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The Enlightenment Period - The British Museum

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The Enlightenment Period - The British Museum

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The British Museum is closed temporarily. Stay connected through our digital channels.

Visiting the gallery

Opening times

Daily 10:00-17:30 (20:30 on Fridays)

Free daily eye-opener tour

12.30 in gallery, 30-40 minute tour

Discovering the world in the 18th century.

The Enlightenment was an age of reason and learning that flourished across Europe and America from about 1680 to 1820.

Housed in the oldest room in the present Museum - originally designed to house King George III's Library - this diverse permanent exhibition shows how British people understood the world at this time through their collections.

Enlightened men and women believed that observing the natural and manmade world would unlock the mysteries of the universe. Their passion for collecting objects, from fossils and flints to Greek vases and ancient scripts, was matched by their desire to impose order on them, to catalogue and to classify.

They included men such as Sir Hans Sloane whose collection formed the foundation of the Museum in 1753, Sir William Hamilton, envoy to Naples whose collection of vases and other antiquities was acquired in 1772, Sir Joseph Banks who travelled with Captain Cook, and many others, including a handful of women.

Seven major disciplines of the Enlightenment age

Seven major disciplines of the Enlightenment age

The natural world

In the 18th century, the collections were divided into 'Natural and Artificial Rarities' - objects found in nature or made by people. Only a few rooms in the early Museum had manmade objects but case after case was filled with natural specimens from Sloane's collection and his library which included the 265 volumes of his herbarium.

In 1735, the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus revolutionised the way plants, animals and other objects from the natural world were named and classified. His pupil, Daniel Solander, was a curator in the Museum and applied the system to Sloane's collections and to the natural history specimens Solander himself collected with Sir Joseph Banks on the first Cook voyage.

Many of these original specimens are included in the exhibition, as well as a number of fossils. By 1880 there were so many natural history specimens that they needed a museum of their own - the Natural History Museum in South Kensington.

The birth of archaeology

The birth of archaeology

Antiquaries collected books, manuscripts, drawings and artefacts from the past, and travelled the country studying ruins in order to learn more about Britain's Roman past and its earlier history.

It was fairly easy to learn about medieval times because many of these objects had survived, including religious artefacts, armour, books and buildings. But antiquaries also began to survey and map Roman and earlier sites, such as Stonehenge, in a more scientific and systematic way and to learn more about the earliest Britons.

This knowledge, combined with the new study of rock strata, led archaeologists to question the accepted date of the world's creation - 4004 BC - calculated from readings of the Bible.

Art and civilisation

Art and civilisation

In 1824, Charles Townley's famous collection of Greek and Roman sculptures, acquired on his Grand Tours in Italy, came to the British Museum. They joined the collections of prints and drawings, gems, coins, bronzes, vases and other classical antiquities from fellow connoisseurs such as Sir William Hamilton and Richard Payne Knight.

These men studied each other's collections to learn about the 'progress' of art, from 'primitive' beginnings in early civilisations to what they considered to be the height of artistic achievement - the sculpture and architecture of classical Greece.

This became the standard against which to measure all art and led, in late 18th-century Britain, to a classical revival in architecture and the decorative arts.

Classifying the world

Classifying the world

Everything gathered in the 18th century had to be classified and organised so that it could be more easily understood and used.

King George III's library was presented to the nation by George IV and was housed in the room that is now the Enlightenment Gallery (his library is now in the British Library). The coins and medals collection was among the first part of the library to arrive at the Museum and they were arranged by country and ruler to help bring past history alive. George III was also keenly interested in the navy, navigation and scientific discoveries and collected instruments and working models.

Sir William Hamilton arranged his vases found in the area around Naples according to the styles of painting, attempting to establish a chronology for them. He later published them in beautifully illustrated folios.

In the early part of the century, Sir Hans Sloane filled his cabinets with curious 'artificial' (manmade) objects from around the world, past and present, which were catalogued and displayed in many different ways - by type, material, date or purpose.

Ancient scripts

Ancient scripts

The Enlightenment led to a fevered interest in deciphering the mysterious forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs and the cuneiform inscriptions found in lands described in the Bible as well as early forms of Sanskrit in India.

Scholars 'cracked the codes' in the 19th century, opening up thousands of years of history.

At the same time, antiquaries deciphered runes and other early forms of writing, revealing more of our own history.

Ritual and religion

Ritual and religion

Christian mistrust of superstition and idols, rituals and magic led to ignorance about other religions.

Enlightenment scholars attempted to dispel this by studying the ancient and modern religions they encountered. They researched rituals and cults in different cultures, collected religious artefacts, grouped gods into families and examined their attributes and functions.

They wanted to find similarities that might shed light on the origins of the world's religions.

Trade and discovery

Trade and discovery

Sir Hans Sloane's collection included ceremonial and everyday objects, representing customs and cultures of people around the globe.

They formed the beginnings of an ethnographic collection that grew through the century, as people travelled around the Americas and Captain James Cook and Sir Joseph Banks returned from trade voyages to Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti and other Pacific islands.

Others were sent by the Admiralty to discover the Northwest Passage through the Arctic or by the government to forge or mend diplomatic relations.

Meanwhile officials of the East India, Africa and other trading companies studied the cultures of different people they came into contact with. They collected artefacts and published illustrated accounts about the lives and cultures of people around the world.

Accessibility

Some objects in this collection feature on the British Sign Language guide handset, available from the audio guide desk in the Great Court.

Some objects in this collection feature on the audio description guide, available from audio guide desk in the Great Court.

Seating is available.

Step-free access.

View sensory map (opens in new window).

Visit Access at the Museum for more information.

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The British Museum is closed temporarily. Stay connected through our digital channels. Daily 10:00-17:30 (20:30 on Fridays) 12.30 in gallery, 30-40 minute tour Discovering the world in the 18th century. The Enlightenment was an age of reason and learning that flourished across Europe and America from about 1680 to 1820.

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The Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement across Europe during the 1600s–1700s. Writers, scientists, and philosophers such as John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Kant promoted the use of reason, observation, and scientific inquiry rather than tradition or superstition.

Socially and politically, the Enlightenment challenged monarchies and church authority, paving the way for revolutions in America and France. Philosophers introduced the concepts of individual rights, separation of powers, religious tolerance, and freedom of expression.

Literary works from this era often blended philosophy and literature, presenting complex arguments through essays, satire, and political writing. The Enlightenment’s legacy continues today in the democratic values, human rights, and freedoms that shape modern societies.

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During the Enlightenment period, salons emerged as informal gatherings where intellectuals, writers, and philosophers exchanged ideas about politics, science, literature, and culture. These meetings were often hosted in private homes, particularly by educated and influential women who provided a space for dialogue outside of universities or religious institutions, which were traditionally dominated by men. Salons became important hubs for spreading Enlightenment ideals, offering a setting where reason, debate, and new ways of thinking could flourish.

The purpose of salons was to encourage discussion, critical thinking, and collaboration across different social groups. Writers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot participated in salons to share their works and debate concepts such as freedom, equality, and human rights. While access was limited to the educated elite—nobles, intellectuals, and wealthy middle-class citizens—salons still broadened the circulation of knowledge by creating bridges between social classes and nurturing the concept of public opinion.

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1. John Locke (1632–1704)
Often called the “Father of Liberalism,” Locke argued that governments must protect natural rights—life, liberty, and property. His ideas on consent of the governed directly influenced democratic revolutions in America and France.

2. Voltaire (1694–1778)
A master of satire, Voltaire criticized intolerance, religious persecution, and injustice. He championed freedom of speech and religion, shaping the foundation of modern civil rights.

3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
Rousseau emphasized equality and the “general will” in his Social Contract, inspiring revolutionary movements. He also shaped ideas about education and natural human goodness.

4. Montesquieu (1689–1755)
In The Spirit of Laws, Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers—executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent tyranny. His model deeply influenced modern constitutions.

5. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
Kant urged individuals to “dare to know” and use reason independently. His moral philosophy emphasized duty and autonomy, laying the groundwork for modern ethics.

6. Denis Diderot (1713–1784)
As editor of the Encyclopédie, Diderot sought to collect and spread human knowledge. His work symbolized Enlightenment values of reason, education, and progress.

7. Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
Newton’s discoveries in physics and mathematics, especially the laws of motion and universal gravitation, provided a scientific framework that reshaped how people understood the natural world.

8. Adam Smith (1723–1790)
In The Wealth of Nations, Smith explained how free markets and competition drive prosperity. His ideas became the foundation of modern economics and capitalism.

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Historical Influences of the Enlightenment

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Historical Influences of the Enlightenment

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The Scientific Revolution (16th–17th Centuries)

Discoveries by thinkers such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton reshaped people’s understanding of the universe. Observation, experimentation, and reason replaced reliance on tradition and superstition.

This scientific mindset encouraged Enlightenment philosophers to apply the same methods of logic and inquiry to human society, government, and morality.

The Protestant Reformation (16th Century)

Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other reformers challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and emphasized individual faith and interpretation of scripture.

This shift weakened the absolute authority of religious institutions and inspired Enlightenment thinkers to question other long-standing authorities, including monarchs and political systems.

The English Civil War & Glorious Revolution (17th Century)

Conflicts in England between monarchy and Parliament, along with the overthrow of James II in the Glorious Revolution (1688), highlighted debates about sovereignty, rights, and the limits of government.

Philosophers like John Locke argued that governments exist to protect natural rights, and that political power must be based on consent of the governed.

Increased Global Exploration & Trade (15th–18th Centuries)

European exploration opened contact with the Americas, Africa, and Asia, leading to cultural exchanges, trade, and new ideas about diversity, economics, and human rights.

Exposure to new peoples and perspectives challenged Europeans to reconsider assumptions about society, religion, and the natural world, fueling Enlightenment ideals of tolerance and progress.

The Rise of Salons and Coffeehouses (17th–18th Centuries)

Intellectuals, writers, and philosophers met in salons and coffeehouses to share and debate new ideas. These spaces became centers of learning and public discussion.

They helped spread Enlightenment ideas about reason, liberty, and equality beyond universities and courts, shaping public opinion and revolutionary movements.

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1. Growth of the Middle Class

The rise of merchants, professionals, and educated citizens created a growing middle class with access to books, education, and political debate.

This class demanded a greater voice in society, fueling ideas about equality, representation, and the rights of individuals in government.

2. Salons and Coffeehouses

Intellectual gatherings in salons (often hosted by women) and coffeehouses became spaces for discussion of philosophy, politics, and science.

These social settings spread Enlightenment ideas beyond universities, encouraging critical thinking, collaboration, and the shaping of public opinion.

3. Expansion of Education

Enlightenment thinkers believed that knowledge should not be limited to elites. Schools, academies, and libraries expanded access to learning.

Literature and philosophy became more widely available, fostering literacy, curiosity, and the belief that education could improve both individuals and society.

4. Print Culture and Newspapers

The printing press enabled the rise of newspapers, journals, and pamphlets that spread new ideas quickly across Europe.

This connected communities, sparked debates about justice and governance, and gave ordinary citizens access to the discussions once reserved for intellectual elites.