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There are both hard solutions and soft solutions to erosion:

Hard solutions include engineering structures to protect a shoreline from direct wave erosion. These structures may include:
- jetties
- groins
- breakwaters
- seawalls

Soft solutions include adding sand to replace sand that has been eroded from the beach, a process known as beach nourishment.

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Littoral Transport -- Movement of waves causing sand transport:
- Beach drift: The up-and-back movement of beach material in the swash zone causes sediment to move along a beach in a zig-zag path
- Longshore drift: The transport of sediment by ocean currents that flow essentially parallel to the shorelines. Can be viewed as the cumulative effect of beach drift.

Sea-level change: Eustatic and Relative
- Eustatic sea level: Controlled by processes that affect the overall volume of water, can cause changes in relative sea level. Also known as global sea level. Thermal expansion and contraction of water due to changes in atmospheric temperature are the driving force behind eustatic sea level changes.
- Relative sea level: Also known as local sea level, this is controlled by tides and waves as well as the rise and fall of land. Relative sea levels can fluctuate by the hour due to tides and the topography of the coastline.

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Delaware coasts are passive coasts. Their waters are relatively calm, they have rich sedimentation, and wide beaches. This is because of Delaware's inactive plate tectonic setting. However, Delaware's beaches are still very impacted by storm surges that cause erosion and other damage. In addition, swimmers at the Delaware shore still need to be careful of strong rip currents generated by dangerous weather conditions.

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How will DE be impacted by climate change?

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How will DE be impacted by climate change?

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Delaware is going to be most impacted by sea level rise. By 2100, it is estimated that Delaware will lose roughly 8 percent of its land area, given that sea levels globally will increase by a little under 2 feet.

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Hazard most connected to DE's plate tectonic setting 

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Hazard most connected to DE's plate tectonic setting 

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Earthquakes:
Delaware does not face many earthquakes; in fact, they're quite rare, and when they do occur, they are very mild. The last significant earthquake to produce enough ground shaking for people to be alarmed was in 2011. The earthquake's epicenter was in Virginia and was of magnitude 5.8.

Coastal hazards:
Delaware's plate tectonic setting is what gives it a passive coastline, making it less vulnerable to tsunamis and harsh erosion. It is what makes Delaware beaches sediment rich and sandy rather than rocky with narrow beaches.

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- Strong coastal currents (rip currents)
- Coastal erosion
- Storm surge (most significant impact on passive coastlines, which DE is)
- Tsunamis (most hazardous to the Pacific coast)
- Rogue waves (large waves)

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Safety measures in the event of an earthquake

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Safety measures in the event of an earthquake

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If indoors, take shelter under a table or a bed to avoid falling objects, hold onto something (“drop, cover, hold on”)

If outdoors, go to an area away from buildings, trees, and powerlines.

Do not move at all during the shaking. Once the shaking has stopped, leave the building, taking care to avoid fallen or falling objects.

Turn off the main gas line and do not light matches or lighters.

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As shown in the diagram, Delaware (on the east coast of the United States) is not situated near a plate boundary.

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Enforce strict rules and regulations for how buildings should be constructed to withstand shaking, as well as regularly doing retrofitting (adjusting existing structures).

Placing facilities that are essential to the community in safe areas through microzonation, inspecting the liquefaction, ground motion, and landslide potential of an area.

Provide education at the community level, such as through distribution of pamphlets and videos; training sessions for engineers, architects, geologists, and community planners.

Increase insurance and relief measures

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Seismometers are used to detect seismic waves or ground motion (S and P as well as surface waves) which are what produce vibrations and shaking.

Magnitude (size) of the earthquake is recorded through either the Richter scale, which gives the local magnitude, or the moment magnitude scale, which takes longer to record but gives the absolute size (a measurement of the actual energy released during the earthquake). These numbers are represented with a decimal point number, such as 5.0.

Finally, the Mercalli Scale is more subjective but is used to measure the damage from the earthquake, or the intensity. It contains a scale with roman numerals from I-XII (1-12). Each numeral contains a description of how much it is felt and what damage follows.

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There is not much we can do to keep us safe from climate change, because it’s unfolding so rapidly in front of us. The best thing we can do is try to reduce emissions by being sustainable.

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Reducing emissions

Reducing waste

International agreements

Sequestration of carbon

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CO2 emissions are measured in ppm (parts per million)

Tree rings, sediments, ice cores, pollen, corals, are all pieces of evidence found in nature that can tell us how the climate has changed over time

Carbon-14

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Melting glaciers

Sea level rise

More frequency of storms

Disappearing islands

Wildfires

Landslides

Ocean acidification

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The greenhouse effect

Solar Forcing: Solar variation is changes in the amount of solar radiation that reaches the earth. In the past 1000 years, we have seen that slight changes in solar radiation have a substantial impact on the climate. For example, decreased solar activity occurred coincidentally around the same time as the start of the Little Ice Age.

Volcanic Forcing: Volcanic eruptions cause changes in atmospheric temperatures. The aerosols ejected from the volcano are transported by wind throughout the atmosphere and reflect a significant amount of sunlight, producing a net cooling effect. This effect is believed to have contributed to the start of the Little Ice Age.

Anthropogenic Forcing: Also known as human activity, this factor driving climate change is considered to be what explains the 12 degree C warming each decade.

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Be prepared to evacuate

Purchase flood insurance

Buy sandbags or flood boards

Have a good kit including flashlights, rain gear, blankets, etc

Keep warm and dry

Turn off your gas and electricity

Open doors and windows to ventilate your home

Move your car to higher ground

Contact gas and electric companies before turning facilities back on (after a flood)

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Physical barriers such as concrete flood walls (however, the benefit is limited because of the construction atop the floodplains that need protection).

Channelization: Straightening, deepening, widening, clearing, and/or lining existing stream channels. This controls floods and erosion, draining wetlands, and improving navigation.

Flood Insurance: New property owners in flood hazard areas can buy insurance at rates determined by the risk. This can help prevent economic loss.

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Flood discharge: The flood discharge (volume of water moving through a cross-section of a river per unit time) can be measured at just the point where the water overflows the channel banks.

Stage: The height of water in the river, which is depicted over time in hydrographs

Flood stage: A qualitative assessment of the ability for the water elevation to cause damage to personal property

Recurrence interval: R = (N + 1) / M, where N is number of years of record, M is the rank of the individual flow within the recorded years

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Property damage

Sedimentation

Erosion

Floodwater carries pollutants and other pesticides downstream

Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic material are deposited to the floodplain

Floods recharge groundwater by percolating into soil and eventually reaching aquifers

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Precipitation falling onto water-saturated soil that can no longer absorb any more water, leading to excess quantities

Precipitation falling onto ice or snow, causing large masses of ice to create ice jams that back up rivers

Intense rainfall over a short duration

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There are 3 factors that determine whether an area will flood:

1. The amount and distribution of precipitation in the drainage basin

2. The rate at which the precipitation infiltrates into the earth(this is determined by the wetness of the soil)

3. How quickly surface runoff from precipitation reaches the river

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Landslides

Tsunamis

Ground shaking

Ground rupture

Liquefaction

Changes in land elevation

Fires

Damage to infrastructure and buildings

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Plate tectonics are the driving force of earthquakes. Tectonic plates are constantly moving at a very slow human rate, but the stress and strain that occurs at faults (which are always found at plate boundaries, but can also be found elsewhere) can eventually lead to a massive release of energy. Due to stress, rocks build up elastic strain, causing them to become deformed. This happens until a critical point is reached where the fault slips, releasing the stored elastic energy in a process known as elastic rebound.