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Week 1 Reflection, Evolutionary Approach 

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Week 1 Reflection, Evolutionary Approach 

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An evolutionary approach looks at biological factors as the foundation for understanding human behaviour and culture. It argues that human behaviour is rooted in the need for survival and is shaped by Charles Darwin's natural selection principle. This view suggests that characteristics necessary for survival, such as aggressiveness or cooperation, are naturally selected and become ingrained into cultures over generations. Additionally, it highlights how biological differences between men and women influence cultural customs and societal roles. Geoffrey Miller, for example, argues that behaviours like altruism and materialism can be understood as evolutionary strategies for attracting mates.

While the evolutionary approach does provide valuable insights by linking innate biological drives to cultural expressions, it also risks oversimplifying the complexities of human behaviour by overemphasising natural selection. It downplays the role of the social, environmental, and historical contexts that also significantly shape a person's actions and cultural norms. Additionally, the deterministic view of gender roles based on biological differences might encourage stereotypes and contribute to gender inequality. This type of view overlooks the role of the cultural context in shaping behaviours, because it simplifies human experiences and behaviour based on biological determinism (Shiraev & Leary, 2016).

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Week 2 Comparing Two Phenomena: Some Important Principles

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Week 2 Comparing Two Phenomena: Some Important Principles

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This part of the weekly reading cross-examines two of the main approaches within cross-cultural psychology, the absolutist and the relativist approaches. The absolutist or universalist approach hypothesises that psychological phenomena, such as emotions and behaviours, remain constant across cultures. This view uses the standard of one’s culture as a basis for assessing others. In contrast, the relativist approach interprets human behaviour solely within its cultural context, which is thought to protect against potential bias in cross-cultural comparisons. In psychology, both approaches are integrated to determine which phenomena are universal and which are culturally specific. This dichotomy is reflected in the etic and emic approaches, which correspond with universalist and relativist positions. With etic representing the absolutist view and emic representing the relativist view.

From a critical cultural psychological perspective, these two approaches highlight the complex relationship between culture and human behaviour. The absolutist approach risks forcing culturally specific norms on diverse populations by focusing on the normalities of one group, which could lead to misunderstandings. For instance, an absolutist view does not account for the cultural significance of certain practices like greetings. In Western culture, a handshake is commonly used, while in East Asia, a bow is used for greeting. In contrast, the relativist approach offers a rich understanding of cultural complexity but overlooks the shared similarities in human experience. This shows the importance of a balanced approach that recognises universal principles and culturally specific practices (Shiraev & Leary, 2016).

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Week 3 The Barnum Effect: “One Size Fits All” Descriptions

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Week 3 The Barnum Effect: “One Size Fits All” Descriptions

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The Barnum effect illustrates how people accept vague and general descriptions of people and groups as relevant. These Barnum statements, which are used in our everyday descriptions of people and sociocultural groups and spread through the media, impact people's self-perceptions and societal stereotypes about various cultural groups. Additionally, statements you would find on a fortune cookie, like' You have a great need for people to like you,’ are broad enough that most people can see them for themselves.

These statements reflect truths that can apply to many, but fail to capture the unique experiences of individual people. This highlights the importance of critical cultural analysis in psychology by demonstrating the need to distinguish between generalisations and specific, nuanced understandings of different people.

From a critical cultural perspective, Barnum statements can reinforce stereotypes and biases, which can hinder intercultural understanding. These oversimplifications could result in us missing the diversity of cultural groups (Shiraev & Leary, 2016).

Reflecting on my biases, I can recognise moments I have formed generalised traits based on a cultural background, without acknowledging or considering individual differences. Firstly, to counter this, I can commit to actively distinguishing between vague and generalised and specific descriptions, always asking myself if the statement applies universally or reflects individual uniqueness. Secondly, I would cultivate awareness of the limitations of a Barnum statement, as they do not capture the distinctiveness of individuals or groups. And lastly, I would make a habit of qualifying my observations in terms of their magnitude and degree by using words like tend instead of always when describing the amount someone does something.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Consciousness is linked to culture, illustrating how subjective awareness is shaped by socialisation and environmental factors. Consciousness includes various states of awareness, influenced by cultural beliefs and practices. Different cultures experience and interpret consciousness in varying ways, as shown by the Ojibwa Indians and their views involving spirits and ancestors. This cultural framing emphasises that consciousness is not a universal phenomenon but rather a culturally nuanced experience.

From a critical cultural analysis perspective, this highlights the dualistic and monistic views on consciousness that still spread through philosophical thought. However, it also challenges the notion that Western consciousness is solely linear and rational, presenting examples from art and literature that embody nonlinear and mystical elements, such as Gabriel García Márquez's "One Hundred Years of Solitude." This suggests that consciousness cannot be confined to simplistic Western or non-Western labels, as it embodies the complexity of cultural influences and interpretations (Shiraev & Leary, 2016)

Upon reflecting, I acknowledge an assimilation bias, as my view of consciousness is primarily shaped through a Western lens, where I could overlook alternative cultural experiences. To address this, I will not forget how my beliefs shape my understanding of consciousness. This will help me open up to new perspectives and experiences. I will also become more aware of the specific schemata that inform my understanding of consciousness. Additionally, to broaden my perspective, I could lower my perceptual filters by actively trying to understand the experiences of others.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Research into the relationship between environment and intelligence reveals that external factors have a significant influence on cognitive abilities. These environmental factors, including educational opportunities, family climate, and cultural practices, are found to influence an individual’s performance on intelligence assessments. This is modelled by a study that found West African traders, who spent their lifetime travelling and negotiating, outperformed West African tailors on cognitive tasks, who spent their lives in one place, without diverse contacts. Furthermore, societal attitudes toward intelligence testing can be detrimental to marginalised groups, fuelling a fear of being stereotyped and thus diminishing performance.

From a critical cultural perspective, it is evident that intelligence cannot be viewed as a fixed, universal characteristic. Instead, it is contextual and moulded by environmental and cultural factors. This highlights the need to acknowledge the diverse experiences that shape cognitive development. For example, while urban Australian children may score well on verbal intelligence, Aboriginal children, due to not having the same experience in learning, may score lower. However, if they had the opportunity to live side by side with white children, it would result in a similar test result. This exposes how such differences challenge the validity of a standardised test due to its failure to include and account for cultural contexts.

When reflecting on my biases, I realise I am susceptible to an assimilation bias. My understanding of intelligence is shaped by a Western lens, which may lead me to overlook the cultural nuances that make up cognitive processes in different cultures. I will engage in self-reflection to learn and understand the schema that informs and guides my thoughts and reasoning regarding intelligence. Actively seeking to understand different cultural perspectives will enable me to lower my perceptual filters consciously. I will also work to differentiate my responses between assimilation and accommodation, while making a mental note to accommodate new ideas and perspectives.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Week 6 How People Assess Emotional Experience

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Week 6 How People Assess Emotional Experience

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The assessment of emotional experience is not only influenced by joy and despair but by various other factors, such as what caused the emotion, the sense of control and the reactions from an individual's social group. The cultural context in shaping these assessments is significant. Collectivist cultures see social group impacts as most important, whereas an individualistic culture focuses on self-esteem and personal achievement. Moreover, cultural beliefs can stimulate certain emotions tied to serious social issues. This shows that emotions are not universally experienced but are culturally contextual.

The relativism of emotional assessment reveals how cultural structures influence the interpretation of emotional experiences. This is modelled in Western cultures, where emotional expressions are mostly associated with individual identity, and in collectivist cultures, where emotions are viewed through a collectivist perspective. This variability suggests expressions of emotion, like smiles, carry different meanings in different contexts, thus impacting social perceptions and interactions ( Shiraev & Leary, 2016)

When reflecting, I realised I may have committed fundamental attribution errors in the past when it comes to assessing emotion, as I have neglected to consider or recognise the influence of cultural contexts on emotion. I have mostly considered personality and individual choices to account for and assess these. I will counter this by not underestimating the influence of cultural and situational contexts on emotion. I will keep in mind that this attributional error can be reversed, meaning that while I may underestimate the impact of other people’s situations, I can also overestimate the influence on my circumstances. Lastly, I will also become aware of the attributional errors that contributed to my bias, in order to work toward more accurate assessments.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Many factors, including biological, psychological and cultural factors, influence the dynamics of sexuality. Although hormones and genes contribute to sexual motivation, societal norms and beliefs set what is acceptable behaviour. Each culture has a unique sex culture that is influenced by each culture’s beliefs, customs and regulations surrounding sexuality. This is shown in traditional and non-traditional cultures, with traditional cultures often encouraging more restrictive norms surrounding sexual expression, whereas non-traditional cultures exhibiting more permissive norms. Research suggests there are also varying attitudes toward sexuality across different cultural contexts, like views on premarital sex and homosexuality. From a critical cultural perspective, it is fundamental to understand the relativism inherent in understanding sexuality. For instance, some cultures hold chastity in high regard, while others see sexual pleasure as a natural expression in human experience (Shiraev & Leary, 2016).

Upon reflection, I discovered I have relied on stereotypes surrounding certain aspects of sexuality, due to my limited exposure to cultural practices related to sexuality. I have categorised individuals based on perceived norms, which may have led me to misinterpret and not appreciate the complexity of human behaviour across different cultures.  To address my representativeness bias, I could expose myself to a range of different viewpoints to understand the inaccuracies and limitations of the stereotypes I have used, while also taking into account the data that provides insights into sexual practices across cultures, paying close attention to the rates and variations in the behaviours. To counter overgeneralising, I will take time to analyse the specifics when I come across a new cultural practice. And lastly, I will regularly reflect on my attitudes and be aware of how they might paint my perception of others.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Week 8 Life Before Birth: Prenatal Period

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Week 8 Life Before Birth: Prenatal Period

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From conception to birth, the prenatal period lasts about 38 weeks and is significantly influenced by many unfavourable environmental or cultural factors. These unfavourable conditions include pollution, violence and insufficient prenatal care. Additionally, cultural attitudes towards pregnancy, childbirth and abortion are thought of differently across different regions. This can be seen in some areas where male children are preferred, or the prevalence of teen pregnancies is greater in rural areas. Unsafe abortions in developing countries are significant and often lead to high rates of pregnancy-related deaths, exposing the intersection of health, culture and legality.

Critical cultural analysis reveals that a person’s prenatal experiences are dependent on their cultural norms and values. In a collectivist culture, pregnancy is seen as a shared experience, with families playing an active role. In contrast, Individualistic cultures mostly perceive pregnancy in a private manner. These differences highlight the importance of cultural context when considering and understanding human behaviour. Additionally, the stigma and legal restrictions in some countries place on abortion often lead to negative health outcomes for women. This exhibits how cultural and legal structures can significantly impact women’s reproductive rights (Shiraev & Leary, 2016).

I acknowledge that my Western views on pregnancy and childbirth could lead to an assimilation bias. This could lead me to interpret certain practices through my cultural lens, causing me to overlook the beliefs and customs that actually inform them. This could result in my misinterpretation and a lack of respect for cultural differences. To counter this, I will consciously recognise how my perceptions of pregnancy and childbirth are affected by my beliefs and expectations. I will strive to understand the experiences of people from diverse backgrounds to refine my perceptual filters. Lastly, I will consciously encourage myself to accommodate new information that differs from my understanding and beliefs.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Australia has a long history of racism, which stems from colonial times and continues to affect social dynamics today. It manifests at individual, institutional, and cultural levels, with each contributing to the maintenance of racial inequalities. On an individual level, racism is viewed as blatant hostility, but can also be subtle, by perpetrating stereotypes and biases that affect marginalised groups. Institutional racism leads to health, educational and employment inequality, due to the systemic practices that disadvantage Indigenous Australians. Additionally, cultural racism relates to the shared beliefs and values that reinforce perceptions of racial superiority. This often leads to the normalisation of discriminatory practices within society. It is essential to acknowledge that power dynamics and historical contexts influence multicultural structures. These narratives surrounding race then shape societal attitudes and also influence individual self-perceptions in marginalised communities. Research suggests that Aboriginal Australians frequently experience racism, with many also reporting its detrimental effects on mental health (Dudgeon et al., 2014).

When reflecting on this topic, I realise that I have a self-fulfilling prophecy bias grounded on fear. I assume this fear stems from societal stereotypes and the portrayals I have seen in the media that depict Indigenous Australians in a negative light. As a result, I have approached them in an apprehensive manner due to expecting conflict or a negative interaction. This biased perspective may reinforce my fears, leading me to avoid engagement or misinterpret their behaviours as threatening. To counter this, I will be aware that my expectations can shape the outcomes of my interactions. I will regularly reflect on my thoughts and feelings regarding Indigenous Australians, making sure my assumptions are not based on stereotypes or fear. I also understand that my interactions may be influenced by the expectations others have of me based on stereotypes.

Dudgeon, P., Milroy, H., & Walker, R. (2014). Working together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and wellbeing principles and practice. Telethon Kids Institute, Kulunga Aboriginal Research Development Unit, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia).

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Cultural bound syndromes (CBS) are psychological phenomena that do not necessarily align with Western diagnostics and are specific to particular cultural contexts. The DSM-IV defines these syndromes as recurrent, locality-specific patterns of unusual behaviour and troubling experiences that may or may not resemble other disorders. There are many debates surrounding CBS that highlight the confusion between the different categories, as many occur in unrelated cultures or are localised versions of broader illnesses. This may reflect universal psychological trends, with specific cultures interpreting certain behaviours as disorders based on local beliefs, like witchcraft and hormone imbalances. Many of these syndromes differ from a Western framework, like ‘ataque de nervios ‘ in Latin America or ‘amok’ in Malaysia, which reflect local understandings of distress. This difference brings into question the validity of using a Western diagnostic criterion universally. The potential for misdiagnosis persists as behaviours deemed as acceptable in one culture may be labelled as a disorder in another, highlighting the need to recognise the interaction between cultural beliefs and expressions of mental distress (Shiraev & Leary, 2016).

I may be influenced by representativeness bias when studying CBS. I could stereotype or generalise certain cultures when studying these syndromes by assuming that individuals from specific cultural backgrounds exhibit particular symptoms or behaviours. This bias would lead me to overlook the unique experiences of people and reduce their identity to a representation of their culture. To combat this, I will consider the possibility that the views I hold about different cultures might be inaccurate or biased. I will utilise statistical information to gain a better understanding of how frequently these syndromes occur within a certain population. I will also avoid overestimating the similarity between individuals by acknowledging variation within cultural groups. Lastly, I will engage in self-reflection to better understand my biases.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7

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Week 11 Attribution of Success and Failure

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Week 11 Attribution of Success and Failure

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The attribution of success and failure is a concept that explains how individuals explain their achievements and failures. Across cultures, three common explanations emerge: individual ability, effort, and task difficulty. Although prevalent across many cultures, the self-centred bias is most common in the United States, where individuals tend to credit their success to internal factors and attribute failures to external circumstances. In contrast, an unassuming bias is most prevalent in cultures like Japan, where they attribute personal success to external factors and failure to themselves. These attributions are not only shaped by individual beliefs but also by broader societal norms and values. This is seen in collectivist cultures, such as Japan, where the emphasis on group harmony and external factors guides a different understanding of success and failure compared to an individualistic society (Shiraev & Leary, 2016).

When reflecting on this topic, I realise I have often fallen into a self-serving bias. Additionally, I realise that in the past I have committed a fundamental attribution error when I attributed a colleague's failure to meet a deadline to a lack of effort on their part, without considering the situational aspects they were facing. To counter this, I will remind myself that external factors may also influence a person’s performance. I will keep in mind that how people behave depends on who they are and the situation. I will also work to increase my awareness of these biases that are responsible for producing these attributional errors.

Shiraev, E.B. & Leary, D.A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. New York, US: Taylor & Francis, 361 p. (2016). Psychology of Human Resources Journal, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.2016.2.7