# data[].attributes.body
Geomorphology comes from the greek words

Geo (earth)

Morpho ( form/ structure )

Logy (description /study )

Literal meaning ~ study of earth forms.

It explains the form of the earth surface

"Study of landforms"

"Study of earth structure "

# data[].attributes.body
Geomorphology is the study of landforms. landscapes and the process that create them. (knight P.G 2005)

Geomorphology =subfield of physicalgeography.

study of origine and evolution of landforms.

focus on processes shaping earth's surface.

# data[].attributes.body
To identify environmental hazards such as earthquake, flooding, volcanoes

To locate important resources (minerals, water, fertile, soils)

To recognize different landforms and landscapes

# data[].attributes.body
Started - 19th century

Father of geomorphology - William Morris Davis

Introduced the cycle of erosion

cycle of erosion

1. Youthful stages

2. Mature stages

3. Old age stages

4. Rejuvenation stages

# data[].attributes.body
understands earth's landforms and how they develop.

Explores the processes create and shape landforms.

covers weathering, erosion, deposition and tectonic activity.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Endogenic processes happen inside the earth rapid movements

ex: Earthquake, faulting folding.

2. Exogenic processes happen on the Earth's surface slow movements.

ex: Erosion

Deposition

Weathering

# data[].attributes.body
1. Endogenic processes (internal)

slow movements (vertical, horizontal)

sudden movements (earthquakes, volcanism)

2. Exogenic processes (external)

weathering

Physical

Chemical

Biological

Erosion

Running water

Ground water

Glaciers

Waves and currents

Winds

Deposition

Running water

Ground water

Glaciers

Waves and currents

Winds

# data[].attributes.body
Take place inside the earth.

Make the earth's crust move, mostly at plate boundaries.

Two types

1. Diastrophism (slow movements)

2. Catastrophism (sudden movements)

# data[].attributes.body
Langes scale changes in the earth's crust.

Rocks to move horizontally and vertically.

Includes folding, faulting, uplifting of the crust.

Two types

1. Horizontal movements

2. vertical movements

Horizontal movements

orogenic movements.

cause disruption of the horizontal layers of rocks through lateral displacement.

Creates mountain ranges (lateral displacement)

Compression (pushing)

tension (pulling)

Earth's crust gets uplifted, forming tall mountains

# data[].attributes.body
Compression (pushing)

tension (pulling)

Forces of compression.

Compression-rocks fold or break.

forms fold mountains

ex.Himalaya

Rockies

Andes

Alps

# data[].attributes.body
Folding is the bending of rock layers.

it happens due to compression in the earth's crust

Parts of a fold.

Anticline- upward

Syncline-downward

Limb -side of the fold

Crest- highest point

Axial plane- middle dividing

Hinge line- line of maximum bend

Type of fold

1. Symmetrical folds

2.Asymmetrical folds

3.Overturned folds

4.Recumbent folds

5.Isoclinal folds

# data[].attributes.body
Tension pulls rocks apart causes cracks and faults.

Types of faults

1. Normal fault.

2. Reverse fault.

3. Transform fault/ shear fault / strike-slip fault.

1. Normal fault is caused by tension. footwall block- above the fault hanging wall block-below the fault.

2. Two fractured blocks move toward each other on block rises above the other

3. Rockslide sideways. fault- block mountains -crust blocks uplifted and tilted ex. Sierra navada , USA

# data[].attributes.body
"Epeirogenies movements" -vertical crust movements

Epeiric-continents

Genic - origin

Epeirogenic - origin of continents

Called continent - building movements.

Form continents and platens

Sudden movements

Break the earth's crust Gas, Ash , Magma, escape to the surface

Occurs at the tectonic plate margins.

Cause rapid deformation of the crust.

ex. Earthquakes.

Volcanic eruption

# data[].attributes.body
Occur on the surface of the earth

Caused by external forces

ex.Weathering

Erosion

Deposition

mass wasting

Exogenic processes

1. weathering, erosion, deposition

2. mass movements transportation

Weathering

Rocks breaks down.

due to climate,plants,animals,other living organisms

Types

1. physical

2. chemical

3. biological

Physical weathering

Rocks break down due to weathering

Types

1. Thermal weathering (due to heating or cooling)

2.Frost wedging (due to freezing and thawing process)

3.Exfoliation (slowly peel off)

# data[].attributes.body
Rocks are broken down by chemical reactions

Types

1. Solution

2. Oxidation

3. Hydrolysis

4. Carbonation

5. Hydration

Mass movements

Rocks and soil slide down due to gravity.

Mass movement or mass wasting

Happen suddenly or slowly.

Type of material (mud,soil,rock)

Type of motion

Factor affects mass wasting

Human activities can cause mass movements

ex. building heavy structure, roads, near a steep slope

Preventive actions for mass movements

prevention- divert water, use nets, fences, retaining walls and educate people.

# data[].attributes.body
Land worn away by water, ice or wind

Types

Glacial erosion- by ice

Fluvial erosion- by rivers

Coastal erosion- by sea waves

Wind erosion- by the wind

Agents of erosion

water

wind

ice

Transportation

Movements of rocks and sand by natural agents.

Agent of transportation

Running water

Wind

Ice

Waves.

# data[].attributes.body
Types

1. Extrusive igneous landforms (volcanic)

2. Intrusive igneous landforms(plutonic)

Intrusive-magma cools

underground

Intrusive- underground

slow cooling

coarse

large grains

Extrusive - surface

fast cooling

fine

small grains

Intrusive bodies

Types

1. discordant

2.concordant

Intrusive igneous landform

plutons

form below the earth's surface surrounded by other rocks. (Sedimentary or metamorphic)

remain as old magma

chambers of volcanoes.

exposed by erosion and weathering

appear as hills, mountains, flats/ tabular rock.

Batholith

A huge igneous rock mass formed when magma cools inside the crust

can spread over hundreds of km

several km thick

formed from many plutons

# data[].attributes.body
Formed by the lava and other material on the surface

Material include

Lava flows

pyroclastic

Volcanic bombs

Ash

Dust

Extrusive igneous land forms

Cinder cones

Shield volcanoes

Composite volcanoes

Lava domes

Caldera

Volcanic hotspot

# data[].attributes.body
Frequency

Active, dormant, extinct

Eruption style

Central, fissure

Hawaiian, stromboli, volcanic pelean

Types of volcanoes.

Active Volcanoes

Erupt frequently

ex. mount etna

barren island

Dormant volcanoes

Inactive for a long time

Release gases or steam

ex. Mount Kilimanjaro

Tanzania

Extinct volcanoes

No longer erupts

Vent closed with solidified lava

ex. Mount Kenya, Fuji

# data[].attributes.body
Volcanoes can be classified

shield volcanoes

cinder cone volcanoes

composite

caldera

Shield volcanoes

Broad and gentle in shape.

lava spreads far and wide

ex. Hawaiian

Usually quiet

sometimes explosive with water

Cinder cone volcanoes

Size-small

Contains very little lava

Have steep sides with a small crater on top

Made of loose cinders (scoria)

Composite

Tall, cone- shaped volcanoes

Built of layers of lava, ash and cinders

Known for violent, explosive eruptions.

Caldera

Most explosive volcanoes.

Eruption causes the volcanoes

to collapse, forming a large depression

much bigger than a crater

show a huge magma chamber underneath

# data[].attributes.body
Systematic Analysis of landforms

Divided into three types

1. Generic classification of landforms

2. Genetic classification of landforms

3. Scale and lifespan of landforms

Generic classification of landforms

Group of landforms

ex. mountains

plateau

plains

Based on process the form them

Volcanic landforms (Intrusive/Extrusive/Igneous)

Fluvial (River/Streams)

karst (Soluble rock erosion)

Aeolian (Wind action)

Coastal (Waves and tides)

Glacial (Glaciers)

Scale and life span

Landforms by scale and lifespan

1st order (large): continental landmasses, ocean Basins

2nd order (medium): plains, plateau mountains

3rd order (small): valleys, canyons, dunes.

# data[].attributes.body
Fluvial Geomorphology

Branch of physical geography

Study of landforms shaped by running water

Drainage basin

Land area where all water flows into a single river or outlet

Elements

Catchment area

Watershed

Source

Confluence

Tributary

Mouth

# data[].attributes.body
Introduced by: Robert e

: Horton

: Arthur

: Strahler (1952)

Classifies streams by number of tributaries

Shows river size and hierarchy

1st order - no tributaries

2nd order - two 1st order join

3rd order - two 2nd order join

Lower order joining higher order doesn't change order

Couties using stream ordering

United states

United Kingdom

Canada

Australia

Germany

India

# data[].attributes.body
Study of river shapes, structure and processes like erosion, transportation and deposition.

River flows from mountains to the sea

Upper course-fast and narrow

Middle course-wider and slower

Lower course - slowest and widest

River course- path from source to mouth with different features along the way

Cross-sectional shape of a river

Side view of a river

V-shape

U-shape

Flat shape

# data[].attributes.body
Geological processes

Involving running water

Key processes

Erosion

Transportation

Deposition

River erosion

Fluvial erosion- river wears away the land

Depends on river speed

Type

Vertical (downward, upper course)

Lateral (sideways, middle lower course)

Main process of erosion

1. Hydraulic action

2. Abrasion

3. Attrition

4. Solution

# data[].attributes.body
Movement of eroded materials by rivers

Methods

Suspension

Traction

Solution

Saltation

River deposition

When river lose energy, they drop sediment

Large boulders settle first; fine clay is deposited last.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Upper course

2. Middle course

3. Lower course

Upper course

Youthful stages.

Narrow, fast flowing

River with less water

Dominated by vertical erosion

Source: starting point of river

Tributaries: streams joining the main river

Middle course

Matures stage

Wider and deeper with moderate flow

Lateral erosion widens the valley

Water volume increases, slope is gentle

Lower course

Wide slow river

flat food plains

Main activity deposition

shallow river depth

When river splits into smaller chanels

# data[].attributes.body
1. V-shaped valley

2. Gorge and canyon

3. Waterfalls

4. Meanders

5. Oxbow lakes

6. Alluvial fans and deltas

The main landforms created by river deposition include

1. River deltas

2. Floodplains

3. Levees

4. Alluvial fan

# data[].attributes.body
Landforms are classified by

Intrusive and extrusive landforms

Fluvial landforms

Aeolian landforms

Karst landforms

Coastal landforms

Glacial landforms

Aeolian terrains are shaped by wind through

Erode

Transport

Deposit

Types of wind erosion

Deflation (Materials carried by the wind abrasion and grind rocks)

Aeolian Transportation

Three types

1. Suspension (wind carried than 0.1mm particles)

2. saltation (wind carried between 0.1-0.5mm particles)

3. Creeping (large rock particles creeping or roll over smash and move along the surface)

Aeolian Deposition

Aeolian deposition happens when wind drops sediments due to low speed, obstacles or heavy load

Erosional Aeolian landforms

Ventifacts

Desert payment

Deflation hollows

Mushroom rock

Yardang

Aeolian depositional landforms

Sand dunes

Loess

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What are Aeolian Processes and Landforms? UPSC IAS Geography

# data[].attributes.body
Karst topology= hidden landscapes shaped by dissolving rocks

Karst forms when acidic water dissolves limestone, creating caves, sinkholes and underground streams.

Factors affecting Karst landforms formation

1. Lithology (solubility of bedrock)

2. Climate

3. Structure

4. PH content in water

5. Time

Limestone features

Above ground

ex. Sinkholes - (Guatemala City sinkholes, national corvette museum Skydome)

Doline

Lappies

Uvala

Polje

Caves

Below grounded (from deposition)

Curtains

Stalactite

Stalagmite

Pillar

Countries researching karst topology

China (Guilin)

USA (Florida, Kentucky, mammoth cave)

Italy (Apulia)

Slovenia

Vietnam (ha long bag, Ninh Binh)

France (causse da quercin)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Karst Topography | Types of Areas Of Karst | Global Distribution of Karst | Part-1 |

# data[].attributes.body
Coast = land meeting the sea

Sections of a coast

Foreshore (Intertidal zone)

Backshore

Nearshore

Offshore

Coastal zones

Land-sea transportation areas shaped by waves, winds, and extreme events with variable erosion and deposition.

Coastal zones are used for

Fishing

Transport

Recreation

Waste disposal

tidal/wave energy

Coastal zones are they link the

Atmosphere

Ocean

Land and transfer sediment from land to sea

Type of waves

1. Created in calm weather less powerful

They deposit material, building up Beachers

2. (Backwash) Destructive waves

Created instorm

Conditions

Stronger

Erode the coastline

Coastal erosion

Four types

1. Solution(corrosion)

acids in seawater dissolve rocks lick chalk and limestone

2. Abrasion

sand and rock fragments in water grind against cliffs

3.Hydraulic action

water and waves break down rocks by force

4. Attrition

waves smash rocks and pebbles together, making them smaller and smoother

Coastal Erosional Landforms

Headlands

Bays

Caves

Stacks

Arches

Stumps

Waves-cut platform

Coastal transportation

Four Types

1. Suspension

small particles

2. Solution

minerals dissolved water

3. Saltation

small pieces of shingle

4. Traction

pebbles and larger sediments

Coastal Deposition

Coastal deposition occurs when the sea loses energy and forms landforms by depositing materials

Coastal depositional landforms

Landforms

Beach

Spit

Bar

Tombolo

Type of Beach

Sandy

Rocky

Frozen

Tropical

# data[].attributes.body
What is Glaciation

Large bodies of ice glaciation are the movement of glaciers that carve

Landscapes: UK shows their effect in the lake district and glaciers remain in the alps study of ice

It is effect, in Britain, ice once covered large areas up to 3km thick

We can find ice

1. Polar ice caps (Antarctic, Arctic)

2. Frozen lakes and rivers

3. Permafrost (A layer of permanently frozen soil and sediments)

Bodies of ice

1. Glaciers (Alpine and ice sheet)

2. Ice bergs

3. ice sheets

4. sea ice

Alpine Glaciers

Known as mountain glaciers many parts of the world

Ice sheets

Polar regions near the earth's poles

Antarctic ice sheet

Greenland ice sheet

# data[].attributes.body
Glacial process occurring in two important zones

1. Zone of accumulation (snow and ice add up)

2. Zone of ablation (ice melts or is lost)

Process of Glacial

Inputs

Snow

Rain

Processes

Accumulation

Ablation

Plucking

Abrasion

Transportaion

Out put

Meltwater

moraine

Action of Glaciers

1. Erosion (plucking and Abrasion)

2.Transportation

3.Deposition

Erosional landforms of Glaciers

U-shaped valley

Cirque and tarn

Aretes

Horn

Nunataks

Glacial Deposition landforms

1. moraines (lateral medial Terminal ground)

2. Drumlins

3. Erratic

Types of moraines

1. Ground moraines

2. Lateral moraines

3. Terminal moraines

4. medial moraines