# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Glass Ceiling Theory in Sociology | Overview & History

# data[].attributes.body
The glass ceiling effect is a metaphorical barrier that prevents women and minorities from reaching upper-level positions in organizations despite their qualifications. This invisible barrier is not due to overt discrimination but results from subtle biases, stereotypes, and organizational dynamics. It gives rise to an illusion of meritocracy, making it seem that everyone has an equal chance of success. Yet it remains the present situation and perpetuates inequality in leadership roles. The glass ceiling is not just a social but also an economic issue as it wastes human capital and reduces diverse perspectives in decision-making (Ptyza, 2023).

# data[].attributes.headline
How do men and women use time differently？

# data[].attributes.subject
How do men and women use time differently？

# data[].attributes.body
According to the data from the American Time Use Survey, men and women devoted 6.51 hours and 5.13 hours per day on work respectively. However, women spent more time taking care of children while engaging in household chores than men. Therefore, when combining domestic and non-domestic work to form a more comprehensive measure of total labor, the performance between men and women were comparable. Paid leave policies like childcare subsidies can be used to address the unfair issue that men are paid for more working hours (USA Facts Team, 2022).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
When the COVID-19 pandemic arrived in early 2020, it caused sweeping changes to how Americans lived their lives. Children went to school remotely, and more adults started working from home. But an analysis of government data shows that despite the increased amount of time that families began spending at home, little seems to have changed about the way men and women allocate and divide their time.

Men put more time into paid work, while women were pulling in more hours doing unpaid labor such as household work or childcare.

Why does the government track how Americans spend their time?

The origins of the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) go back to the Unremunerated Work Act of 1993. The bill called upon the Bureau of Labor Statistics to "conduct time use surveys of unremunerated work performed ... and calculate the monetary value of such unremunerated work, separately for men and women."

While Congress did not ultimately pass the bill, it served as a catalyst for the Bureau of Labor Statistics to begin efforts to measure the value of unpaid work - representing a step toward quantifying the contributions of women's labor.

In 2003, the Bureau of Labor Statistics launched the first official American Time Use Survey. Every year, randomly selected individuals are interviewed about how much time they spent on different activities, such as cooking or working, during the previous day.

Today, experts use ATUS data to measure the time Americans dedicate to uncompensated nonmarket work such as housework, childcare, and eldercare, as well as the time they spend on paid work, leisure, etc.

How do men and women use time differently, and how does that vary based on employment status?

For employed people ages 18 and over, men spent 6.51 hours per day on work, while women spent 5.13 hours on the same primary activity.

However, when combining work with household activities and care for household members to form a more comprehensive measure of total labor performed, the number of hours worked were more similar: 8.79 hours for men, and 8.73 hours for women.

While men and women may perform the same amount of accumulated domestic and nondomestic work, men spent more time being paid for that labor.

While the data looks similar for employed people, there's a gender difference in time spent working for the unemployed. For unemployed people ages 18 and over, the same aggregation of work, household activities, and care for household members reveals that unemployed men worked 3.14 hours, while unemployed women worked 5.64 hours. This suggests that in households where men or women do not have jobs, women put in more hours of domestic work.

More specifically, unemployed women spent 1.22 more hours than unemployed men on household activities daily. Per year, this translates to more than two and a half weeks that unemployed women spent than unemployed men on managing, cleaning, and feeding their households.

How much time do men and women spend on childcare?

At every stage of a child's development, women spent more time caring for children than men.

When children are younger than 6, women spent nearly twice as much time on traveling for their children, over twice as much time as men on physically caring for their child, and more than four times as much time as men on providing education-related activities.

For parents of school-age children, women spent three times longer than men organizing educational activities, three times longer reading to their children, and nearly twice as much time transporting children to school or other care-related activities. Women also talked to their children for 4.5 times longer than men did.

While multitasking is a common part of modern life, women spent more time caring for children while doing other things than men.

For parents with children under 13, women spent at least twice the amount of time than men did juggling both childcare and household activities, as well as childcare and personal care-related activities.

How do gender disparities show up throughout different age groups?

From ages 15-24, women spent more time on education. Men, however, spent more time on work.

Also, women spent more time caring for household members than men did: the discrepancy widened drastically in the 25-34 years age group, where women spent nearly 0.9 hours more than men on the activity.

Finally, women performed more household activities than men in all age groups - this gap began in the 15-19 age group, widened for people ages 25 to 34, and narrowed once again for ages 35 and up.

The disparity in performing household activities was worst in the 25-34 years age group, where the difference between men and women was 1.09 hours.

How do gender disparities present themselves in communities of color?

The gender differences in household activities also showed up across all racial and ethnic groups.

More specifically, Hispanic/Latina women spent about an hour and a half more on household activities than Hispanic/Latino men, the largest difference for any race or ethnicity.

The gap was the smallest for Black/African American women and Asian women, who spent 0.72 hours and 0.74 hours respectively more a day on household work than their male counterparts.

What would narrow the gender disparity in time use?

In 2021, many women still must make the choice between working and providing care for their families, and research suggests that women of color were the most affected, especially during the pandemic.

A study by the Federal Reserve of Minneapolis found that labor force exits from January 2020 to January 2021 were larger for Black women, Latina women, and women with children. In particular, the labor force participation rate for Black women and Latina women decreased by 4.5 percentage points, while it decreased by 1.5 percentage points for white women.

Women being held responsible for most care work (whether for children, elderly parents, or disabled family members) impacts their career and income. According to the CDC, nearly 20% of employed caregivers had to give up working to provide care, while nearly 40% had to decrease their working hours to do so.

The United States is one of the only developed nations that does not universally offer paid leave. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 gives eligible workers a federal entitlement to unpaid leave for a restricted set of caregiving and medical circumstances. However, unlike in other countries, no federal law mandates that private employers offer paid leave.

And yet, research indicates that providing childcare and paid leave would result in higher labor force participation from women.

One study from the Department of Health and Human Services found that larger state subsidies of childcare raised the chances that women were employed and participating in the labor force. Another discovered that tripling Child Care and Development Fund subsidies for childcare would cause the employment of around 652,000 women with children under the age of 13.

To learn more about child and social services, read How much are families spending on childcare? and How has COVID-19 affected mothers in the workforce?, and get the data directly in your inbox by signing up for our weekly newsletter.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How do men and women use time differently?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In 2021, women were still responsible for the majority of childcare and housework across all racial groups and most age groups.

# data[].attributes.headline
What Google’s doing to make flexible work great？

# data[].attributes.subject
What Google’s doing to make flexible work great？

# data[].attributes.body
Google is developing a flexible work approach as an integral part of its corporate culture. The company aims to create a supportive and flexible work environment that caters to the diverse needs of its employees through technology and policies. By reducing their time spent in the office, Google enhances employees' productivity and enthusiasm in work. They also use communication technologies to facilitate efficient remote collaboration among employees (Google, 2021).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Now that people are gradually returning to the office, they often describe the quite profound experiences they have in seeing coworkers 'in 3D' again after spending two years only seeing everyone as a flat tile in a video conferencing app. The audio never, ever drops out! You can see their full body language. You don't have to raise a hand to ask a question.

Although Google is a tech company building great solutions for people to work anywhere, we also know the value of face-to-face, human communication.

Googlers work all over the globe in campuses designed to make working enjoyable, with bikes to get around between buildings, lots of healthy food options, onsite doctors and counsellors, well equipped exercise areas and dramatic, unconventional meeting rooms that are as far away from grey boxes as possible to inspire creative thinking.

However, we also know that the future of work is flexible. Most Googlers will spend some of their time working remotely from now on.

So how do we make the most of the time that we come together, and more importantly, how do we make flexible working great?

Three pillars have emerged over the past 12 months.

1. Work is no longer a place - we no longer "go" there and then "go home". When people do come into the office, it's going to be specifically for collaboration.

2. Time is more precious - 1 in 4 parents are playing the role of primary caregiver right now, and almost everyone has a family to support in one way or another, whether they're helping kids or looking after elderly parents.

3. Human connection is crucial - that connection that used to take place in the workplace is still crucial and every business needs to find a way to keep that going within the context of flexible work.

Google is taking a multi-disciplinary approach to innovating in this new scenario, acknowledging that tech alone isn't the solution. We're focused on testing and learning with the objective of relieving obstacles to well-being and productivity, whether people are working from home or an office.

What Google is doing to support flexible work

#1 Helpful@Home - Google has always been about making work great wherever Googlers are working. We wanted to be as helpful as possible to our people at home. We've given further support for parents, including more parental and caregiver leave. For people facing the new challenge of making healthy meals for themselves at home we've created a site that allows for virtual cooking classes. And we've put together practical ways of improving productivity and wellbeing at home.

#2 No meeting days - no-one enjoys sitting on back-to-back video calls all day. Teams of Googlers can now allocate weeks or days where there are no meetings or limited meetings to generate more of a balance between productive work time, personal time and meetings.

#3 Focus time - We've launched a feature called Focus Time as part of Google Calendar in Google Workspace. Team members can now schedule focus time, which disables all notifications - they won't get pinged with messages or emails during that time, and if someone tries to book over it, the meeting request gets automatically declined. (The feature is available to anyone, not just Googlers.)

#4 "Reset" days - we know everyone's tired from everything they've been through in the pandemic. We've offered staff globally some days off to recharge their batteries. When nobody is working on the same day it means everyone can have a genuine break and not return to a pile of emails waiting to be actioned.

#5 Rethinking the office environment - we've done a lot of work to transform really large office spaces to make them multi-use and multi-purpose. Instead of rows of desks, we have been focusing on creating more team collaboration spaces and equipping those with the right technologies. We're also organising offices so that Googlers can book a desk in advance and still be seated around their colleagues.

#6 New communication technologies - now that there will be a mix of people working remotely and in the office at any one time, we're rethinking meeting spaces. Future immersive meeting spaces will put multiple displays around a room and give each person a 'seat' at the table, whether they're physically present or working remotely. Google Meet hardware now supports continuous framing that allows cameras to zoom in on people's faces automatically, so that remote participants can clearly see the facial expression and body language of speakers in the room.

#7 Work from any location four weeks a year - with greater flexibility comes greater demand to be able to not be tied to a home base. For people with families overseas, or who simply want to have a 'hybrid holiday' where they can take the family to a glorious location and dip in and out of work, Google is now giving Googlers the opportunity to work from anywhere up to four weeks of the year.

#8 Giving people modern collaboration tools - Smart canvas is the next evolution of Google Workspace, weaving collaboration deeper into every surface of Docs, Sheets and Slides. If a hybrid team is brainstorming together in a Doc, smart canvas lets them use @-mentions to view recommendations for related content, people, and meetings, all of it driven by Google AI. It also lets them automatically generate meeting note templates and easily insert checklists. If they decide to pivot from their on-screen brainstorm into a live meeting, they'll soon be able to jump into a Google Meet right in the doc they're working on. Smart Canvas is set for release in the first half of 2022.

#9 Being truly flexible - Most Googlers will spend three days in the office, but it's up to the team manager to work out with their team members what the right balance is. The objective is around allowing team members to be able to focus on getting work done but also balance it with their own wellbeing. As part of this, we're making it culturally acceptable and encouraged for Googlers to block out focus time in their calendars.
To organise an executive briefing on Google's culture of innovation and future of the workplace, reach out to the Google account team in Australia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Google's doing to make flexible work great

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The pandemic has proven that the technology for working remotely is solid. But as restrictions ease, what does coming back together look like?rn

# data[].attributes.body
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that evaluates the morality of actions according to the maximum amount of happiness or well-being they bring to the largest possible number of people. It emphasizes that the happiness of each individual is of equal significance and focuses on the long-term benefits resulting from moral decisions (Shaw et al., 2020).

In the context of FFWAs in Germany, a utilitarian analysis would consider the outcomes of these arrangements whether maximize the overall happiness of all stakeholders. From a utilitarian perspective, the consequences of implementing FFWAs in Germany would likely be evaluated as positive as it benefits not only female employees (Wanger, 2024). As FFWAs assist employees in enhancing their work-life balance, their satisfaction with and loyalty to the company will be heightened. Although such work arrangements might cause a short-term drop in efficiency, in the long run, they can attract and retain talents, thereby converting into greater productivity. Not only do employees stand to gain from FFWAs, but enterprises themselves can also acquire a reputational enhancement as they have created a harmonious work environment.

# data[].attributes.body
The ethics of care, an ethical theory with a feminist perspective, prioritizes considering the needs and well-being of individuals in moral decision-making. It focuses on achieving fairness and equality while ensuring that no one, even minorities, suffers a loss of interests (Shaw et al., 2020).

From the perspective of the ethics of care, one can be more empathetic and understanding of the difficulties faced by women who return to work after giving birth. As women typically shoulder most of the parenting responsibilities after becoming mothers, they are the group most likely to benefit from FFWAs. This can help narrow the 40% career promotion gap caused by gender differences in working hours and realize fairness and equality in the workplace (Deschacht, 2017). However, the implementation results of FFWAs may not align with the concept of the ethics of care. As Wanger (2024) found out, men gain slightly more benefits from FFWAs than women do, thus might contribute to widening the gender gap in organizations.

# data[].attributes.body
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were established to address global challenges and achieve sustainable futures by providing comprehensive frameworks for economic, social, and environmental aspects. Among these 17 goals, SDG 5 is specifically dedicated to attaining gender equality.

# data[].attributes.body
SDG 5 focuses on achieving gender equality and empowering all the females by 2030 (United Nations, 2023). It addresses the need to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women and girls, provide equal access to education and healthcare, and promote equal opportunities in the workplace. SDG 5 aims to challenge societal norms and stereotypes that perpetuate inequality and to promote policies and laws that protect the rights of women and girls. By doing so, SDG 5 seeks to create a more just and equitable world where the potential of all individuals, regardless of gender, can be fully realized.

# data[].attributes.body
The implementation of FFWAs in organizations is a strategic approach that aligns with UN SDG 5. By offering FFWAs, companies can support women in managing their professional and personal lives more effectively, thereby reducing the gender gap in leadership positions.

Although SDG 5 has well-defined targets, it is still challenging to transform them into practice, particularly when the pursuit of profit over social equity. Therefore, SDG 5 can have potential conflicts with SDG 8, which concentrates on economic growth. One possible solution is to create regulations and policies to ensure that businesses operate in an equitable manner. Tax breaks or reduced tax rates could be offered to businesses that meet specific criteria related to gender equality, diversity, and social responsibility. This would provide an economic incentive for companies to invest in creating an equitable work environment and promoting social justice.

# data[].attributes.body
Corporations that actively support gender equality tend to perform better in decision-making and profit-making (Carosella, 2020). However, according to a report from the World Economic Forum (2023), there was only an average annual reduction of 0.24% in the global gender parity index from 2006 to 2023. It is estimated that it will take an additional 131 years to close the overall gender gap if the current progress rate remains.

This article analyzes the effect of family-friendly flexible working arrangements (FFWAs) in Germany on increasing promotion opportunities for women and reducing the gender leadership gap. This ethical problem is examined in the light of utilitarianism and the “ethics of care” theory and is related to UN Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender Equality.

# data[].attributes.headline
Support on the way to the top? The effects of family-friendly flexible working arrangements in organisations on the promotion of women to management positions—the case of Germany

# data[].attributes.subject
Support on the way to the top? The effects of family-friendly flexible working arrangements in organisations on the promotion of women to management positions—the case of Germany

# data[].attributes.body
The article “Support on the way to the top? The effects of family-friendly flexible working arrangements in organisations on the promotion of women to management positions—the case of Germany” was written in 2024 by Wanger. It explores how organizational support like FFWAs help women obtain more promotion opportunities, using the data of 314,201 employees from 1631 firms in Germany.

Women in Germany have encountered obstacles in the workplace due to their conservative welfare state system. This system assumes “gendered divisions of labor, with men responsible for families’ economic support and women responsible for caregiving” (Orloff, 1996, p. 53). Additionally, in most cases, women shoulder greater responsibility for child-rearing after giving birth. Consequently, it is more difficult for them to re-enter the job market and get the opportunities to promotion. Fortunately, FFWAs are organizational policies developed to ease the reconciliation of employment with caring duties and personal life. These arrangements provide employees with flexible working hours and work locations considering their family responsibilities. FFWAs facilitate women's role transition between family and career. They not only enhance women's competitiveness in the job market but also narrow the gender pay gap in management positions (Wanger, 2024). This aligns with the goals of SDG 5, as such arrangements can be part of the solution to achieve gender equality and empower women in the workplace. Moreover, FFWAs can help create a more understanding and flexible work culture. This, in turn, can boost employees' job satisfaction and is beneficial for enhancing their loyalty to the company (Artz, 2010).

# data[].attributes.body
The implementation of FFWAs within corporate strategies in Germany emphasizes the ethical conflicts between organizational efficiency and the fundamental human right of having a balanced work-life. This challenge is set against the background of ethical decision-making in business, highlighting the divide between profit-maximizing strategies and the societal demand for fair and humane work conditions. By examining the consequences from the perspectives of “utilitarianism” and “ethics of care” that are in line with UN Sustainable Development Goal 5, the discussion reveals that balancing economic objectives and the intrinsic value of gender equality is a cornerstone of social justice and inclusive growth. The analysis of data on the gender disparity in working hours enables us to better understand the glass ceiling effect. Subsequently, Google's flexible approach, which employs advanced technologies and inclusive policies, offers us a possible solution for achieving workplace equality. It is essential to address this issue and pave the way for a more just and sustainable future.

# data[].attributes.body
Artz, B. (2010). Fringe benefits and job satisfaction. International Journal of Manpower, 31(6), 626–644. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437721011073346

Carosella, C. (2020). Why gender equality matters in business success. Forbes.com. Retrieved October 17, 2024, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesnonprofitcouncil/2020/03/27/why-gender-equality-matters-in-business-success/

Deschacht, N. (2017). Part-time work and women’s careers: A decomposition of the gender promotion pap. Journal of Labor Research, 38(2), 169–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-017-9242-y

Google. (2021). What Google’s doing to make flexible work great. CIO. https://www.cio.com/article/301533/what-google-s-doing-to-make-flexible-work-great.html

Orloff, A. (1996). Gender in the welfare state. Annual review of sociology, 22(1), 51-78. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.51

Ptyza, K. (2023, November 21) Glass Ceiling Theory in Sociology | Overview & History. Study.com. https://study.com/learn/lesson/glass-ceiling-theory-effect.html

Shaw, W., Barry, V., & Muntean, D. (2020). Seeing the moral dimension of business. Moral issues in business (4th ed.). Cengage. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/vu/reader.action?docID=6511766&ppg=23

United Nations. (2023). Goal 5 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Sdgs.un.org; United Nations. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal5

USA Facts Team. (2022). How do men and women use time differently. USA Facts Team. https://usafacts.org/articles/how-do-men-and-women-use-time-differently/

Wanger, S. (2024). Support on the way to the top? The effects of family-friendly flexible working arrangements in organisations on the promotion of women to management positions—the case of Germany. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2024.2347637

World Economic Forum. (2023). The global gender gap report 2023. World Economic Forum. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf