the primary focus of this study is the associations of family differentiation and psychological well-being of mothers and their adult daughters, it is important to consider that other variables may also be associated with psychological well-being. To account for these relationships, the study included control variables that served as predictors of psychological well-being. For adult daughters, the control variables included age and level of education, while for aging mothers, the control variables included age, level of education, and health status. The ages of adult daughters and aging mothers were utilized as continuous variables. Regarding the level of education, a higher academic background after graduation corresponded to a higher score. The scoring system for education level was as follows: non = 1, elementary school = 2, middle school = 3, high school = 4, two-year junior college = 5, four-year university = 6, graduate school or higher = 7. In terms of the health status of the aging mothers, a 5-point Likert scale was employed for coding, where a higher score indicated a better condition. The coding categories for health status were very poor = 1, poor = 2, adequate = 3, good = 4, and very good = 5. These control variables were taken into consideration to better understand the relationship between family differentiation and psychological well-being in both generations.

2.3. Analytic Plan

Before conducting the current analysis, a descriptive analysis was performed on the main scales used, including measures of central tendency (mean) and variability (standard deviation), as well as an assessment of skewness and kurtosis. More detailed information regarding these analyses can be found in Appendix A. Notably, the skewness and kurtosis values indicated that the variables utilized in this analysis adhered to the assumption of a normal distribution. Specifically, the skewness values ranged between −0.51 and 0.33, with absolute values less than 2, while the kurtosis values ranged between −0.49 and 0.66, with absolute values less than 7.

In order to investigate the potential association between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being, the study employed the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) using the statistical software M-plus version 8.0 (refer to Figure 1 ). The APIM analysis was chosen as it allows for the examination of both the individual and relational interdependencies within the collected pair data [ 35]. To explore the role of parental status in the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being, the parental status of adult daughters was utilized as a moderator. The moderating effect of parental status on the association between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being was examined using multiple group analysis in M-Plus.

In this study, there were no missing values for the main measurements, including psychological well-being, aging mother-adult daughter differentiation, and parental status. However, some of the control variables had missing values, specifically two missing values for the age of mothers and one missing value for the aging mother's health status. To address these missing values, full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation was employed. FILM estimation allows for the use of all available information in the dataset to estimate parameters without the need to delete cases with missing values [ 36].

3. Results

3.1. Measurement Model

The measurement model for this study included all latent variables, allowing for free correlations between the variables. The results of the measurement model indicated a good fit to the data, with χ ² (88, N = 167) =110.42, p < 0.05, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.04 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.00, 0.06), and SRMR = 0.033. A comparison of fit indices between different models is presented in Table 2 . The measurement model was compared to a free model as a causal model, as well as partially constrained and fully constrained models that reflected the same structure between aging mothers and their adult daughters. In the partially constrained model, the paths involving each parceled item were constrained, while in the fully constrained model, the paths involving each parceled item, the actor effect paths, and the partner effect paths were constrained.

Table 2

Models

χ²

Df

RMSEA

CI

CFI

TLI

Δχ²

Δdf

3.2. Actor-Partner Effect

The findings of the final Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) are presented in Table 3 . The fully constrained model demonstrated a good fit to the data. The results indicated that daughters' aging mother-adult daughter differentiation was positively linked to their own psychological well-being (β = 0.37, SE = 0.07, p < 0.001); similarly, their mothers' aging mother-adult daughter differentiation was positively associated with their own psychological well-being (β = 0.43, SE = 0.07, p < 0.001). However, there were no significant partner effects of aging mother-adult daughter differentiation on psychological well-being (β = −0.02, SE = 0.07, p > 0.05 for aging mothers; β = −0.02, SE = 0.07, p > 0.05 for adult daughters). While the focus of this final model was on the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being, certain control variables remained significant predictors of psychological well-being. Specifically, the age of aging mothers (β = 0.19, SE = 0.08, p < 0.05), the age of adult daughters (β = 0.20, SE = 0.07, p < 0.01), and the health status of aging mothers (β = 0.41, SE = 0.07, p < 0.001) were positively associated with their psychological well-being.

Table 3

Effect

Adult Daughters

Aging Mothers

β

B

SE

β

B

SE

3.3. Moderating Effect of Parental Status

A multiple-group analysis was conducted to examine the influence of parental status on the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being. Both constrained models (partially and fully constrained model) demonstrated a satisfactory fit to the data: the partially constrained model yielded χ2 (204, N = 167) = 247.08 (141.56 for the group with adult daughters who have no children; 105.52 for the group with adult daughters who have children), p < 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.05 (CI: 0.02, 0.07), and SRMR = 0.08. The fully constrained model yielded χ2 (210, N = 167) = 251.15 (143.45 for the group with adult daughters who have no children; 107.70 for the group with adult daughters who have children), p < 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.05 (CI: 0.02, 0.07), and SRMR = 0.08.

The results pertaining to Hypothesis 2.1 are presented in Table 4 . In the partially constrained model, a moderating effect was observed between aging mothers' differentiation and their own psychological well-being. Specifically, there was no significant difference between adult daughters who have children (β = 0.29, SE = 0.12, p < 0.05) and childless adult daughters (β = 0.54, SE = 0.22, p < 0.05) in terms of the association between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being. Well-differentiated adult daughters, regardless of their parental status, exhibited higher levels of psychological well-being. However, a significant difference was observed for aging mothers. Aging mothers with adult daughters who have children displayed well-differentiated relationships, leading to greater psychological well-being (β = 0.46, SE = 0.12, p < 0.001). Conversely, aging mothers with childless adult daughters did not show a significant relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being (β = 0.20, SE = 0.25, p > 0.05).

Table 4

Partially Constrained Model

Effect

Adult Daughters

Aging Mothers

β

B

SE

β

B

SE

Fully Constrained Model

Effect

Adult Daughters

Aging Mothers

β

B

SE

β

B

SE

However, according to the fully constrained model, no moderating effects were found between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being. Regardless of the adult daughter's parental status, both well-differentiated adult daughters and their aging mothers exhibited higher levels of psychological well-being. In the groups of adult daughters who have children, highly differentiated pairs reported greater psychological well-being (β = 0.35, SE = 0.07, p < 0.001, and β = 0.42, SE = 0.08, p < 0.001, respectively). Similarly, in the groups of adult daughters without children, well-differentiated pairs also showed higher levels of psychological well-being (β = 0.34, SE = 0.08, p < 0.001, β = 0.41, SE = 0.09, p < 0.001, respectively).

4. Discussion

The findings from the APIM analysis are as follows: (1) The results supported the first two hypotheses, indicating that the aging mother-adult daughter differentiation of both mothers and daughters is positively associated with their own psychological well-being. (2) However, the second two hypotheses were not supported, indicating that the aging mother-adult daughter differentiation of mothers and daughters is not positively related to the psychological well-being of the other person. (3) The results partially supported the third hypothesis, indicating that aging mothers with adult daughters who have children and maintain well-differentiated relationships experience higher level of psychological well-being compared to aging mothers with adult daughters who have no children.

These findings have three important implications. Firstly, the finding that mothers' aging mother-adult daughter differentiation has an impact on their own psychological well-being supports Bowen's assertation. That is, the differentiation can serve as a crucial indicator of psychological adjustment among older adults [ 15]. Conversely, the influence of daughter's aging mother-adult daughter differentiation on their own psychological well-being is not surprising. This result aligns with previous research emphasizing the significance of the family of origin even after marriage. Internationally, the level of differentiation of adult children from their parents has consistently been identified as a significant predictor of their psychological well-being. For instance, differentiation from family of origin has been shown to influence marital stability [ 37] and marital adjustment of adult children [ 38]. Furthermore, a healthier experience with the family of origin has been associated with higher levels of relationship satisfaction, while poor differentiation from the family of origin has been linked to increased risk of depression among adult children [ 39].

Secondly, contrary to the hypotheses, it was found that aging mother-adult daughter differentiation did not have an impact on the partner's psychological well-being. Aging mother-adult daughter differentiation may not be a significant variable for the psychological well-being of the partner in adulthood. In Korean culture, which emphasizes collectivism, individuals are encouraged to prioritize family harmony and it can be challenging to establish a strong sense of differentiation within the family unit [ 40]. Women, in particular, who place high value on relationships, may be more susceptible to the influence of others' opinions and feedback [ 41]. However, this cultural context may not have the same effect on married daughters and their aging mothers who have already entered adulthood. Therefore, the significance of aging mother-adult daughter differentiation for them may not be as pronounced as during adolescence. Another possible interpretation is related to the educational attainment discrepancies between aging mothers and their adult daughters, which could be associated with the results. In this study, while aging mothers had lower levels of education, most adult daughters had higher levels of education. Obtaining education was less prioritized for the mothers' generation due to the influence of a patriarchal family system [ 42]. Consequently, this generation of aging mothers tended to focus more on their children's accomplishments, as reported by Chung and Chin [ 43]. However, in contemporary Korean culture, adult daughters have been taught to value independence and place greater emphasis on their careers and immediate family. As a result, they may not consider the psychological well-being of their original family as strongly.

Thirdly, the parental status of adult daughters acted as a moderator in the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being. Although this finding does not indicate complete interdependence between them, it partially aligns with the perspective of linked lives. Parenthood of adult daughters can potentially enhance the psychological well-being of aging mothers, as they both have the shared experience of being parents. This finding suggests a connection between the level of aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and the potential provision of grandchild care in Korea. While the current study did not specifically investigate whether aging mothers were actively raising their grandchildren, it is likely that they engage in childcare duties when their daughters have children. In the Korean context, when married women receive childcare support from their mothers, it tends to strengthen their emotional connection with their mothers [ 44]. This emotional bond may potentially contribute to the higher reported psychological well-being of the mothers.

However, it is important to exercise caution when interpreting these findings. Since the number of dyads with adult daughters who have children (N = 125 pairs) was three times larger than the group without children (N = 42 pairs), it is necessary to consider potential errors that may arise due to the smaller sample size.

Limitations and Future Directions

First, additional research is required to broaden the study's scope and include a diverse range of groups, such as low-income families, as well as different geographic regions, including both urban and rural areas. The present study specifically examined adult daughter-aging mother dyads from middle-class backgrounds living in Daegu and Gyeong-buk provinces, located in the southern region of Korea. Regarding the sampling approach, the chosen sample size of 167 pairs of aging mothers and adult daughters is considered sufficient and provides a solid foundation for analysis. However, it is important to acknowledge that convenience sampling introduces a potential bias into the results since it may not fully represent the entire target population. Moreover, future research should consider the inclusion of diverse demographic characteristics. Additionally, recognizing that the psychological well-being of older adults is shaped by lifelong interaction with significant individuals [ 8], it would be advantageous to extend the investigation to encompass other familial relationships such as older couples and the dynamics between grandparents and grandchildren. Furthermore, it is important to explore mother-adult child dyads across different age groups. The findings of this study, which revealed no significant impact of aging mother-adult daughter differentiation on each other's psychological well-being, suggest potential changes in the characteristics of Korean families influenced by evolving family dynamics compared to previous generations. To investigate the evolving nature of the mother-daughter relationship, future research could involve comparing the differentiation between the mother-daughter relationship during adulthood and the relationship between aging mothers and adult daughters in later life. Longitudinal studies examining the association between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being would also be valuable. Additionally, it is crucial to consider other factors that may influence the psychological well-being of partners.

Although the current study accounted for certain control variables such as age, level of education, and health status, it did not include other important factors such as geographical proximity, co-residence, and the quality of the mother-child relationship during childhood. The health status of adult daughters was not considered as a control variable because it was not assessed in the original survey. Using the mother's health status solely as a predictor for the psychological well-being of mothers limits the interpretation of the results. It would be more beneficial to incorporate the same variables for both members of the dyad to better understand and interpret the findings.

Second, careful consideration is warranted when interpreting the findings due to relatively low reliability observed in certain subscales of psychological well-being. Although an item-parceling approach was implemented to enhance the model's accuracy by representing different domains, there may still be concerns regarding the interpretation of individual subscales. To delve deeper into the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and each specific dimension of psychological well-being, an examination was conducted. Among the six subscales examined, only the "purpose in life" subscale exhibited significant results and demonstrated a good fit with the model. Notably, a partner effect was identified in the multigroup analysis. These findings underscore the necessity for additional empirical studies utilizing diverse approaches to validate Ryff [ 26]'s psychological well-being scale. From a theoretical perspective, subscales such as "autonomy" and "relationships with others" hold relevance to intergenerational dynamics. Employing a secondary factor analysis with two subscales could be a valuable approach to leverage the psychological well-being scale, and it should be considered in future research endeavors.

Lastly, it is essential to conduct further investigation into the parental status of adult children. When compared to their aging mothers, adult daughters who are childless may view motherhood differently. This divergence in viewpoints has the potential to influence both aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and their respective psychological well-being. The context of childlessness is significant, and nobody experiences it in the same manner [ 17]. Contrary to previous generations in which childbearing was viewed as a normal procedure following marriage, an increasing number of adult daughters in Korea are opting not to procreate [ 25]. Future research should account for this evolving trend and investigate the complex connection between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being.

Despite the limitations outlined above, this research makes a valuable contribution to the existing body of literature concerning the association between mother-daughter differentiation and psychological well-being in adulthood. This present study explores the interdependent relationship between aging mothers and their adult daughters, which has received limited attention in Korea thus far. Additionally, it empirically investigates the concept of "linked lives" within the life course perspective by considering the parental status of adult daughters. Moreover, the distinct role of parental status for both aging mothers and their adult daughters offers valuable insights for researchers aiming to enhance the psychological well-being of older adults.

5. Conclusions

This study aimed to examine the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and their psychological well-being. Additionally, it explored the role of parental status in the relationship between aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being. The findings indicated that higher levels of aging mother-adult daughter differentiation were positively linked to improved psychological well-being for both parties involved. Surprisingly, no significant effects were found between partner's aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and psychological well-being, contradicting the initial hypothesis. While Korea's collectivist culture traditionally discourages individuals from being differentiated family members, this cultural context may not apply to adult families. Moreover, aging mothers whose adult daughters have well-differentiated relationships, particularly those with grandchildren, experience greater psychological well-being compared to those with childless adult daughters. This suggests a connection between the aging mother-adult daughter differentiation and the potential influence of raising grandchildren. Considering that married adult daughters with high aging mother-adult daughter differentiation receives parental support for childcare, the parental status of adult daughters may impact the psychological well-being of aging mothers. These findings contribute to the expanding field intergenerational relationship research.

Acknowledgments

This study was conducted as a partial fulfillment of a doctoral dissertation completed in the Human Development and Family Studies program at Iowa State University.

Appendix A

Table A1

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2014S1A5B5A07040329).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Iowa State University (ISU) Institutional Review Board has reviewed the project and determined that the project is research that does not involve human subjects according to federal regulations (28 February 2018).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable. The participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher's Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

References

4. Besser A., Priel B. The apple does not fall far from the tree: Attachment styles and personality vulnerabilities to depression in three generations of women. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 2005;31:1052-1073. doi: 10.1177/0146167204274082. [[ PubMed] [ CrossRef] Google Scholar]

28. Ryff C.D., Keyes C.L.M. The structure of psychological well-being revisited. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1995;69:719-727. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719. [[ PubMed] [ CrossRef] Google Scholar]

Articles from Healthcare are provided here courtesy of Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Aging Mother-Adult Daughter Differentiation, Psychological Well-Being, and Parental Status

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Despite the understanding that differentiation is a lifelong process crucial for psychological adaptation, there is limited knowledge regarding how parent-child differentiation in adulthood is associated with the psychological well-being of both ...

# data[].attributes.body
Gerwig discusses topics around the film Lady Bird such as writing the script, influences, teenage culture, and relationships. Greta said that she made music mixes for every day that they were on the set to set a similar mood for all of the cast, which I thought was a cool idea. She also discussed the time period of the film and the importance of magazines and television on teen culture because it was created to mimic a time before cell phones and the internet.

# data[].attributes.body
This interview between Saorise Ronan and Greta Gerwig discusses how Greta came to pick the right actress to play Lady Bird and the characters traits. It explores the relationship between Lady Bird and her mom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Saoirse Ronan and Greta Gerwig talk Lady Bird | Film4 Interview Special

# data[].attributes.body
"John Bolby’s attachment theory (1969, 1980) posits that children’s social and personal development are often a result of how readily they have their needs met by their caregivers. Thus, attachment theory explains not only how child-caregiver relationships are formed, but also how early childhood attachment can provide the underlying basis for future relationship styles and communication pattern." This scholarly article explores the complicated relationship between Marion and Lady Bird as they try to navigate through their lives with each other.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Andrew Han

The film Lady Bird follows the titular character whose real name is Christine McPherson, but insists on being called "Lady Bird," as she navigates the trials and tribulations of her senior year of high school in 2002 Sacramento. Between the tensions with her best friend Julie, romantic relationships, and the pressures of high school social hierarchies, Lady Bird is left to balance the typical challenges of adolescence. However, despite these issues appearing throughout the movie, the main relationship that the film explores is that of Lady Bird and her mother, Marion. Although Lady Bird detests her mother's opinionated and strong-willed personality, the audience comes to find out that Lady Bird embodies more of her mother's characteristics than she realizes.

During one of many mother-daughter arguments throughout the film, Marion scolds Lady Bird for getting suspended from school, highlighting her daughter's inability to appreciate the financial sacrifices her parents made to get her into a private high school. This is one of many strained interactions between Lady Bird and Marion that demonstrates the ways in which parent-child conflicts increase when children become adolescents and strive for emotional autonomy, or the ability to have control over one's life and make decisions (Silverberg & Steinberg, 1987; Steinberg, 2001). However, as Lady Bird concludes, the audience and Lady Bird realize that familial discord, although aggravating, is often a result of love. The film reminds the audience of the conflicting and powerful feelings that families invoke; while many adolescents are desperate to leave home, they are often not developmentally ready to fully let go. In order to better understand the depiction of familial relationships in Lady Bird, this paper explores the attachment behaviors that shape who children become, while also examining how ecological factors (such as socioeconomic status, or SES) can impact them.
Attachment Theories and Lady Bird and Marion's Relationship
Often, adolescents' physical and mental health can partly be explained by their parents, who act as role models for socialization (i.e., the process of learning how to behave in an appropriate manner), help to mitigate their risky behaviors, and are the primary supporters of their financial resources (Repetti, Robles, & Reynolds, 2011; Repetti, Taylor, & Seeman, 2002). In the case of Lady Bird, many have argued that Marion acts as a negative role model for Lady Bird's socialization, as there are multiple examples of her seeming unengaged with and unresponsive to Lady Bird's needs (Liza, 2018). Although Marion's comments can come off as harsh and often unprovoked, viewing their relationship through the lens of attachment theory clarifies that the true reason for her behavior is Marion's fear of Lady Bird's impending independence.

John Bolby's attachment theory (1969, 1980) posits that children's social and personal development are often a result of how readily they have their needs met by their caregivers. Thus, attachment theory explains not only how child-caregiver relationships are formed, but also how early childhood attachment can provide the underlying basis for future relationship styles and communication patterns (Allen, Hauser, & Borman-Spurrell, 1996). In Lady Bird's case, her often inconsistent social behaviors are influenced by her upbringing, in that Lady Bird's needs weren't always sensitively or consistently met, potentially impacting the way she expects others to love and care for her as a result. An example of this is evident in Lady Bird's attachment style, which can be identified as insecure-ambivalent. In a well-known test of attachment known as the Strange Situation, Mary Ainsworth (1978) found that securely-attached infants use their responsive and sensitive caregivers as safe bases to explore the world from, thus creating the foundation of a child's ability to maintain adult relationships. However, insecure-ambivalent infants tend to be clingy when exploring with their caregivers, extremely upset by the caregiver's departure, and ambivalent upon their return (Ainsworth, 1978). Even though attachment theory was originally postulated for infants, it has been thoroughly explored in adolescence as insecure-ambivalent attachment in adolescence has implications for subsequent psychosocial development, where formation of peer relationships is considered a crucial to development (Allen, Moore, Kuperminc, & Bell, 2008). Mothers of insecure-ambivalent children are often described as inconsistently responsive, which parallels Marion's responsiveness to her daughter's needs through her vacillation between attentiveness to Lady Bird to then becoming completely emotionally unavailable. For example, Marion supports a tearful Lady Bird when she loses her virginity to a boy she liked who lied about the status of his sexual history, but when Lady Bird struggles to fit in her prom dress, Marion crudely responds, "Well, I suggested you not have that second helping of pasta" (Rudin, Bush, & O'Neill, 2017). Marion's inconsistent support for her daughter may result in Lady Bird lacking the security to appropriately understand and handle relationships with others. For example, Lady Bird begins to hang out with a popular girl at her school and date a bad boy, ultimately ignoring her best friend, Julie, even though she is the only one who gives Lady Bird the social and emotional support she needs. Thus, one can see how Lady Bird's relationship with her mother influences her inability to form appropriate relationships throughout the film (Davies, Woitach, Winter, & Cummings, 2009; Eisenberg & Eggum, 2009).

Those with insecure-ambivalent attachment styles also report more self-doubt, feelings of being underappreciated, and feeling as though others are less willing to commit to them, all of which can be seen in Lady Bird's character (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Lady Bird often doubts herself and feels misunderstood, as she romanticizes a future where she can live on the East Coast and escape Sacramento, where she has poor grades and few friends. She also finds herself more willing to commit to relationships than her exes are, such as Danny, who was caught kissing another boy, and Kyle, whose overly lax demeanor clashes with Lady Bird's impassioned personality. Insecure-ambivalent attachment in infants can be reflected during adolescence as the inability to get one's needs met by others sets negative expectations of oneself, possibly leading to less self-worth that is closely linked with depression and other internalizing problems (Allen et al., 2008). Those with insecure-ambivalent attachments report more self-conscious anxiety and low social self-esteem, which is apparent in Lady Bird's fears of being perceived as poor and living on the "wrong side of the tracks" (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Feeney & Noller, 1990; Rudin et al., 2017). Furthermore, having an insecure-ambivalent attachment style in adolescence is a considerable predictor of depression and behavior problems, which are evident in Lady Bird's disruptive behaviors (e.g., when she vandalizes a school nun's car and gets suspended from school; Kobak, Sudler & Gamble, 1991). Thus, Lady Bird ends up depicting much of Bowlby's (1969, 1980) attachment theory, which can contextualize the central characters' temperamental mother-daughter relationship for the audience, as well as explain how many of Lady Bird's behaviors and insecurities are rooted in her mother's inconsistent support for her throughout the film.
Impact of SES on Family Relationships
Although Marion's parenting style can explain part of Lady Bird's behaviors throughout the film, additional ecological factors also influence the dynamic between Lady Bird and her mother. Longitudinal studies have identified several factors that impact styles of attachment, the most central of which includes SES (Lyons-Ruth, 1996). Even though Marion may be harsh on Lady Bird, the film's protagonist tends to be naive when it comes to understanding the financial and mental burdens that her family is undergoing as a result of financing her private school education. For example, when Lady Bird discovers that her father has been struggling with depression for years without her knowing, it is apparent to the audience that Lady Bird was so invested in her own issues that she inadvertently ignored the needs of those around her.

Research has also found that the amount of time a parent spends working results in less time with their children, less academic support, and less time for relationship development (Vernon-Feagans, Willoughby, & Garrett-Peters, 2016)). Additionally, parents with inconsistent working hours and financial restraints often have less time to spend with their children (Vernon-Feagans et al., 2016). While many parents are forced to work long hours, being working-class and often having inconsistent hours (as Marion does through her job as a nurse) hinders the mother-daughter dynamic in Lady Bird as well. Since Marion has to work overtime to provide for her family, she cannot always be there for her daughter's biggest moments, such as Lady Bird's school dance. Unlike her peers, Lady Bird does not have her own car or cell phone, and as an adolescent whose identity is based largely on social comparison (Ryan, 2001), she resents her socioeconomic status greatly. This leads Lady Bird to lie about her residential status when she tells the popular girl at her school that she lives in a big blue house in the more affluent part of the community.

Furthermore, research shows that, due to the stress levels that lower-SES families experience, some parents from low-SES households are more likely to utilize direct control parenting practices to ensure order and obedience (e.g., setting a strict rules; Borstein, 2002; Steinberg, 2001). In the film, Marion places high and often unrealistic demands on Lady Bird, and is inconsistently responsive to her emotional needs, such as when Marion turns off the radio when Lady Bird wants to listen to music. It is behaviors like these that may lead some audiences to view Marion as overly-critical and unengaged, but it is important to highlight that Lady Bird's father was recently laid off, forcing Marion to become the primary breadwinner of the household. It has also been found that financial distress presents more stressors for low-SES caregivers than high-SES caregivers, and low-SES caregivers are less likely to employ inductive discipline strategies, such as providing explanations for inappropriate behaviors, and thus resort to more punitive parenting practices (McLoyd, 1990).

While Marion attempts to practice "tough love" with Lady Bird to impress on Lady Bird the financial investment of her education, Lady Bird believes that her mother is continuously attacking her. The stakes of their relationship are inevitably high, as those in lower-SES households are often subjected to circumstances that more privileged families do not have to consider. Marion is all too aware that her family is not rich, given that she tells Lady Bird that she needs to hang her clothes and avoid wrinkles so the kids at school do not think she's poor. While this is perceived by Lady Bird as a moment where her mother fails to ask her about her personal life, it showcases Marion's awareness of her family's financial circumstance and her attempts to guard Lady Bird from ridicule and embarrassment. This also demonstrates how low-SES caregivers are more concerned with their child's ability to conform to societal expectations of socioeconomic status, likely because they are aware of the social stigma it carries (Bornstein, 2002). However, it is important to note that although many low-SES caregivers face these obstacles, not all do and parenting practices in households, regardless of SES, have many individual differences. Taken together, these ecological factors provide contextualization for Marion's stringent parenting, as she is presented with financial stressors that strain her relationship with Lady Bird in a way that higher-SES parents do not endure.
Conclusion
Lady Bird was lauded because of the complexity with which it explored the relationship between a mother and her daughter. With deeper analysis, it becomes clear that this film analyzes how several factors, both within and outside of the family, can complicate how love is expressed. After all, the nuances of familial relationships cannot be reduced to clear cut categories, and reducing Marion to labels such as "harsh" or "cold" minimizes the ways in which she, like Lady Bird, is growing as a person and experiencing financial and emotional hardship. If anything, this film highlights how parental love can be expressed in unconventional and implicit ways, especially in families experiencing external ecological pressures. For example, after a period in which Marion refuses to speak to Lady Bird before she leaves for college, Lady Bird's father reveals to her that Marion has written letter after letter to her, which he then collects and places in her suitcase. While Marion was unable to physically express her feelings to her daughter, it is clear that her affection is present.

In one of the early scenes of the film, when reading Lady Bird's college application essay, her principal notes how her love for Sacramento and her family is clear in her writing even though she spends most of the film complaining about it. Her principal even tells her, "Don't you think maybe that they're the same thing? Love and attention?" opening audiences to the thesis statement of the film: attention is a form of love (Rudin et al). After all, Marion, despite being what many would call inconsistent and harsh, does constantly pay attention, even if it might be perceived as unkind or overbearing. At the end of the film, Lady Bird tearfully calls her mother at school in New York, after leaving home as she wanted to do for so much of the film. She warmly says, "Hey, Mom, did you feel emotional the first time that you drove in Sacramento? I did and I wanted to tell you, but we weren't really talking... All those bends I've known my whole life, and stores, and the whole thing... But I wanted to tell you that I love you. Thank you, I'm... thank you" (Rudin et al). Although the film documents an adolescent girl growing up in Sacramento during the early 2000s, it is truly a coming-of-age story for both daughters and mothers as they learn to communicate and understand each other to the best of their capabilities - even when life gives them reasons not to.

References

Allen, J. P., Hauser, S. T., & Borman-Spurrell, E. (1996). Attachment theory as a framework for understanding sequelae of severe adolescent psychopathology: An 11-year follow-up study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 254-263.

Allen, J. P., Moore, C., Kuperminc, G., & Bell, K. (2008). Attachment and adolescent psychosocial functioning. Child Development, 69(5), 1406-1419.

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bornstein, M. H. (2002). Handbook of parenting. Volume 2: biology and ecology of parenting (Vol. 2).Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol.1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol.3. Loss, sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.

Davies, P. T., Woitach, M. J., Winter, M. A., & Cummings, E. M. (2008). Children's insecure representations of the interparental relationship and their school adjustment: The mediating role of attention difficulties. Child Development, 79, 170-1582.

Eisenberg, N., & Eggum, N. D. (2009). Empathic responding: Sympathy and personal distress. In J. Decety & W. Ickes (Eds.), The social neuroscience of empathy (pp. 71-84). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Feeney, J. A., & Noller, P. (1990). Attachment style as a predictor of adult romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(2), 281-291.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511-524.

Kobak, R. R., Sudler, N., & Gamble, W. (1991). Attachment and depressive symptoms during adolescence: A developmental pathways analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 3(04), 461.

Liza, A. (2018). Why the mother daughter relationship in Lady Bird is abusive. Tailored Raw.

Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(1), 64-73.

McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61(2), 311-346.

Silverberg, S. B., & Steinberg, L. (1987). Adolescent autonomy, parent-adolescent conflict, and parental well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(3), 293-312.

Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: Parent-adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11(1), 1-19.

Repetti, R. L., Robles, T. F., & Reynolds, B. (2011). Allostatic processes in the family. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 921-938.

Repetti, R.L., Taylor, S.E., & Seeman, T.E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330-366.

Rudin, S., Bush, E., & O'Neill, E. (Producers). (2017). Lady Bird[Video file]. United States: A24.

Ryan, A. M. (2001). The peer group as a context for the development of young adolescent motivation and achievement. Child Development, 72(4), 1135-1150.

Vernon-Feagans, L., Willoughby, M., & Garrett-Peters, P. (2016). Predictors of behavioral regulation in kindergarten: Household chaos, parenting, and early executive functions. Developmental Psychology, 52(3), 430-441.

Vorel, J. (2017). Lady Bird and Cycles of Abuse. Paste Maga zine.

Click here to return to the Spring 2019 Issue Contents page.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Depiction of Attachment Theory and SES in Lady Bird

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Andrew Han The film Lady Bird follows the titular character whose real name is Christine McPherson, but insists on being called "Lady Bird," as she navigates the trials and tribulations of her senior year of high school in 2002 Sacramento.

# data[].attributes.body
This article focuses on the dynamic between mothers and daughters. It gives advice to daughters who have a more negative relationship with their mothers. This will come into my project when Lady Bird celebrates Mother's Day with her mother. She will take advice from this resource.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unpacking the Mother-Daughter Dynamic: Understanding and Healing the Relationship

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Without sugarcoating it, the mother-daughter relationship is by far one of the most painful to work with.

# data[].attributes.body
This article highlights the complexity of the mother/daughter relationship of Lady Bird and her mother. The article is really helpful because it helps me cut down on my own bias and see where each character are equally flawed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Saoirse Ronan as Christine "Lady Bird" McPherson and Laurie Metcalf as Marion McPherson in Lady Bird (2017).

As promised, after two long years, I am finally writing about Lady Bird. This is Greta Gerwig's directorial debut and I have absolutely loved it since the very first watch. I adore coming-of-age movies. For many people, this genre is a reflection of their adolescence that comes with milestones such as graduating from high school, going to prom, and experiencing their first crush. These movies show the characters growing from their silly teenage selves and learning about the pains and responsibilities of the adult world.

Lady Bird is a coming-of-age movie set in the early 2000s about a rebellious teenager, Christine McPherson, who calls herself "Lady Bird". It explores themes of friendship, self-identity, personal growth and attachment. However, the central theme of Lady Bird is the complex relationship between Lady Bird and her mother, Marion. While their relationship is filled with passive-aggressive conversations there are moments of tenderness and warmness between the mother-daughter duo.

Lady Bird (2017) directed by Greta Gerwig.

The nature of the relationship between Lady Bird and Marion is established from the very first scene of the movie, where we see Lady Bird and Marion driving back to their hometown, Sacramento after visiting college campuses. They are listening to an audiobook and tearing up. Once it is over, Lady Bird and Marion are so moved that we see them crying together. It is a beautiful scene, but also a misleading one as it is the very first time that we see these two characters connecting emotionally. They wipe off their tears and start laughing at each other Lady Bird decides to change the mood by listening to some music while her mother protests which makes Lady Bird angry. She does not say anything and then turns to stare out the window. The moment of connection does not last long and we see it quickly fracture to reveal the tension between them.

This is where we start to get to the heart of the conflict. Lady Bird does not want to live and study in Sacramento. She wants to live in New York, where she can be free and explore the culture and arts. When Marion hears this, she expresses that her daughter will not be able to achieve this. We see Marion underestimating her daughter's ability to see this through. Marion points out that her family can barely afford to pay if she went to a state college. She talks about how Lady Bird's father's company is laying people off and he might not have a job soon. Marion also points out that Lady Bird does not care about anyone but herself. This infuriates Lady Bird, and in the true reckless teenage fashion of making a statement she suddenly opens the car door and jumps out. This scene is the epitome of what their relationship is like. Both of these characters are equally flawed. Though they love each other deeply, they do not know how to express their emotions to each other and whenever they have a conversation, it ends up in a screaming match.

Lady Bird (2017) directed by Greta Gerwig.

In examining the titular character, we could say that Lady Bird is often obnoxiously outspoken, dishonest about many things especially her identity, prone to selfishness and throwing tantrums when things do not go her way. Yet she has commendable qualities too, such as her determination to make it out on her own in spite of her family and teachers' deflating comments about her abilities. She calls herself "Lady Bird" and she states that it was "given to me, by me" as an act to reject everything her mother has given her, including her hair. As for Marion, her internal conflict is that she is unable to express her emotions to her daughter. Her own abusive relationship with her mother would have contributed to that. Marion projects her insecurities and fears onto Lady Bird. It is established that the two characters have "strong personalities" and they have a difficult time hearing each other's problems.

A pivotal moment is when Lady Bird gets suspended for expressing her views on abortion at the school assembly. Her mother is distraught and asks Lady Bird if everything that they have done was not enough for her? The long hours that she works at the hospital was all for her to get the education that she needed for her future (also, because her brother saw someone getting knifed outside the public school) and safety. All her anger and frustration pour out at the moment and she tells Lady Bird that her parents know that she feels very ashamed of her. Everything that they have done for her is never enough for her, Marion says. Lady Bird is crying and pleads to her mother that she does care about them.

Lady Bird (2017) directed by Greta Gerwig.

The big blow in this scene is when Marion asks Lady Bird if she knows how much money it cost to raise her. Lady Bird is furious by this remark and she tells her mother that she will repay all the money back one day so that she never has to talk to her ever again. At this moment, Marion says that she will never succeed in life because Lady Bird has now thrown away the one opportunity that she had for a better future.

Despite these clashes between mother and daughter, one of the most touching scenes in the film is after Lady Bird loses her virginity there is no one there for her, except her mother. Marion does not know why she is crying and Lady Bird does not talk about it with her. Maybe it is because Lady Bird does not know how to have that discussion with her or if she talks about it, Marion might get upset. This is the first time we see Lady Bird and Marion not getting into an argument. It is simply heartwarming to see this side of the relationship between these characters.

"Don't you think maybe they are the same thing? Love and attention?"

As the movie progresses, we see Marion's struggle to compromise and reconcile with her daughter. While she loves Lady Bird deeply, she cannot let go of the vision of what she thinks her daughter should be. In a scene at the thrift shop, Marion and Lady Bird are shopping for her prom dress. When Lady Bird wears a dress that she loves, her mother considers and asks her, if the colour pink is too much? This annoys Lady Bird and she goes back to change. Lady Bird asks Marion that instead of making irrelevant comments, it would be nice of Marion to compliment her. When Lady Bird asks her if Marion likes her, Marion says that she loves her. But Lady Bird repeats the question and asks her if she likes her. Marion is confused. She does not understand what her daughter is asking. So to reassure her, Marion says that she wants her daughter to be the best version of herself. The heartbreaking part of this conversation is when Lady Bird asks, what if this was the best version of herself. Marion does not know what to say to her daughter and is left too shocked to say anything else to her daughter. As a viewer, this is a moment where you would think that she would turn around and say something more to her daughter, but Marion is left speechless.

Lady Bird (2017) directed by Greta Gerwig.

Gerwig's films are a reflection of who she was as an adolescent. She explores themes such as friendship, complex relationships with parents, the journey of growth and maturation of a woman. Gerwig is able to facilitate a sense of realness and authenticity when capturing the complexity of the family and its dynamics, as well as portraying flawed individuals in a way that resonates with our own internal dialogues and struggles. Especially in the process of growing up, we may have found ourselves in Lady Bird's shoes one way or another.

"No, I just wish... I wish that you liked me."

"Of course I love you."

"But do you like me?"

"...I want you to be the very best version of yourself you can be."

"What if this is the best version?"

At the end of the movie, we see Lady Bird struggle less to denounce aspects of herself and reach a greater level of self-acceptance. In a scene towards the end where Lady Bird has earned her driving license and is driving alone for the first time on the bridge of Sacramento, we see her mom mirrored, driving on the same bridge. Lady Bird concedes for the very first time in her life that Sacramento is beautiful, and realizes what her mother sees and loves about the place that Lady Bird has been desperately trying to flee. She had never taken the time to look thoroughly herself. She can never 'leave' Sacramento as it is a part of her, and unconsciously, she will always.

Ultimately, Lady Bird accomplishes her dream of going to college in New York. Though we see her go through a rough night of partying and ending up in a hospital, the first thing she does when she gets up the next morning is to stumble into a church. A little while later, she calls her mother and leaves a message in a voicemail. We see her accepting her real name, Christine, and even tells her mother it's a good name. She then asks Marion about her first time driving in Sacramento. The movie ends with Lady Bird thanking her mother and telling her she loves her. While we reach the conclusion of the movie with Marion still struggling to fully reconcile with her daughter's dreams, we are moved by Lady Bird's journey of growing up. She even achieves a sense of gratefulness. Her final phone call to her mother gives us hope, that even if Marion continues to struggle to see eye to eye with her daughter, at least Lady Bird will take initiative to forge that connection with her mother and move their relationship to a place where they can accept each other, even if they want different things. After all, life is a work in progress, and as Lady Bird shows us, you may make a ton of mistakes along the way, but the important thing is to never give up.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Lady Bird - the complex love story of a mother and daughter

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As promised, after two long years, I am finally writing about Lady Bird. This is Greta Gerwig's directorial debut and I have absolutely loved it since the very first watch. I adore coming-of-age...