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Dear Professor Chisako,
I actually don’t know much about sports, nor do I want to study it. I don’t know that college athletes need to pay so much time and may lose emotional support. I don’t know that these reasons will destroy the academic balance. This leads to problems with graduation rates. When discussing the balancing act between academics and athletics and the negative consequences student-athletes may face after graduation, I did not consider that student-athletes must simultaneously overcome intense athletic training and competitive events while excelling academically in the classroom. And with that balance often comes a lack of time, a buildup of stress, and setbacks in academic and career advancement. Before doing this research, I would have thought that athletes are helpful for entering college and graduating. It may even be easier for them to graduate or get easy courses because they are athletes, but every choice is accompanied by hard work and hard work before it can be rewarded. . Student-athletes often have to sacrifice significant amounts of time and energy in order to maintain athletic and competitive levels. This may result in them investing less in academics, increasing their academic load, or even lagging behind in their studies. In some cases, student-athletes may miss class time due to competition, which poses a challenge to their academic performance. Although they excel in college sports, only a lucky few get to realize their professional sports dreams.

In an office hour you explained to me that you can search for new sources among the already found sources, which can be quoted content. In the next class, I told my group member about this method. She was very happy, and I felt twice as happy. This is one of the few academic feedbacks I receive that helps my group members.
Before taking this class, my knowledge of writing was also lacking. Many times, I could not express my inner thoughts in fluent language. It is worth mentioning that I wrote down my thoughts before every meeting with you. I have memorized what I expressed using translation software, but I always forget it when we actually talk. I feel guilty when you frown and try to understand what I'm saying, but thank you so much for tolerating my clumsy way of expressing myself.

Best,
Ying

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Limited social time with family and friends

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Limited social time with family and friends

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As we investigate the negative impacts student-athletes face when juggling academics and athletics, particularly in the context of time commitment, a key aspect to consider is the constraints on social time. Student-athletes may find it difficult to allocate time to interact with friends and family and participate in campus social activities. “Approximately 66% of first- and second-tier athletes and 50% of third-tier athletes reported spending as much or more time training in the offseason as during the season” (DTHOMAS, 2013). These numbers underscore the critical importance of honing time management skills for college athletes to excel academically and athletically. “In general, most college athletes express the need to find time outside of athletic obligations to enjoy the college experience” (Paule and Gilson, 2010). However, due to increasing demands for academic and athletic excellence, “college athletes often have limited leisure time to interact with friends and family” (Paule and Gilson, 2010). As a result, coaches, teammates, and fellow athletes may become their primary source of weekly social interaction. This evidence highlights the time-related challenges student-athletes face, particularly with regard to their social interactions. Statistics from DTHOMAS (2013) highlight the large amount of time required for athletic training, “even during the offseason, and the amount of effort athletes must put in to excel in their sport.” This time-intensive commitment can be limiting They enjoy a balanced college experience and the ability to interact socially. Student-athletes expressed a desire to find time for personal enjoyment and to engage in social activities beyond their athletic commitments. But there may be a lack of time to connect with friends and family outside of the sporting environment.

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Abstract

College students are required to manage a variety of stressors related to academic, social, and financial commitments. In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their sporting abilities. The strength and conditioning professional sees the athlete on nearly a daily basis and is able to recognize the changes in performance and behavior an athlete may exhibit as a result of these stressors. As such, the strength and conditioning professional may serve an integral role in the monitoring of these stressors and may be able to alter training programs to improve both performance and wellness. The purpose of this paper is to discuss stressors experienced by collegiate athletes, developing an early detection system through monitoring techniques that identify the detrimental effects of stress, and discuss appropriate stress management strategies for this population.

Keywords: stress, load management, academic stress, stress management, injury

Introduction

The college years are a period of time when young adults experience a significant amount of change and a variety of novel challenges. Academic performance, social demands, adjusting to life away from home, and financial challenges are just a few of the burdens college students must confront (Humphrey et al., 2000; Paule and Gilson, 2010; Aquilina, 2013). In addition to these stressors, collegiate athletes are required to spend a substantial amount of time participating in activities related to their sport, such as attending practices and training sessions, team meetings, travel, and competitions (Humphrey et al., 2000; López de Subijana et al., 2015; Davis et al., 2019; Hyatt and Kavazis, 2019). These commitments, in addition to the normal stress associated with college life, may increase a collegiate-athlete's risk of experiencing both physical and mental issues (Li et al., 2017; Moreland et al., 2018) that may affect their overall health and wellness. For these reasons, it is essential that coaches understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes face in order to help them manage the potentially deleterious effects stress may have on athletic and academic performance.

Strength and conditioning coaches are allied health care professionals whose primary job is to enhance fitness of individuals for the purpose of improving athletic performance (Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). As such, many universities and colleges hire strength and conditioning coaches as part of their athletic staff to help athletes maximize their physical potential (Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). Strength and conditioning coaches strive to increase athletic performance by the systematic application of physical stress to the body via resistance training, and other forms of exercise, to yield a positive adaptation response (Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). For this reason, they need to understand and to learn how to manage athletes' stress. Additionally, based on the cumulative nature of stress, it is important that both mental and emotional stressors are also considered in programming. It is imperative that strength and conditioning coaches are aware of the multitude of stressors collegiate athletes encounter, in order to incorporate illness and injury risk management education into their training programs (Radcliffe et al., 2015; Ivarsson et al., 2017).

Based on the large number of contact hours strength and conditioning coaches spend with their athletes, they are in an optimal position to assist athletes with developing effective coping strategies to manage stress. By doing so, strength and conditioning coaches may be able to help reach the overarching goal of improving the health, wellness, fitness, and performance of the athletes they coach. The purpose of this review article is to provide the strength and conditioning professional with a foundational understanding of the types of stressors collegiate athletes may experience, and how these stressors may impact mental health and athletic performance. Suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce potential physiological and psychological impacts of stress will also be provided.

Stress and the Stress Response

In its most simplistic definition, stress can be described as a state of physical and psychological activation in response to external demands that exceed one's ability to cope and requires a person to adapt or change behavior. As such, both cognitive or environmental events that trigger stress are called stressors (Statler and DuBois, 2016). Stressors can be acute or chronic based on the duration of activation. Acute stressors may be defined as a stressful situation that occurs suddenly and results in physiological arousal (e.g., increase in hormonal levels, blood flow, cardiac output, blood sugar levels, pupil and airway dilation, etc.) (Selye, 1976). Once the situation is normalized, a cascade of hormonal reactions occurs to help the body return to a resting state (i.e., homeostasis). However, when acute stressors become chronic in nature, they may increase an individual's risk of developing anxiety, depression, or metabolic disorders (Selye, 1976). Moreover, the literature has shown that cumulative stress is correlated with an increased susceptibility to illness and injury (Szivak and Kraemer, 2015; Mann et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019). The impact of stress is individualistic and subjective by nature (Williams and Andersen, 1998; Ivarsson et al., 2017). Additionally, the manner in which athletes respond to a situational or environmental stressor is often determined by their individual perception of the event (Gould and Udry, 1994; Williams and Andersen, 1998; Ivarsson et al., 2017). In this regard, the athlete's perception can either be positive (eustress) or negative (distress). Even though they both cause physiological arousal, eustress also generates positive mental energy whereas distress generates anxiety (Statler and DuBois, 2016). Therefore, it is essential that an athlete has the tools and ability to cope with these stressors in order to have the capacity to manage both acute and chronic stress. As such, it is important to understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes are confronted with and how these stressors impact an athlete's performance, both athletically and academically.

Methods

Literature Search/Data Collection

The articles included in this review were identified via online databases PubMed, MEDLINE, and ISI Web of Knowledge from October 15th 2019 through January 15th 2020. The search strategy combined the keywords "academic stress," "athletic stress," "stress," "stressor," "college athletes," "student athletes," "collegiate athletes," "injury," "training," "monitoring." Duplicated articles were then removed. After reading the titles and abstracts, all articles that met the inclusion criteria were considered eligible for inclusion in the review. Subsequently, all eligible articles were read in their entirety and were either included or removed from the present review.

Inclusion Criteria

The studies included met all the following criteria: (i) published in English-language journals; (ii) targeted college athletes; (iii) publication was either an original research paper or a literature review; (iv) allowed the extraction of data for analysis.

Data Analysis

Relevant data regarding participant characteristics (i.e., gender, academic status, sports) and study characteristics were extracted. Articles were analyzed and divided into two separate sections based on their specific topics: Academic Stress and Athletic Stress. Then, strategies for monitoring and workload management are discussed in the final section.

Academic Stress

Fundamentally, collegiate athletes have two major roles they must balance as part of their commitment to a university: being a college student and an athlete. Academic performance is a significant source of stress for most college students (Aquilina, 2013; López de Subijana et al., 2015; de Brandt et al., 2018; Davis et al., 2019). This stress may be further compounded among collegiate athletes based on their need to be successful in the classroom, while simultaneously excelling in their respective sport (Aquilina, 2013; López de Subijana et al., 2015; Huml et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019). Davis et al. ( 2019) conducted surveys on 173 elite junior alpine skiers and reported significant moderate to strong correlations between perceived stress and several variables including depressed mood ( r = 0.591), sleep disturbance ( r = 0.459), fatigue ( r = 0.457), performance demands ( r = 0.523), and goals and development ( r = 0.544). Academic requirements were the highest scoring source of stress of all variables and was most strongly correlated with perceived stress ( r = 0.467). Interestingly, it was not academic rigor that was viewed by the athletes as the largest source of direct stress; rather, the athletes surveyed reported time management as being their biggest challenge related to academic performance (Davis et al., 2019). This further corroborates the findings of Hamlin et al. ( 2019). The investigators reported that during periods of the academic year in which levels of perceived academic stress were at their highest, students had trouble managing sport practices and studying. These stressors were also associated with a decrease in energy levels and overall sleep quality. These factors may significantly increase the collegiate athlete's susceptibility to illness and injury (Hamlin et al., 2019). For this reason, coaches should be aware of and sensitive to the stressors athletes experience as part of the cyclical nature of the academic year and attempt to help athletes find solutions to balancing athletic and academic demands.

According to Aquilina ( 2013), collegiate athletes tend to be more committed to sports development and may view their academic career as a contingency plan to their athletic career, rather than a source of personal development. As a result, collegiate athletes often, but certainly not always, prioritize athletic participation over their academic responsibilities (Miller and Kerr, 2002; Cosh and Tully, 2014, 2015). Nonetheless, scholarships are usually predicated on both athletic and academic performance. For instance, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) requires collegiate athletes to achieve and maintain a certain grade point average (GPA). Furthermore, they are also often required to also uphold a certain GPA to maintain an athletic scholarship. The pressure to maintain both high levels of academic and athletic performance may increase the likelihood of triggering mental health issues (i.e., anxiety and depression) (Li et al., 2017; Moreland et al., 2018).

Mental health issues are a significant concern among college students. There has been an increased emphasis placed on the mental health of collegiate athletes in recent years (Petrie et al., 2014; Li et al., 2017, 2019; Reardon et al., 2019). Based on the 2019 National College Health Assessment survey from the American College Health Association (ACHA) consisting of 67,972 participants, 27.8% of college students reported anxiety, and 20.2% reported experiencing depression which negatively affected their academic performance (American College Health Association American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II, 2019). Approximately 65.7% (50.7% males and 71.8% females) reported feeling overwhelming anxiety in the past 12 months, and 45.1% (37.1% males and 47.6% females) reported feeling so depressed that it was difficult for them to function. However, only 24.3% (13% males and 28.4% females) reported being diagnosed and treated by a professional in the past 12 months. Collegiate athletes are not immune to these types of issues. According to information presented by the NCAA, many certified athletic trainers anecdotally state that anxiety is an issue affecting the collegiate-athlete population (NCAA, 2014). However, despite the fact that collegiate athletes are exposed to numerous stressors, they are less likely to seek help at a university counseling center than non-athletes (NCAA, 2014), which could be related to stigmas that surround mental health services (NCAA, 2014; Kaier et al., 2015; Egan, 2019). This not only has significant implications related to their psychological well-being, but also their physiological health, and consequently their performance. For instance, in a study by Li et al. ( 2017) it was found that NCAA Division I athletes who reported preseason anxiety symptoms had a 2.3 times greater injury incidence rate compared to athletes who did not report. This same study discovered that male athletes who reported preseason anxiety and depression had a 2.1 times greater injury incidence, compared to male athletes who did not report symptoms of anxiety and depression. (Lavallée and Flint, 1996) also reported a correlation between anxiety and both injury frequency and severity among college football players ( r = 0.43 and r = 0.44, respectively). In their study, athletes reporting high tension/anxiety had a higher rate of injury. It has been suggested that the occurrence of stress and anxiety may cause physiological responses, such as an increase in muscle tension, physical fatigue, and a decrease in neurocognitive and perception processes that can lead to physical injuries (Ivarsson et al., 2017). For this reason, it is reasonable to consider that academic stressors may potentiate effects of stress and result in injury and illness in collegiate athletes.

Periods of more intense academic stress increase the susceptibility to illness or injury (Mann et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019). For example, Hamlin et al. ( 2019) investigated levels of perceived stress, training loads, injury, and illness incidence in 182 collegiate athletes for the period of one academic year. The highest levels of stress and incidence of illness arise during the examination weeks occurring within the competitive season. In addition, the authors also reported the odds ratio, which is the occurrence of the outcome of interest (i.e., injury), based off the given exposure to the variables of interest (i.e., perceived mood, sleep duration, increased academic stress, and energy levels). Based on a logistic regression, they found that each of the four variables (i.e., mood, energy, sleep duration, and academic stress) was related to the collegiate athletes' likelihood to incur injuries. In summary, decreased levels of perceived mood (odds ratio of 0.89, 0.85-0.0.94 CI) and sleep duration (odds ratio of 0.94, 0.91-0.97 CI), and increased academic stress (odds ratio of 0.91, 0.88-0.94 CI) and energy levels (odds ratio of 1.07, 1.01-1.14 CI), were able to predict injury in these athletes. This corroborates Mann et al. ( 2016) who found NCAA Division I football athletes at a Bowl Championship Subdivision university were more likely to become ill or injured during an academically stressful period (i.e., midterm exams or other common test weeks) than during a non-testing week (odds ratio of 1.78 for high academic stress). The athletes were also less likely to get injured during training camp (odds ratio of 3.65 for training camp). Freshmen collegiate athletes may be especially more susceptible to mental health issues than older students. Their transition includes not only the academic environment with its requirements and expectations, but also the adaptation to working with a new coach and teammates. In this regard, Yang et al. ( 2007) found an increase in the likelihood of depression that freshmen athletes experienced, as these freshmen were 3.27 times more likely to experience depression than their older teammates. While some stressors are recurrent and inherent in academic life (e.g., attending classes, homework, etc.), others are more situational (e.g., exams, midterms, projects) and may be anticipated by the strength and conditioning coach.

Athletic Stress

The domain of athletics can expose collegiate athletes to additional stressors that are specific to their cohort (e.g., sport-specific, team vs. individual sport) (Aquilina, 2013). Time spent training (e.g., physical conditioning and sports practice), competition schedules (e.g., travel time, missing class), dealing with injuries (e.g., physical therapy/rehabilitation, etc.), sport-specific social support (e.g., teammates, coaches) and playing status (e.g., starting, non-starter, being benched, etc.) are just a few of the additional challenges collegiate athletes must confront relative to their dual role of being a student and an athlete (Maloney and McCormick, 1993; Scott et al., 2008; Etzel, 2009; Fogaca, 2019). Collegiate athletes who view the demands of stressors from academics and sports as a positive challenge (i.e., an individual's self-confidence or belief in oneself to accomplish the task outweighs any anxiety or emotional worry that is felt) may potentially increase learning capacity and competency (NCAA, 2014). However, when these demands are perceived as exceeding the athlete's capacity, this stress can be detrimental to the student's mental and physical health as well as to sport performance (Ivarsson et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017).

As previously stated, time management has been shown to be a challenge to collegiate athletes. The NCAA rules state that collegiate athletes may only engage in required athletic activities for 4 h per day and 20 h/week during in-season and 8 h/week during off-season throughout the academic year. Although these rules have been clearly outlined, the most recent NCAA GOALS (2016) study reported alarming numbers regarding time commitment to athletic-related activities. Data from over 21,000 collegiate athletes from 600 schools across Divisions I, II, and III were included in this study. Although a breakdown of time commitments was not provided, collegiate athletes reported dedicating up to 34 h per week to athletics (e.g., practices, weight training, meetings with coaches, tactical training, competitions, etc.), in addition to spending between 38.5 and 40 h per week working on academic-related tasks. This report also showed a notable trend related to athletes spending an increase of ~2 more athletics-related hours per week compared to the 2010 GOALS study, along with a decrease of 2 h of personal time (from 19.5 h per week in 2010 to 17.1 in 2015). Furthermore, ~66% of Division I and II and 50% of Division III athletes reported spending as much or more time in their practices during the off-season as during the competitive season (DTHOMAS, 2013). These numbers show how important it is for collegiate athletes to develop time management skills to be successful in both academics and athletics. Overall, most collegiate athletes have expressed a need to find time to enjoy their college experience outside of athletic obligations (Paule and Gilson, 2010). Despite that, because of the increasing demand for excellence in academics and athletics, collegiate athletes' free time with family and friends is often scarce (Paule and Gilson, 2010). Consequently, trainers, coaches, and teammates will likely be the primary source of their weekly social interactivity.

Social interactions within their sport have also been found to relate to factors that may impact an athlete's perceived stress. Interactions with coaches and trainers can be effective or deleterious to an athlete. Effective coaching includes a coaching style that allows for a boost of the athlete's motivation, self-esteem, and efficacy in addition to mitigating the effects of anxiety. On the other hand, poor coaching (i.e., the opposite of effective coaching) can have detrimental psychological effects on an athlete (Gearity and Murray, 2011). In a closer examination of the concept of poor coaching practices, Gearity and Murray ( 2011) interviewed athletes about their experiences of receiving poor coaching. Following analysis of the interviews, the authors identified the main themes of the "coach being uncaring and unfair," "practicing poor teaching inhibiting athlete's mental skills," and "athlete coping." They stated that inhibition of an athlete's mental skills and coping are associated with the psychological well-being of an athlete. Also, poor coaching may result in mental skills inhibition, distraction, insecurity, and ultimately team division (Gearity and Murray, 2011). This combination of factors may compound the negative impacts of stress in athletes and might be especially important for in injured athletes.

Injured athletes have previously been reported to have elevated stress as a result of heightened worry about returning to pre-competition status (Crossman, 1997), isolation from teammates if the injury is over a long period of time (Podlog and Eklund, 2007) and/or reduced mood or depressive symptoms (Daly et al., 1995). In addition, athletes who experience prolonged negative thoughts may be more likely to have decreased rehabilitation attendance or adherence, worse functional outcomes from rehabilitation (e.g., on measures of proprioception, muscular endurance, and agility), and worse post-injury performance (Brewer, 2012).

Monitoring Considerations

In addition to poor coaching, insufficient workload management can hinder an athlete's ability to recover and adapt to training, leading to fatigue accumulation (Gabbett et al., 2017). Excessive fatigue can impair decision-making ability, coordination and neuromuscular control, and ultimately result in overtraining and injury (Soligard et al., 2016). For instance, central fatigue was found to be a direct contributor to anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players (Mclean and Samorezov, 2009). Introducing monitoring tools may serve as a means to reduce the detrimental effects of stress in collegiate athletes. Recent research on relationships between athlete workloads, injury, and performance has highlighted the benefits of athlete monitoring (Drew and Finch, 2016; Jaspers et al., 2017).

Athlete monitoring is often assessed with the measuring and management of workload associated with a combination of sport-related and non-sport-related stressors (Soligard et al., 2016). An effective workload management program should aim to detect excessive fatigue, identify its causes, and constantly adapt rest, recovery, training, and competition loads respectively (Soligard et al., 2016). The workload for each athlete is based off their current levels of physical and psychological fatigue, wellness, fitness, health, and recovery (Soligard et al., 2016). Accumulation of situational or physical stressors will likely result in day-to-day fluctuations in the ability to move external loads and strength train effectively (Fry and Kraemer, 1997). Periods of increased academic stress may cause increased levels of fatigue, which can be identified by using these monitoring tools, thereby assisting the coaches with modulating the workload during these specific periods. Coaches who plan to incorporate monitoring and management strategies must have a clear understanding of what they want to achieve from athlete monitoring (Gabbett et al., 2017; Thornton et al., 2019).

Monitoring External Loads

External load refers to the physical work (e.g., number of sprints, weight lifted, distance traveled, etc.) completed by the athlete during competition, training, and activities of daily living (Soligard et al., 2016). This type of load is independent of the athlete's individual characteristics (Wallace et al., 2009). Monitoring external loading can aid in the designing of training programs which mimic the external load demands of an athlete's sport, guide rehabilitation programs, and aid in the detection of spikes in external load that may increase the risk of injury (Clubb and McGuigan, 2018).

The means of quantifying external load can involve metrics as simple as pitch counts in baseball and softball (Fleisig and Andrews, 2012; Shanley et al., 2012) or quantifying lifting session training loads (e.g., sum value of weight lifted during an exercise x number of repetitions × the number of sets). Neuromuscular function testing is another more common way of analyzing external load. This is typically done using such measures such as the counter movement jump, squat jump, or drop jump. A force platform can be used to measure a myriad of outcomes (e.g., peak power, ground contact time, time to take-off, reactive strength index, and jump height), or simply measure jump height in a more traditional manner. Jumping protocols, such as the countermovement jump, have been adopted to examine the recovery of neuromuscular function after athletic competition with significant decreases for up to 72 h commonly reported (Andersson et al., 2008; Magalhães et al., 2010; Twist and Highton, 2013). (Gathercole et al., 2015) found reductions in 18 different neuromuscular variables in collegiate athletes following a fatiguing protocol. The variables of eccentric duration, concentric duration, total duration, time to peak force/power, and flight time:contraction time ratio, derived from a countermovement jump were deemed suitable for detecting neuromuscular fatigue with the rise in the use of technology for monitoring, certain sports have adopted specific software that can aid in the monitoring of stress. For example, power output can be measured using devices such as SRM™ or PowerTap™ in cycling (Jobson et al., 2009). This data can be analyzed to provide information such as average power or normalized power. The power output can then be converted into a Training Stress Score™ via commercially available software (Marino, 2011). More sophisticated measures of external load may involve the use of wearable technology devices such as Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, accelerometers, magnetometer, and gyroscope inertial sensors (Akenhead and Nassis, 2016). These devices can quantify external load in several ways, such as duration of movement, total distance covered, speed of movement, acceleration, and decelerations, as well as sport specific movement such as number and height of jumps, number of tackles, or breakaways, etc. (Akenhead and Nassis, 2016). The expansion of marketing of wearable devices has been substantial; however, there are questions of validity and reliability related to external load tracking limitations related to proprietary metrics, as well as the overall cost that should be considered when considering the adoption of such devices (Aughey et al., 2016; Torres-Ronda and Schelling, 2017).

Monitoring Internal Loads

While external load may provide information about an athlete's performance capacity and work completed, it does not provide clear evidence of how athletes are coping with and adapting to the external load (Halson, 2014). This type of information comes from the monitoring of internal loads. The term internal load refers to the individual physiological and psychological response to the external stress or load imposed (Wallace et al., 2009). Internal load is influenced by a number of factors such as daily life stressors, the environment around the athlete, and coping ability (Soligard et al., 2016). Indirect measures, such as the use of heart rate (HR) monitoring, and subjective measurements, such as perceived effort (i.e., ratings of perceived exertion), are examples of internal load monitoring. Using subjective measurement systems is a simple and practical method when dealing with large numbers of athletes (Saw et al., 2016; Nässi et al., 2017). Subjective reporting of training load (Rating of Perceived Exertion-RPE) (Coyne et al., 2018), Session Rating of Perceived Exertion-sRPE) (Coyne et al., 2018), perceived stress and recovery (Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes-RESTQ-S), and psychological mood states (Profile of Mood States-POMS) have all been found to be a reliable indicator of training load (Robson-Ansley et al., 2009; Saw et al., 2016) and only take a few moments to complete. In addition, subjective measures can be more responsive to tracking changes or training responses in athletes than objective measures (Saw et al., 2016).

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is a common intrinsic measure of how the body is responding to stress. With training, the reduction of resting HR is typically a clear indication of the heart becoming more efficient and not having to beat as frequently. Alternately, increases of resting HR over time with a continuation of training may be an indicator of too much stress. Improper nutrition, such as regular or ongoing suboptimal intakes of vitamins or minerals, may result in increased ventilation and/or increased heart rate (Lukaski, 2004). It has been suggested that the additional stress may lead to parasympathetic hyperactivity, leading to an increase in resting HR (Statler and DuBois, 2016). This largely stems from research examining the sensitivity of various HR derived metrics, such as resting HR, HR variability (HRV), and HR recovery (HRR) to fluctuations in training load (Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009). HRR in athlete monitoring is the rate of HR decline after the cessation of exercise. A common measure of HHR is the use of a 2 min step test followed by a 60 s HR measurement. The combination of the exercise (stress) on the cardiovascular system and then its subsequent return toward baseline has been used as an indicator of autonomic function and training status in athletes (Daanen et al., 2012). In collegiate athletes it was found that hydration status impacted HRR following moderate to hard straining sessions (Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018). Athletes who followed a prescription hydration plan performed better in the standing long jump, tracked objects faster, and showed faster HRR vs. athletes who followed their normal self-selected hydration plan (Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018). To date, HR monitoring and the various derivatives have mainly been successful in detecting changes in training load and performance in endurance athletes (Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009; Lamberts et al., 2009; Thorpe et al., 2017). Although heart rate monitoring can provide additional physiological insight for aerobic sessions or events, it thus far has not been found to be an accurate measurement for quantifying internal load during many explosive, short duration anaerobic activities (Bosquet et al., 2008).

A multitude of studies have reported the reliability and validity of using RPE and sRPE across a range of training modalities (Foster, 1998; Impellizzeri et al., 2004; Sweet et al., 2004). This measure can be used to create a number of metrics such as session load (sRPE × duration in minutes), daily load (sum of all session loads for that day), weekly training load (sum of all daily training loads for entire week), monotony (standard deviation of weekly training load), and strain (daily or weekly training load × monotony) (Foster, 1998). Qualitative questionnaires that monitor stress and fatigue have been well-established as tools to use with athletes (see Table 1 for examples of commonly used questionnaires in research). Using short daily wellness questionnaires may allow coaches to generate a wellness score which then can be adjusted based off of the stress the athlete may be feeling to meet the daily load target (Foster, 1998; Robson-Ansley et al., 2009). However, strength and conditioning coaches need to be mindful that these questionnaires may require sports psychologist or other licensed professional to examine and provide the results. An alternative that may be better suited for strength and conditioning professionals to use could be to incorporate some of the themes of those questionnaires into programing.

Table 1

Category of training load

Variable examined

Tests or Methods of collection

References

External load: defined as the work completed by the athlete, measured independently of their individual characteristics (Wallace et al., 2009)

Power output

Various devices

Pyne and Martin, 2011

Time-motion analysis

GPS tracking

Aughey, 2011; Halson, 2014

Movement pattern analysis via digital video

Taylor et al., 2012; Halson ( 2014)

Internal load: related to physiological and psychological stress imposed (Wallace et al., 2009)

Perception of effort

Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)

Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009

Training Impulse (TRIMP)

Morton et al., 1990; Pyne and Martin, 2011

Qualitative questionnaires*

Profile of Mood States (ROMS)

Morgan et al., 1987

A Multifaceted Approach

Dissociation between external and internal load units may be indicative of the state of fatigue of an athlete. Utilizing a monitoring system in which the athlete is able to make adjustments to their training loads in accordance with how they are feeling in that moment can be a useful tool for assisting the athlete in managing stress. Auto-regulation is a method of programming that allows for adjustments based on the results of one or more readiness tests. When implemented properly, auto regulation enables the coach or athlete to optimize training based on the athlete's given readiness for training on a particular day, thereby aiming to avoid potential overtraining (Kraemer and Fleck, 2018). Several studies have found that using movement velocity to designate resistance training intensities can result in significant improvements in maximal strength and athletic performance (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2014, 2017; Mann et al., 2015). Velocity based training allows the coach and athlete to view real time feedback for the given lifts, thereby allowing them to observe how the athlete is performing in that moment. If the athlete is failing to meet the prescribed velocity or the velocity drops greater than a predetermined amount between sets, then this should signal the coach to investigate. If there is a higher than normal amount of stress on that athlete for the day, that could be a potential reason. This type of combination style program of using a quantitative or objective measurement (s) and a subjective measure of wellness (qualitative questionnaire) has recently been reported to be an effective tool in monitoring individuals apart of a team (Starling et al., 2019). The subjective measure in this study was the readiness to train questionnaire (RTT-Q) and the objective measures were the HRR 6min test (specifically the HRR 60s = recorded as decrease in HR in the 60 s after termination of the test) to assess autonomic function and the standing long jump (SLJ) to measure neuromuscular function. The findings found that, based on the absolute typical error of measurement, the HRR 60s and SLJ could detect medium and large changes in fatigue and readiness. The test took roughly 8 min for the entire team, which included a group consisting of 24 college-age athletes. There are many other combinations of monitoring variables and strategies that coaches and athletes may utilize.

Data Analysis - How to Utilize the Measures

Regardless of what type of monitoring tool a coach or athlete may incorporate, it is essential to understand how to analyze this data. There are excellent resources available which discuss this topic in great detail (Gabbett et al., 2017; Clubb and McGuigan, 2018; Thornton et al., 2019). This section will highlight two main conclusions from these sources and briefly describe two of the main statistical practices and concepts discussed. The use of z-scores or modified z-scores has been proposed as a method of detecting meaningful change in athlete data (Clubb and McGuigan, 2018; Thornton et al., 2019). For different monitoring tools listed in Table 1 , the following formula would be an example of how to assess changes: (Athlete daily score-Baseline score)/Standard deviation of baseline. The baseline would likely be based off an appropriate period such as the scores across 2 weeks during the preseason.

In sports and sports science, the use of a magnitude-based inference (MBI) has been suggested as more appropriate and easier to understand when examining meaningful changes in athletic data, than null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) (Buchheit, 2014). Additional methods to assess meaningful change that are similar to MBI are using standard deviation, typical error, effect sizes, smallest worthwhile change (SWC), and coefficient of variation (Thornton et al., 2019). It should be noted that all of these methods have faced criticism from sources such as statisticians. It is important to understand that the testing methods, measurements, and analysis should be based on the resources and intended goals from use, which will differ from every group and individual. Once identified, it is up to the practitioner to keep this system the same, in order to collect data that can then be examined to understand meaningful information for each setting (Thornton et al., 2019).

Managing and Coping Strategies

Once the collegiate-athlete has been able to identify the need to balance their stress levels, the athlete may then need to seek out options for managing their stress. Coaches are be able to assist them by sharing information on health and wellness resources available for the students, both on and off campus. Another way a coach can potentially support their athletes is by establishing an open-door policy, wherein the team members feel comfortable approaching a member of the strength and conditioning staff in order to seek out resources for coping with challenges related to stress.

There are some basic skills that strength and conditioning coaches can teach (while staying within their scope of practice). Coaches can introduce their athletes to basic lifestyle concepts, such as practicing deep breathing techniques, positive self-talk, and developing healthy sleep habits (i.e., turning off their mobile devices 1 h before bed and aiming for 8 h of sleep each night, etc.). A survey of strength and conditioning practitioners by Radcliffe et al. ( 2015) found that strategies used by practitioners included a mix of cognitive and behavioral strategies, which was used as justification for recommending practitioners find opportunities to guide professional development toward awareness strategies. Practitioners reported using a wide variety of psychological skills and strategies, which following survey analysis, highlighted a significant emphasis on strategies that may influence athlete self-confidence and goal setting. Themes identified by Radcliffe et al. ( 2015) included confidence building, arousal management, and skill acquisition. Additionally, similar lower level themes that are connected (i.e., goal setting, increasing, or decreasing arousal intensities, self-talk, mental imagery) are all discussed in the 4th edition of the NSCA Essentials of Strength and Conditioning book (Haff et al., 2016). When the interventions aiming to improve mental health expand from basic concepts to mental training beyond a coach's scope, it would be pertinent for the coach to refer the collegiate-athlete to a sport psychology or other mental health consultant (Fogaca, 2019). Moreover, strength and conditioning coaches may find themselves in a position to become key players in facilitating management strategies for collegiate athletes, thereby guiding the athlete in their quest to learn how to best manage the mental and physical energy levels required in the quest for overall optimal performance (Statler and DuBois, 2016).

Conclusion and Future Directions

This review article has summarized some of the ways that strength and conditioning professionals may be able to gain a better understanding of the types of stressors encountered by collegiate athletes, the impact these stressors may have on athletic performance, and suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce the potential negative physiological and psychological impacts of stress. It has been suggested that strategies learned in the context of training may have a carry-over effect into other areas such as competition. More education is needed in order for strength and conditioning professionals to gain a greater understanding of how to support their athletes with stress-management techniques and resources. Some ways to disseminate further education on stress-management tools for coaches to share with their athletes may include professional development events, such as conferences and clinics.

Author Contributions

All of the authors have contributed to the development of the manuscript both in writing and conceptual development.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The handling editor declared a past collaboration with one of the authors RL.

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Articles from Frontiers in Sports and Active Living are provided here courtesy of Frontiers Media SA

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Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies

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College students are required to manage a variety of stressors related to academic, social, and financial commitments. In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their ...

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As we gain a deeper understanding of the negative impacts student-athletes experience, it is also critical to consider the specific emotional issues they experience. One example of this is provided by the experiences of Pac-12 athletes who express a sincere desire to build friendships beyond their athletic teams. The rationale behind this desire is that having friends outside of athletics can serve as an important social outlet, which in turn can help alleviate the unique stressors associated with athletics and facilitate a smoother transition into college life. "Pac-12 athletes express a desire to make new friends outside of their sports teams. Some say having friends outside of sports would provide a social outlet, help ease stress related to athletics and would have made the transition to college easier. Yet without the opportunity to join on-campus organizations, student-athletes have trouble making friends outside their sports teams." (Penn) This evidence highlights a key aspect of the mental health challenges student-athletes face. This suggests they seek social connections and friendships outside of athletics to cope with the unique pressures of being student-athletes. However, limited opportunities to join campus organizations make it difficult for them to realize this desire. A lack of social outlets can lead to feelings of isolation, stress, and hinder the overall well-being of student-athletes, all of which are serious mental health issues. The importance of addressing the social and emotional needs of student-athletes to mitigate the negative impacts they face when juggling academics and athletics, particularly in the context of mental health issues.

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When basketball players are included in the regular, full-time student body, the demands of their athletic commitments may impede their academic progress. It is important to consider how lower graduation rates can lead to post-graduation problems, such as limited career options and reduced earning potential for student-athletes. "the graduation rates are significantly different when you compare full-time athletes to full-time students. When comparing the graduation rates of football and basketball players to the full-time general student body, the results show that these athletes graduate at significantly lower rates ." (Julia Forster, p.3) This evidence highlights the lower graduation rates for student-athletes compared to the average college student. These lower rates can lead to a variety of post-graduation issues, including reduced access to job opportunities, and can limit an athlete's ability to leverage their education after their athletic careers are over. A second piece of evidence from Julia Foster's research shows that "athletes have often been seen as having lower motivation, organization skills, and intelligence than the general student body." This evidence deserves serious attention because it shows that student-athletes are not only There are real challenges but also negative stereotypes and prejudices. These stereotypes may affect how these athletes are perceived in the job market and may hinder their career prospects, leading to problems after graduation.

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Level 3: What are the negative impacts on student athletes face when juggling academics and athletics?

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Level 3: What are the negative impacts on student athletes face when juggling academics and athletics?

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When it comes to student-athletes balancing academics and athletics and the negative consequences they may face after graduation, we can't ignore the positives. While the field is fraught with challenges, there are also many positives that can come from the student-athlete experience. The conclusion will explore aspects that student-athletes may benefit from during their academic and professional careers.
When the findings in the data and report are drilled down, it’s easy to see that college athletics programs have a positive and profound impact on the lives of student-athletes. First, the year-over-year increase in graduation rates is an achievement to be proud of, demonstrating their talent and perseverance in the difficult but difficult process of coordinating academics and athletics. Not only is this high graduation rate of great value to the personal development of student-athletes, it also demonstrates the effectiveness of a college athletics program that focuses not only on the competitive nature of athletics but also on academic success.
Secondly, progress on diversity and inclusion is also worth highlighting. Student-athletes of all races have made significant gains in graduation rates, particularly Black student-athletes and Hispanic/Latino student-athletes. This reflects the work that university athletic programs have done to promote diversity and equal opportunity. This not only helps create a more inclusive college athletics environment, but also provides student-athletes with broader opportunities and support to achieve their career and academic goals.
Third, data on post-college life reveal positive developments for former NCAA student-athletes. There are also many former NCAA student-athletes working in jobs closely related to their academic fields, attesting to the career advancement opportunities college athletic programs provide them. In addition, a subset reported higher life satisfaction, happiness, and sense of purpose, reflecting the positive impact of college athletic experiences on personal well-being and self-identity.
Finally, the data on financial independence are also encouraging. About 68% of former NCAA student-athletes are financially independent, meaning they are able to pay their own bills and expenses. No matter what major they study to achieve financial independence after graduation, college athletic programs are sure to help them succeed in academic and professional fields.
College sports programs are not only a stage for sports competition, but also a platform for cultivating future leaders and successful people. These findings will help shape future college athletics policies and supports to ensure student-athletes achieve positive outcomes both academically and professionally.

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All athletes must face the harsh reality of their post-retirement work situation. "Research has shown that it is very rare for elite sports careers to last 10 years, and athletes usually choose to retire around the age of 34. "(Athlete 265)This means that athletes lag behind ordinary non-athletes by at least ten years in terms of career development. If athletes can serve as coaches or psychological counselors for athletes after retirement, of course it is possible, but how many athletes retire every year, and how many coaching positions are vacant? After ordinary athletes retire, they need to find new jobs. "Ordinary elite athletes have to train six hours a day, six days a week, 12 months a year2, leaving almost no time to accumulate work experience, study or complete career plans."(Athlete 365) When you are interested in High concentration and investment in sports career often means that you lack opportunities to explore other activities or discover different aspects of your own personality and identity. Athletes need to think about their subsequent life plans before retiring, otherwise your life will face unprecedented challenges. trough period.

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职业转型是每位运动员都不可回避的--没有人的职业生涯是永无止境的。几乎所有运动员都需要在退役后寻找另外一份工作。

精英运动员拥有独特的背景和经验，教育和职业轨迹跟非运动员大相径庭，然而，你能够在参加代表自己运动项目最高水平的比赛时展示出必要的条件，也一定能具备造福任何职场的宝贵技能和经验。 然而，许多人仍在为职业转型而苦恼。

你如何利用从体育运动中获得的技能，帮助实现新职业顺利转型？ 你为何在比赛期间便应为职业转型做准备？ 你能从已经完成职业转型的其他运动员身上学到什么？

这些只是我们在这份白皮书中准备回答的诸多问题中的几个，这份白皮书将探讨为退役后的生活做好准备的重要性。

借助循证研究和专家见解，我们将尝试详细说明你为何要为职业转型做好准备，以及如何做好准备，我们来自其他运动员的案例研究也将提供相关的故事和实用建议。 提供见解的专家包括：

David Lavallee Professor of Duty of Care in Sport in the School of Applied Sciences at Abertay University, Dundee

Paul Wylleman Professor of Sport Psychology at Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and Performance Manager in Performance Behaviour for the Netherlands Olympic Team

Mayi Cruz Blanco Managing Director, LHH Sports & Athlete Solutions

Rick Echevarria Intel Vice-President and General Manager of Intel's Olympic Programme

概览

3为何你会成为优秀员工: 本部分将探讨运动员能够带给职场哪些可迁移的技能，以及研究如何表明成功认识和利用这些技能是顺利完成职业转型的关键。

直面运动生涯的终结，可能并非易事，但提前预知你将对此有何期待和做何种准备，可以让职业转型变得简单。 在这里，我们将重点介绍你在退役时可能面临的一些挑战。

所有运动员都必须面临这样的残酷现实：自己终将迎来职业生涯的暮年，从而不得不开启人生的最新篇章。 有些运动员的职业转型可能来得比别人更早一些--然而，新西兰选手朱莉·布劳姆（Julie Brougham）虽然已经62岁的高龄，却依然出现在了2016年里约奥运会马术盛装舞步的赛场上--但每位运动员终将步入全新职业生涯、行业或人生阶段。

这可能是一个令人生畏的前景，特别是许多运动员几乎或根本没有全职工作经验，而且由于全身心投入体育事业，你们中的有些人错过了在学院或大学学习的机会。

完成退役生活转型并非总是一帆风顺，但你可以通过了解自己可能面临的若干挑战来确保为转型做好准备。

独特现状

体育生涯结束后，你可能发现自己处于一个陌生境地。 体育运动的身体特性，意味着运动员往往在相对较早的年龄段便选择退役。 有研究表示，精英体育运动生涯持续10年的情况非常罕见，运动员通常在34岁左右选择退役 ，而在体操等运动项目中，这个年龄可能更早。 因此，在达到传统退役年龄前，运动员有若干年的时间可以积累工作经验，然后迎接新的职业生涯转型。

然而，2012年的研究表明，普通精英运动员每天要训练六个小时，每周六天，一年12个月 ，几乎没有时间积累工作经验、学习或完成职业规划。 因此，为了实现职业生涯目标，多数运动员需要暂时放下学业或替代职业。

为意外情况做好准备

职业转型，可以

研究表明，与那些无退役规划或被迫退役的运动员相比，自行提前规划退

运动员体验：尤里·迈耶（Yuri Maier）

阿根廷摔跤选手尤里·迈耶毕生专注于奥运会赛场，但伤病导致他提前结束了自己的体育生涯。 他通过Athlete365 Career+寻求培训和支持，因此能够成功完成转型，在国际摔跤联合会（UWW）谋得新职位，目前致力于帮助面向其他运动员举办Athlete365 Career+ Outreach研讨班。

他表示："退役是我在艰难之下做出的决定。 参加奥运会摔跤赛事，登上最高级别的摔跤赛场，这是我的毕生梦想。 但我经历了多次严重伤病，身体已经透支。 我觉得是时候改变一下人生，让自己的身体免受这样的折磨了。

最后一次摔跤比赛后，我担任了国际摔跤联合会的泛美地区发展官员。 我在阿根廷与奥运会运动员合作，然后与国际奥委会合作。 我参加了国际奥委会提供的培训，提升了自己的演示技巧，随后教授了自己的首堂Athlete365 Career+课程。我并不紧张，因为我感到自己谈论的话题轻松自然。"

我作为一名摔跤手摸爬滚打多年，现在却要为另外一项事业而奋斗，即协助指导其他运动员。

许多运动员面临同样的情况--你总在考虑下一场比赛，下一场锦标赛，以及健身房里的下一堂训练课。 你所能做的最远打算，往往也不过是几年之后，这也只是因为下届锦标赛将在那时举办，对你而言有着非凡的意义。 这也正是Athlete365 Career+存在的意义。 体育生涯总会落幕，为未来做好打算，总能让人受益匪浅。 我们要强调的是，既然你能在体育生涯中取得成功，相信你也能成为完成转型，胜任一份完全不同的工作。 这项计划非常重要，因为我就是职业生涯意外终结的典型案例。 这种经历固然令人悲伤，但你不能一直顾影自怜。你必须充分发挥优秀运动员的精神，去成就其他事业。

身份认同缺失

运动员身份认同感可能会对你的职业转型体验产生重大影响，并且当你从一名"运动员"转型为"其他角色"时导致出现潜在问题。

多项研究探讨了运动员身份认同对于职业转型的影响。 结果表明，运动员对其运动员身份的认同程度可能是他们退役后出现精神压力的一个风险因素， 运动员在退役时对其运动员身份的认同水平越高，所需要的情绪调节便越复杂。 他们还发现，与在其他领域存在身份认同的运动员相比，对运动员身份认同水平较高的运动员会发现更难适应退役后的生活，他们缺乏退役计划，还伴有更加频繁和严重的心理困难出现。 由此可见，你的身份认同感会严重影响到你退役转型后生活的体验。

专家意见：成功转型三大要素

他表示："我目前从事这个领域的研究已逾20年，我掌握着一个由近1.8万名退役运动员的资料组成的数据库。 关于他们能否妥善完成转型，有三个关键要素似乎至关重要。

第一个要素是关于他们为何要完成转型，以及他们能在多大程度上掌控自己的转型。 有些运动员突然落选代表队，而有些人则制定了非常有效的转型计划，并能在转型期间掌控一切。 这项研究倾向于表明，如果你能自行决定，那么你的转型过程将会更加顺利。

第二个要素关于利用资源。 有多项研究对运动员转型前后所处的环境进行了对比，结果表明，拥有更多资源的运动员在应对转型时表现得更加从容--无论这种资源是财务支持、心理支持还是社会支持。

第三个要素侧重于身份认同。 我有时会认为，体育界人士会将自己的事业视为一种 浮士德交易 ，即为了实现目标不惜牺牲一切。

所以，如果有人对于自己的体育事业持有一种强烈的专属身份认同时，那么在这方面遇到的风险肯定会大很多。"

心理健康问题

表现一落千丈

或许你会认为，花时间规划职业转型可能会对你专注于训练或比赛的能力产生负面影响，但研究表明，情况可能并非如此。

这项研究分析了澳大利亚国家橄榄球联赛的632名球员在三个赛季中的表现（共超过2.8万场比赛），研究结果发现，退役前规划的参与度越高，赛场表现越好，职业生涯寿命越长。

曾有研究表明，许多运动员拒绝参与退役前计划，可能是由于担心参与该计划会导致在体育竞技表现中注意力不佳，但这项研究表明，运动员对退役前规划的重视程度越强，专注于体育竞技表现所面对的压力便越小。

开始

运动员体验：莫博拉吉·阿基德（Mobolaji Akiode）

莫博拉吉·阿基德 2004年雅典奥运会期间代表尼日利亚队出战。 打球期间，她还在美国纽约福特汉姆大学进修了会计学， 退役后在ESPN电视台谋得一职。 她意识到这并非自己心仪的职业道路，于是成立了"非洲希望女孩"（Hope 4 Girls Africa）--一个旨在为非洲年轻女孩提供体育训练营、教育研讨班和赋能计划的非盈利组织。

她表示："我不想等到自己篮球打不动了才开始考虑退役后的生活。 你永远不知道自己的职业生涯何时结束，所以我一直在准备'B计划'。

每次回到尼日利亚，我都意识到还有很多工作要做，有很多人需要帮助，要为他们提供很多机会。

我知道自己要回馈，却从来没有想过如何去做。 我当时在ESPN工作，同事们总是在讨论这样一个事实：体育绝不仅限于场上比赛。 我从中受到启发，我开始考虑利用体育作为平台，改变人们的生活。

我周末回家看望我的父母，我望着自己所有的篮球照片出神。 在一张学生证件照下，我注意到这么一段文字：无论何时，做正确的事情总没错'。 读到这段文字后，我恍然大悟。我正是从那时起着手构建'非洲希望女孩'。

体育运动让我一次又一次地体验失败和成功，从而获得信心。 这些都是你作为运动员在性格方面必修的课程。 如果不行，那就重新来过。 最差又能如何呢？

有了充分的准备和支持，运动员能够体验到积极健康的职业转型。 在这里，我们重点介绍几项研究，探讨如何为退役后的生活做好最充分的准备。

虽然在职业转型期间面临重重挑战，但如果有了充分的准备和支持，运动员更有可能应对这些挑战，体验更加顺利的转型之旅。

大力支持

尽管运动员发现寻求支持较为困难 ，但研究表明，在体育界之外构建一个影响深远的支持网络是大有裨益的。 一般来说，提到运动员成功适应退役后生活，家人、朋友和更广泛的社会都能发挥重要作用。研究表明，积极的关系可以极大地影响运动员的调整期和生活，甚至有助于完成新的职业生涯转型。

除了人际间的支持外，机构援助也很重要。 我们制定了五步职业规划战略（见下图）等框架，帮助你学习顺利完成转型所需要的技能和战略。而且，事实证明，旨在促进这一流程的定制计划（如免费提供给精英运动员、奥运选手和残奥选手的Athlete365 Career+和Athlete Career Portal）是宝贵的工具。

精英运动员可获得具体计划，这些计划根据你的情况提供不同方案：无论你是计划退役、已退役还是寻求在运动生涯期间发展第二职业，都可利用我们提供的大力支持，从而对于退役后的生活产生重要的影响。

五步职业规划战略

瑞典哈尔姆斯塔德大学娜塔莉亚·斯坦布洛娃（Natalia Stambulova）制定了本框架，力求协助运动员完成职业转型。 前四步涉及描述你过去的经历、当前状况以及对未来的看法。 最后一步强调将过去、现在和预期的未来融入职业生涯和生活战略中。

第1步：创建框架。 描绘你的人生时间线，划分为过去、现在和未来。
第2步：构建过去。 描述你一生中最重要的活动，无论是体育活动还是 非体育活动。
第3步：构建当下。 评价你当前的人生阶段，确认哪些方面最重要。
第4步：构建未来。 思考你在未来一年、三年和十年的生活中 期待发生的重要事情，确定未来得优先事项和明确目标。 技能，创建目标和战略，确认潜在障碍，然后规划如何
第5步：串联过去、当下与未来。 专注于你所学到的重要经验和培养的 平衡现在和未来的优先事项。

运动员体验：法比奥拉·莫利纳（Fabíola Molina）

巴西游泳选手法比奥拉·莫利纳参加了三届奥运会，然后于2013年退役。 从泳坛退役前，她借助一个强大的支持网络推出自己的泳装品牌，从而为她的职业生涯提供资金，并为退役后的生活做好准备。

她表示："我是在2003年首次考虑退役。那一年我开始创业，希望借此多一份游泳事业的收入。 我母亲为我提供了大力支持。 她负责我的日常业务，我负责我们推出的系列中的创意内容。因此，即使在旅途中，我也能自由创作。 如果让我独自面对这一切，那一定难上加难。 在接受高水平训练时，你需要找一个自己信任的人帮你打理业务。如果不是这样，我根本无法做到。

运动员与企业家拥有许多相似之处。 我们需要做好充分准备，然后努力争取，持之以恒。 我们要坚持在体育生涯中追求卓越的精神，每天付出100%的努力。 我们还要重视团队合作，只有这样才能打造一支强大团队，让每个人都能发挥重要作用，从而通往成功。

准备妥当

准备流程的第二阶段是退役流程本身。 有利于完成有效准备的若干因素包括：构建和利用职业人际网络、保持积极健康的生活方式、分享经验，探索和研究现有文献等信息。 这一阶段的主要支持服务将涉及个性化转型支持、退役路径、分享体验和实物支持。 在这个阶段，财务支持也至关重要，因为它有助于运动员免受资金困扰。 同样，这一阶段还需要若干资源，如建立人际网络、寻找工作以及推进联系雇主

最后一步是退役后阶段，在这个阶段，能力的可迁移性成为一种有利的因素。 生活总要继续，运动员应继续为退役后的生活做好准备。 他们必须继续建立人际网络，完成规划，遵守新的生活方式。 有了在线平台和亲朋好友的支持，退役后阶段会相当顺利，有助于他们融入社会。
开始

试用上述五步职业规划战略工具

如果你是一位奥运选手，请向世界奥林匹克选手协会申请OLY勋衔， 以提升你的个人品牌

访问Athlete Career Portal的"准备"部分，探索人际网络最佳实践

专家意见："为未来职业生涯做准备如同备战奥运会"

他表示："在考虑职业转型时，我们需要规划很多事情。 显然，有人是由于受伤等因素被迫退出体育生涯，而其他人则能够自行选择何时结束体育生涯。 这就是为什么制定计划和做好准备至关重要。

那样的话，你应该考虑哪些方面？ 为未来职业生涯做准备如同备战奥运会。 你需要全盘考虑。 例如：从运动层面来看，停止训练时应多花心思，因为人体就像一个柴油机。 身体不会立即停止运作。 身体会一直运行下去。

另外，你是否感到自己实现了想要实现或希望实现的目标？ 我认为这一点值得一谈。 退出体育生涯并非易事。 即便最终夺得了一枚甚至两枚奖牌，你也依然会想：'嗯，谁也不知道下届奥运会能否再度夺牌。'

我们从运动层面转向心理社会层面，运动员和身边人的关系需要处理好。 无论是与伴侣还是年幼的家庭成员平衡关系，即便你单身，社交网络也不容回避。 决定是否终结职业生涯的因素可能来自这种社交或心理网络。

只要前进一步，职业规划就能更上一层楼。 我认为，职业规划是多数精英体育国家切实关注的重点，他们旨在帮助运动员为随后的职业生涯做好准备，为他们提供无限可能，让他们在学术和学习规划等方面做好准备。 我认为，其中需要重点强调的是，必须认识到精英体育生涯其实也是一种全职职业，而不是游离于社会生活或社会之外。 因此，我们要摈弃'退役'这个概念，同时专注于完成两个职业间的转型。 因此，准备妥当，意义非凡。

财务和法律方面的问题也需要考虑。你不能到了职业生涯结束时才决定该做什么，那样的话未免太迟了。"

体育组织实用建议

指导运动员，让他们意识到 退役转型 期间可能出现的诸多潜在挑战

鼓励制定战略，让运动员能够 在高水准体系之外对之前的伤病和生活方式进行自我管理

力求提升高水准团队对于这些问题的理解，并 鼓励进行公开讨论，从而让运动员受益

提高各管理机构对于这个问题的认识，以帮助提升 他们为运动员提供的 退役后支持

鼓励运动员在职业生涯期间有效利用自己的休息时间，实现 体育运动之外更广泛的社会身份认同的优化发展，从而在 退役之前、期间和之后构建更强大的社交支持网络

鼓励运动员 在其运动职业生涯期间 在各体育组织内部培养生活和生活方式管理技能

想方设法让已经和/或即将退役的运动员留在体育系统中。 教练 和临时性指导计划是体育组织可以资助的可行性方案

完成竞技体育退役后转型，开启新的职业生涯，这并非总是令人望而却步。 在这里，我们重点介绍运动员能够带给职场哪些独特技能，以及研究如何表明成功认识和利用这些技能是顺利完成职业转型的关键。

对许多精英运动员而言，你从事的运动项目或许是自己唯一熟悉的职业。 将毕生精力投入训练和比赛后，在新的职业生涯中迈出第一步，也许会充满艰辛。

你的传统职场经验往往很少甚至没有，你可能发现自己很难准确定位到自己心仪的职业道路。 然而，你在体育职业生涯中获得的许多技能，可以在其他职业中发生正迁移。事实证明，这些技能在专业能力方面颇有价值。凭借这些技能，你能够成为一名备受青睐的员工。

可迁移技能

研究表明，精英运动员具备的许多技能和特质可在职场中产生正迁移。 譬如，全球招聘公司The Adecco Group最近发布了一份报告，这份报告强调了运动员具备的八个常见关键特质，这些特质对于潜在雇主而言价值非凡。 研究表明，运动员常常具备一下特质：

分析师--因为你有能力分析和评判自己的竞技表现。
性格坚韧--因为你在克服障碍、失败和挫折方面拥有丰富的经验。
激情大使--因为你在体育运动中展现出无限动力和热情。
积极革新者--因为你愿意在训练中尝试新技术和方法。
创意思考者--因为你有能力运用横向思维来寻找新的改进方法。
有说服力的沟通者--因为你有经验构建人际网络来支持自己的职业生涯。
商业精神--因为你学会了如何在比赛中为自己提供支持。
天生的宣传者 --因为你努力吸引赞助和构建个人品牌。

这份报告 建议精英运动员 运用这些技能来帮助弥补全球人才短缺，而该因素预计到2030年将导致全球公司收入损失近8.5万亿美元，77%的首席执行官认为缺乏关键技能是阻碍业务增长的最大威胁。

充分利用这些重要的可迁移技能，成为面向精英运动员的职业生涯相关计划的核心。 譬如，来自Athlete365的英特尔辅导计划的轶事反馈表明，精英运动员的技能在企业和组织环境中有着独特价值。这个计划将运动员与经验丰富的英特尔员工导师配对。 借助这类计划所提供的机会，你可以将自己置于一个优势地位，以实现成功的职业生涯转型，加快弥补企业界人才不足的现状。

运动员体验：阿比纳夫·宾德拉（Abhinav Bindra）

国际奥委会运动员委员会成员兼气步枪运动员阿比纳夫·宾德拉是印度史上首位单人项目奥运冠军。 他获得了美国科罗拉多大学颁发的工商管理学位，目前正致力于提升体育和医疗保健行业的科技含量。

他表示："我认为，关键是要做好准备，专心致志，在一个新领域寻找热情。 作为一名奥运会选手，你必须对自己的事业充满热情。 你对自己的事业热爱至深，有时甚至难以在其他方面投入同样的热情。 你可能不会，但你必须寻找一些在内心深处让你感兴趣和热爱的东西，这一点非常重要。 若能得偿所愿，那万事大吉。

教育至关重要。 运动员无论从事什么，都能取得巨大成功。然而每当步入全新生命阶段，一切又将从零开始。 然后你需要掌握相关技能，以便能够在人生的阶梯中不断攀登。 世上没有免费的午餐。

我认为耐心、毅力和努力是督促你进步的关键。 我从事的运动项目需要极大的耐心，经商也需要极大的耐心和毅力，因为成功并不会马上到来。 成功总要经历一定的过程，你必须掌握与他人合作的技能，正如你在体育运动中所需要的那样。

即便是在单人运动项目中，我也需要周围人的帮助。 总有一个团队围绕着我，为我提供帮助。 你必须具备跟他人合作的能力。 这些技能可以从体育生涯中迁移过来，在体育职业生涯以外的生活中也能发挥重要作用。"

运动员就业能力

如此一来，为了充分理解退役后如何成为一名更优秀的员工，你必须整体研究运动员的特点。 首先，多数运动队由多个团队构成，这些团队需要共同协作来实现特定目标。 在企业内部，团队合作是一项关键战略，能够赋予企业战略优势。 通过团队合作，我们可以分享资源，有效分配工作，提升效率，从而节约时间。 任何企业，引入一名退役运动员，即表示获得了更有效运作所需要的战略优势。

这项研究还对比了已完成运动生涯转型至公司工作的精英运动员与相应的非运动员公司员工。 研究结果显示，精英运动员具备许多优势，例如：能够更加开放地接受企业变革，从而对于自己有能力在职场担任更广泛职位更有信心，因此大大提升了自己的就业潜力。

此外，运动员报告称，他们更有能力去发现机会、采取行动以及坚持不懈直至推动有意义的变革。 运动员还报告称，他们更有能力主动影响周围环境以及在工作需求和工作资源方面做出改变。

最后，运动员的主管报告称，运动员在职位中的工作表现优于相应的对照参与者。

总体而言，研究结果表明，从事精英体育运动，有利于提升雇主对潜在求职者的评价，而且完成职场转型的精英运动员拥有基本的就业技能，同时雇主应将完成转型的精英运动员视为一种宝贵的资源，并对他们的独特技能加以利用。
开始

试用Athlete Career Portal上的定制运动员属性工具，深入了解 你的技能

参加 Athlete Career Portal上的LinkedIn Learning和General Assembly课程或研讨班，实现职业节能发展。

使用Portal提供的OLY简历模板工具，为申请初级工作和中级工作做好准备

专家意见：运动员能为雇主带来什么

他表示："作为一名运动员，你能够保持自律。 你懂得如何在压力下工作。 你必须学习和调整，以适应比赛、场地以及潜在的新方法和新技术。

如果看看这三个特质，如果你在高科技行业的时间跟我一样长，你肯定希望招募到那些能够自律、抗压，并懂得如何学习的人。

我不希望让人们认为只有成为'技术迷'才是进入英特尔的唯一途径。 公司需要从人力资源和市场营销到商业开发、可持续发展和供应链专业知识等不同领域的各种技能。 但更重要的是，我们需要有才干的人。

我们聘请了美国两届奥运会十项全能冠军阿什顿·伊顿（Ashton Eaton），他的加入给我们带来了巨大活力，令我们全体员工倍感振奋。 我认为，这就是我们在运动员身上所看到的：你会将参加比赛时的所有精力投入到这个职位中，而你带来的所有这些活力将有助于许多有幸成为你雇主的公司加快转型。

在某种程度上，我们是不同类型的运动员。 在英特尔这样的公司工作会让你处于技术的源头和中心，因此你必须应对日常挑战。 你几乎每天都要证明自己。 因此，如果你认为自己没有机会在退役后获得竞争优势，那你就错了。

你将在企业界的不同层次上竞争，但身心健康是你真正想要坚持下去的东西，因为职业生涯就像一场马拉松。 你将在工作岗位上工作很长一段时间，你要确保自己没有忘记是什么让你成为了一个高效率的人。 这将伴随你的整个职业生涯。"

接下来会发生什么？

多年来，关于运动员职业生涯转型的叙述，我们听到的往往多为负面--"奥运会忧郁"、退役后"真空"。随着你临近职业生涯末期，这种感受尤为强烈。

然而，此处所述研究以及我们从运动员和专家那里听到的陈述，应该能够让你在展望未来人生阶段时备受鼓舞和充满热情。

作为一名精英运动员，你经历了高水准训练，在压力下比赛，作为团队一员为实现共同目标而奋斗，为吸引赞助而自我宣传，这一切在各行各业的公司看来都极具吸引力。 这些技能都是可迁移的，可以弥补传统职场环境经验缺乏带来的不足。

用你感兴趣的相关领域的新技能来充实这些属性，是非常关键的。而如今，你可以使用的工具和资源比以往任何时候都多，能够帮你实现这一目标。 无论你依然驰骋赛场并开始为未来做打算，还是近期刚刚退役，Athlete365都会在每个阶段为你提供支持，从而弥合赛场和就业市场之间的空隙。

Athlete Career Portal 由Athlete365 Career+联合The Adecco Group推出，包含一系列互动工具，旨在为你提供有关个人品牌、人际网络、面试、求职和申请的信息。 马上注册获得12个月免费访问权限，探索一系列在线课程和评估工具，使用简历模板工具上传简历。 我们不仅帮助你联系人才招聘团队，还将推荐一系列实习和工作机会。

你的下一段旅程从这里开始。 我们满心期待，想必你也如此。

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退役后生活：为何运动员需要做好准备 - Athlete365

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职业转型是每位运动员都不可回避的--没有人的职业生涯是永无止境的。几乎所有运动员都需要在退役后寻找另外一份工作。 精英运动员拥有独特的背景和经验，教育和职业轨迹跟非运动员大相径庭，然而，你能够在参加代表自己运动项目最高水平的比赛时展示出必要的条件，也一定能具备造福任何职场的宝贵技能和经验。 然而，许多人仍在为职业转型而苦恼。 你如何利用从体育运动中获得的技能，帮助实现新职业顺利转型？ 你为何在比赛期间便应为职业转型做准备？ 你能从已经完成职业转型的其他运动员身上学到什么？ 这些只是我们在这份白皮书中准备回答的诸多问题中的几个，这份白皮书将探讨为退役后的生活做好准备的重要性。 借助循证研究和专家见解，我们将尝试详细说明你为何要为职业转型做好准备，以及如何做好准备，我们来自其他运动员的案例研究也将提供相关的故事和实用建议。 提供见解的专家包括： David Lavallee Professor of Duty of Care in Sport in the School of Applied Sciences at Abertay University, Dundee Paul Wylleman Professor of Sport Psychology at Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and Performance Manager in Performance Behaviour for the Netherlands Olympic Team Mayi

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Athletes struggle to find purpose, identity after sports

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Athletes struggle to find purpose, identity after sports

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Sports play an important role in the education system. Every year, millions of students participate in school sports as student-athletes, and a portion of these students excel and go on to pursue athletic careers. But only a handful of people end up becoming professional athletes. "Fewer than 2% of the nation's 480,000 student-athletes go on to play professional sports, and their value as a brand usually peaks during their college career." (Dallas) How student-athletes balance academics and athletics, and what that balance might be What negative impact will it have on them after graduation? The above evidence shows that although large numbers of students participate in sports, only a lucky few are able to ultimately realize their dreams of professional sports. This fact highlights the fierce competition in professional sports and the short career of professional athletes. This negative impact reminds students to pay attention to the balance between education and career development while pursuing their sports dreams, which has a profound impact on their future career prospects and quality of life.

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”Student Interview | As a physical education student, how do I balance physical training and study?“

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”Student Interview | As a physical education student, how do I balance physical training and study?“

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This is a student interview. The interviewee is Quentin Bezza, a business school student who started cycling when he was 15 years old. He is a candidate for the club's professional rider position and regularly competes with teams and riders in cycling events. When a reporter asked him how he balances physical training and academic. His answer was: "In fact, while following the traditional training plan, I can postpone certain courses and exams due to training and especially participating in competitions." (Quentin Bezza) It can be seen from his answer that the school Sports students are treated leniently, but the academic work required of Quentin Bezza is not less. He still needs to spend time completing the same homework as students who only focus on business majors. This requires very tight organized planning to avoid conflicts between competitions and exams. "I study in whatever free time I have, such as when I'm on the road. Sometimes it's difficult because I ride an average of 15 to 25 hours a week and spend a lot of time on the road going to classes." (Quentin Bezza) ) What Quentin Bezza needs to do is to use all his free time, which means that his time is almost all allocated to academics and athletics. If he suddenly needs to participate in one more competition, then he needs to be more organized or compress his time. He barely had time to do anything else.

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Quentin Bezza 是斯特拉斯堡高等商学院大学校项目的学生，学习运营和策略营销专业。他从小就热爱运动，从15岁起他就投身于自行车运动。让我们来与Quentin见面，看看他是如何完美地分配时间，平衡学生和运动员两个身份的。

Q:先和我们谈谈你对自行车运动的热爱吧？

我从15岁起就练习公路自行车运动。自从我在电视上看到Thomas Voeckler（阿尔萨斯人）身着黄衫参加环法自行车赛的转播就喜欢上了这项运动。我认定这就是我想从事的体育运动。我和我的爸爸一起锻炼，他曾经在年轻时也参加过自行车的竞赛。当我开始骑车，我就进入了科尔马的一所高中的体育班。

Q:你的比赛排名如何？

在公路自行车赛中分级比较简单，每个自行车手根据他们前一年的得分获得一个级别。在业余类别中，最高级别是 "第一类"，然后是第二类、第三类等。此外，还有三个全国分级来区分最好的业余俱乐部（N1、N2和N3）。我属于第一类，在一个N1俱乐部，专业骑手的候选人。这些N1级俱乐部，有时也有N2级选手参加一些专业比赛，这取决于比赛组织者的选择。我们经常要与环法自行车赛中的车队和车手一起比赛。

Q:你是如何结合运动和学习的？

从我进入大学开始，我就享受高水平运动员的身份，这让我可以更方便地结合体育和学习两项任务。事实上，在遵循传统的培养计划的同时，我可以因训练、特别是参加比赛，而延迟某些课程和考试。但这不能解决所有问题，最关键的还是有好的组织性和计划性，来避免竞赛和考试的冲突。我会利用一切空闲的时间比如参赛路上的时间来学习。有时候这很困难，因为我每周平均要骑车15到25小时，还要花很长时间在路上去上课。但这是我人生的必经阶段，而我遵循这个节奏已经四年多了，已经适应了。在学习和运动之间的转换，让我可以比只专心骑车的人适当地从一昧的竞技思维中抽身出来，避免一成绩不如意就自我怀疑。我的教练员也会配合我，在考试周的时候给我更多的休息。

Q:在疫情封锁期间，你是如何进行体育锻炼的呢 ？

在禁闭期间，我的训练或多或少地被停止了，因为每年骑手要进行一次休息。这包括对一年来的努力进行身体和精神上的再生。这种休息时间持续三到四周，一般不进行锻炼，所以最近的一次我是在禁闭期间进行的。之后，我们将再次开始好几个月的体育活动（如跑步、负重训练、山地自行车、游泳......）。

Q:对想从事体育运动的学生有什么建议吗？

首先，做一项能给你带来快乐的体育活动，而不是仅仅为了减肥，比如说跑步。在我看来，通过做一项有乐趣的运动，你才能保持运动的规律性。也有必要给自己制定几个可实现的中期目标（例如下周日我可以跑10公里）和一个长期目标，但一定要有一个精确的日期，让你取得进展。如果你有朋友做同样的活动，和他们一起做就更好了!

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学生采访 | 作为体育生，我是如何平衡体育训练与学习的

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Quentin Bezza 是斯特拉斯堡高等商学院大学校项目的学生，学习运营和策略营销专业。他从小就热爱运动，从15岁起他就投身于自行车运动。让我们来与Quentin见面，看看他是如何完美地分配时间，平衡学生和运动员两个...

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Sources:

Penn Schoen Berland, "Student - Athlete Time Demands," April. 2015, https://sports.cbsimg.net/images/Pac-12-Student-Athlete-Time-Demands-Obtained-by-CBS-Sports.pdf

Daniel Apaak1* Emmanuel Osei Sarpong2, “Internal Challenges Affecting Academic Performance of Student-Athletes in Ghanaian Public Universities“, Journal of Education and Practice, No.14, 2015, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080130.pdf

Estelle Liu, "Student Interview | As a physical education student, how do I balance physical training and study?"zhihu, June 2021, https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/378563047

Dallas Morning News Editorial, "College athletes are getting a payday, but the system is still ripe for exploitation", Dallas Morning News, Sep 29, 2023, https://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/editorials/2023/09/29/college-athletes-are-getting-a-payday-but-the-system-is-still-ripe-for-exploitation/#

Julia Forster, “Student-Athletes & Academic Success: A comparison of the Graduation Rates, GPA and After College Success of Student- Athletes and Regular Students”, University at Albany, State University of New York, May 2012, https://scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=honorscollege_business

Marcel Lopes Dos Santos, Melissa Uftring, Cody A. Stahl, Robert G. Lockie, Brent Alvar, J. Bryan Mann, and J. Jay Dawes, "Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies", PubMed Central, Feb 2020, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7739829/#B51

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In the challenging balancing act between academics and athletics, student-athletes face multiple negative impacts, including limiting their social interactions, the potential for their mental health to deteriorate due to stress and stress, and and potential post-graduation issues they may encounter. These negative issues highlight the complexity of the challenges student-athletes face in complex academic and athletic arenas and lead to detrimental effects in all aspects of their lives.

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Stress caused by physical and mental fatigue

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Stress caused by physical and mental fatigue

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The pressure of athletic competition faced by student-athletes adversely affects their academic abilities and time management. This performance highlights critical aspects such as the impairments of emotional and physical stress, providing insight into the challenges student-athletes face as they strive to pursue athletic success while maintaining academic balance. This has also led to discussions on how to support these athletes to better deal with these challenges and improve their academic performance. In a report that combined many sources: "Simiyu (2012) contends that the emotional and physical strain of sports competitions make studying difficult for student-athletes. Godfrey (2010) argues that time constraints places a heavy demand on the physical and emotional aspects of the student athlete and with little down time for psychological and physical recovery, an athlete's sport could wreak havoc on his/her ability to concentrate on studies." (Journal of Education and Practice, 2015) . Athletes often suffer during competition High levels of emotional and physical stress. The intense atmosphere of competition, competitor pressure, and performance expectations can all cause emotional stress and physical strain. This kind of pressure can have a huge negative impact on an athlete's mental state. Due to intensive training and competition schedules, athletes often have little time for mental and physical recovery. This may cause them to feel tired, anxious or distracted while studying, affecting their academic performance. And these reasons are likely to cause athletes to find it difficult to focus on their studies, and their learning abilities may be seriously impaired. This can lead to lower academic performance and increased academic challenges, thereby increasing psychological stress.

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Fundamentally, college athletes have two primary roles that they must balance as part of their commitment to college: as a college student and as an athlete. Academic performance is a significant source of stress for most college students: “Interestingly, it was not academic rigor that was viewed by the athletes as the largest source of direct stress; rather, the athletes surveyed reported time management as being their biggest challenge related to academic performance (Davis et al., 2019). “(Marcel et al 2020) Athletes often need to divide their time between training, competition, travel, and other sporting activities. These time commitments may leave them feeling time-poor and struggling to concentrate on their academic work. They may need to find time to study within their busy schedules, which can lead to insufficient or irregular study time. They may miss assignment deadlines, test preparation time, or opportunities to attend classes, which may result in academic performance that is not as expected. “During periods of the academic year in which levels of perceived academic stress were at their highest, students had trouble managing sport practices and studying. These stressors were also associated with a decrease in energy levels and overall sleep quality. These factors may significantly increase the collegiate athlete's susceptibility to illness and injury (Hamlin et al., 2019). ” (Marcel et al 2020) When student-athletes experience academic and athletic stress, they experience decreased energy levels, meaning they feel tired and fatigue. This can also lead to a decrease in overall sleep quality, as they may have difficulty falling asleep or maintaining good sleep habits. The most important thing is that physical fatigue and lack of sleep can weaken the function of the immune system, which may make athletes more susceptible to disease and may also lead to the occurrence of sports injuries.

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Abstract

College students are required to manage a variety of stressors related to academic, social, and financial commitments. In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their sporting abilities. The strength and conditioning professional sees the athlete on nearly a daily basis and is able to recognize the changes in performance and behavior an athlete may exhibit as a result of these stressors. As such, the strength and conditioning professional may serve an integral role in the monitoring of these stressors and may be able to alter training programs to improve both performance and wellness. The purpose of this paper is to discuss stressors experienced by collegiate athletes, developing an early detection system through monitoring techniques that identify the detrimental effects of stress, and discuss appropriate stress management strategies for this population.

Keywords: stress, load management, academic stress, stress management, injury

Introduction

The college years are a period of time when young adults experience a significant amount of change and a variety of novel challenges. Academic performance, social demands, adjusting to life away from home, and financial challenges are just a few of the burdens college students must confront (Humphrey et al., 2000; Paule and Gilson, 2010; Aquilina, 2013). In addition to these stressors, collegiate athletes are required to spend a substantial amount of time participating in activities related to their sport, such as attending practices and training sessions, team meetings, travel, and competitions (Humphrey et al., 2000; López de Subijana et al., 2015; Davis et al., 2019; Hyatt and Kavazis, 2019). These commitments, in addition to the normal stress associated with college life, may increase a collegiate-athlete's risk of experiencing both physical and mental issues (Li et al., 2017; Moreland et al., 2018) that may affect their overall health and wellness. For these reasons, it is essential that coaches understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes face in order to help them manage the potentially deleterious effects stress may have on athletic and academic performance.

Strength and conditioning coaches are allied health care professionals whose primary job is to enhance fitness of individuals for the purpose of improving athletic performance (Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). As such, many universities and colleges hire strength and conditioning coaches as part of their athletic staff to help athletes maximize their physical potential (Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). Strength and conditioning coaches strive to increase athletic performance by the systematic application of physical stress to the body via resistance training, and other forms of exercise, to yield a positive adaptation response (Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). For this reason, they need to understand and to learn how to manage athletes' stress. Additionally, based on the cumulative nature of stress, it is important that both mental and emotional stressors are also considered in programming. It is imperative that strength and conditioning coaches are aware of the multitude of stressors collegiate athletes encounter, in order to incorporate illness and injury risk management education into their training programs (Radcliffe et al., 2015; Ivarsson et al., 2017).

Based on the large number of contact hours strength and conditioning coaches spend with their athletes, they are in an optimal position to assist athletes with developing effective coping strategies to manage stress. By doing so, strength and conditioning coaches may be able to help reach the overarching goal of improving the health, wellness, fitness, and performance of the athletes they coach. The purpose of this review article is to provide the strength and conditioning professional with a foundational understanding of the types of stressors collegiate athletes may experience, and how these stressors may impact mental health and athletic performance. Suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce potential physiological and psychological impacts of stress will also be provided.

Stress and the Stress Response

In its most simplistic definition, stress can be described as a state of physical and psychological activation in response to external demands that exceed one's ability to cope and requires a person to adapt or change behavior. As such, both cognitive or environmental events that trigger stress are called stressors (Statler and DuBois, 2016). Stressors can be acute or chronic based on the duration of activation. Acute stressors may be defined as a stressful situation that occurs suddenly and results in physiological arousal (e.g., increase in hormonal levels, blood flow, cardiac output, blood sugar levels, pupil and airway dilation, etc.) (Selye, 1976). Once the situation is normalized, a cascade of hormonal reactions occurs to help the body return to a resting state (i.e., homeostasis). However, when acute stressors become chronic in nature, they may increase an individual's risk of developing anxiety, depression, or metabolic disorders (Selye, 1976). Moreover, the literature has shown that cumulative stress is correlated with an increased susceptibility to illness and injury (Szivak and Kraemer, 2015; Mann et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019). The impact of stress is individualistic and subjective by nature (Williams and Andersen, 1998; Ivarsson et al., 2017). Additionally, the manner in which athletes respond to a situational or environmental stressor is often determined by their individual perception of the event (Gould and Udry, 1994; Williams and Andersen, 1998; Ivarsson et al., 2017). In this regard, the athlete's perception can either be positive (eustress) or negative (distress). Even though they both cause physiological arousal, eustress also generates positive mental energy whereas distress generates anxiety (Statler and DuBois, 2016). Therefore, it is essential that an athlete has the tools and ability to cope with these stressors in order to have the capacity to manage both acute and chronic stress. As such, it is important to understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes are confronted with and how these stressors impact an athlete's performance, both athletically and academically.

Methods

Literature Search/Data Collection

The articles included in this review were identified via online databases PubMed, MEDLINE, and ISI Web of Knowledge from October 15th 2019 through January 15th 2020. The search strategy combined the keywords "academic stress," "athletic stress," "stress," "stressor," "college athletes," "student athletes," "collegiate athletes," "injury," "training," "monitoring." Duplicated articles were then removed. After reading the titles and abstracts, all articles that met the inclusion criteria were considered eligible for inclusion in the review. Subsequently, all eligible articles were read in their entirety and were either included or removed from the present review.

Inclusion Criteria

The studies included met all the following criteria: (i) published in English-language journals; (ii) targeted college athletes; (iii) publication was either an original research paper or a literature review; (iv) allowed the extraction of data for analysis.

Data Analysis

Relevant data regarding participant characteristics (i.e., gender, academic status, sports) and study characteristics were extracted. Articles were analyzed and divided into two separate sections based on their specific topics: Academic Stress and Athletic Stress. Then, strategies for monitoring and workload management are discussed in the final section.

Academic Stress

Fundamentally, collegiate athletes have two major roles they must balance as part of their commitment to a university: being a college student and an athlete. Academic performance is a significant source of stress for most college students (Aquilina, 2013; López de Subijana et al., 2015; de Brandt et al., 2018; Davis et al., 2019). This stress may be further compounded among collegiate athletes based on their need to be successful in the classroom, while simultaneously excelling in their respective sport (Aquilina, 2013; López de Subijana et al., 2015; Huml et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019). Davis et al. ( 2019) conducted surveys on 173 elite junior alpine skiers and reported significant moderate to strong correlations between perceived stress and several variables including depressed mood ( r = 0.591), sleep disturbance ( r = 0.459), fatigue ( r = 0.457), performance demands ( r = 0.523), and goals and development ( r = 0.544). Academic requirements were the highest scoring source of stress of all variables and was most strongly correlated with perceived stress ( r = 0.467). Interestingly, it was not academic rigor that was viewed by the athletes as the largest source of direct stress; rather, the athletes surveyed reported time management as being their biggest challenge related to academic performance (Davis et al., 2019). This further corroborates the findings of Hamlin et al. ( 2019). The investigators reported that during periods of the academic year in which levels of perceived academic stress were at their highest, students had trouble managing sport practices and studying. These stressors were also associated with a decrease in energy levels and overall sleep quality. These factors may significantly increase the collegiate athlete's susceptibility to illness and injury (Hamlin et al., 2019). For this reason, coaches should be aware of and sensitive to the stressors athletes experience as part of the cyclical nature of the academic year and attempt to help athletes find solutions to balancing athletic and academic demands.

According to Aquilina ( 2013), collegiate athletes tend to be more committed to sports development and may view their academic career as a contingency plan to their athletic career, rather than a source of personal development. As a result, collegiate athletes often, but certainly not always, prioritize athletic participation over their academic responsibilities (Miller and Kerr, 2002; Cosh and Tully, 2014, 2015). Nonetheless, scholarships are usually predicated on both athletic and academic performance. For instance, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) requires collegiate athletes to achieve and maintain a certain grade point average (GPA). Furthermore, they are also often required to also uphold a certain GPA to maintain an athletic scholarship. The pressure to maintain both high levels of academic and athletic performance may increase the likelihood of triggering mental health issues (i.e., anxiety and depression) (Li et al., 2017; Moreland et al., 2018).

Mental health issues are a significant concern among college students. There has been an increased emphasis placed on the mental health of collegiate athletes in recent years (Petrie et al., 2014; Li et al., 2017, 2019; Reardon et al., 2019). Based on the 2019 National College Health Assessment survey from the American College Health Association (ACHA) consisting of 67,972 participants, 27.8% of college students reported anxiety, and 20.2% reported experiencing depression which negatively affected their academic performance (American College Health Association American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II, 2019). Approximately 65.7% (50.7% males and 71.8% females) reported feeling overwhelming anxiety in the past 12 months, and 45.1% (37.1% males and 47.6% females) reported feeling so depressed that it was difficult for them to function. However, only 24.3% (13% males and 28.4% females) reported being diagnosed and treated by a professional in the past 12 months. Collegiate athletes are not immune to these types of issues. According to information presented by the NCAA, many certified athletic trainers anecdotally state that anxiety is an issue affecting the collegiate-athlete population (NCAA, 2014). However, despite the fact that collegiate athletes are exposed to numerous stressors, they are less likely to seek help at a university counseling center than non-athletes (NCAA, 2014), which could be related to stigmas that surround mental health services (NCAA, 2014; Kaier et al., 2015; Egan, 2019). This not only has significant implications related to their psychological well-being, but also their physiological health, and consequently their performance. For instance, in a study by Li et al. ( 2017) it was found that NCAA Division I athletes who reported preseason anxiety symptoms had a 2.3 times greater injury incidence rate compared to athletes who did not report. This same study discovered that male athletes who reported preseason anxiety and depression had a 2.1 times greater injury incidence, compared to male athletes who did not report symptoms of anxiety and depression. (Lavallée and Flint, 1996) also reported a correlation between anxiety and both injury frequency and severity among college football players ( r = 0.43 and r = 0.44, respectively). In their study, athletes reporting high tension/anxiety had a higher rate of injury. It has been suggested that the occurrence of stress and anxiety may cause physiological responses, such as an increase in muscle tension, physical fatigue, and a decrease in neurocognitive and perception processes that can lead to physical injuries (Ivarsson et al., 2017). For this reason, it is reasonable to consider that academic stressors may potentiate effects of stress and result in injury and illness in collegiate athletes.

Periods of more intense academic stress increase the susceptibility to illness or injury (Mann et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019). For example, Hamlin et al. ( 2019) investigated levels of perceived stress, training loads, injury, and illness incidence in 182 collegiate athletes for the period of one academic year. The highest levels of stress and incidence of illness arise during the examination weeks occurring within the competitive season. In addition, the authors also reported the odds ratio, which is the occurrence of the outcome of interest (i.e., injury), based off the given exposure to the variables of interest (i.e., perceived mood, sleep duration, increased academic stress, and energy levels). Based on a logistic regression, they found that each of the four variables (i.e., mood, energy, sleep duration, and academic stress) was related to the collegiate athletes' likelihood to incur injuries. In summary, decreased levels of perceived mood (odds ratio of 0.89, 0.85-0.0.94 CI) and sleep duration (odds ratio of 0.94, 0.91-0.97 CI), and increased academic stress (odds ratio of 0.91, 0.88-0.94 CI) and energy levels (odds ratio of 1.07, 1.01-1.14 CI), were able to predict injury in these athletes. This corroborates Mann et al. ( 2016) who found NCAA Division I football athletes at a Bowl Championship Subdivision university were more likely to become ill or injured during an academically stressful period (i.e., midterm exams or other common test weeks) than during a non-testing week (odds ratio of 1.78 for high academic stress). The athletes were also less likely to get injured during training camp (odds ratio of 3.65 for training camp). Freshmen collegiate athletes may be especially more susceptible to mental health issues than older students. Their transition includes not only the academic environment with its requirements and expectations, but also the adaptation to working with a new coach and teammates. In this regard, Yang et al. ( 2007) found an increase in the likelihood of depression that freshmen athletes experienced, as these freshmen were 3.27 times more likely to experience depression than their older teammates. While some stressors are recurrent and inherent in academic life (e.g., attending classes, homework, etc.), others are more situational (e.g., exams, midterms, projects) and may be anticipated by the strength and conditioning coach.

Athletic Stress

The domain of athletics can expose collegiate athletes to additional stressors that are specific to their cohort (e.g., sport-specific, team vs. individual sport) (Aquilina, 2013). Time spent training (e.g., physical conditioning and sports practice), competition schedules (e.g., travel time, missing class), dealing with injuries (e.g., physical therapy/rehabilitation, etc.), sport-specific social support (e.g., teammates, coaches) and playing status (e.g., starting, non-starter, being benched, etc.) are just a few of the additional challenges collegiate athletes must confront relative to their dual role of being a student and an athlete (Maloney and McCormick, 1993; Scott et al., 2008; Etzel, 2009; Fogaca, 2019). Collegiate athletes who view the demands of stressors from academics and sports as a positive challenge (i.e., an individual's self-confidence or belief in oneself to accomplish the task outweighs any anxiety or emotional worry that is felt) may potentially increase learning capacity and competency (NCAA, 2014). However, when these demands are perceived as exceeding the athlete's capacity, this stress can be detrimental to the student's mental and physical health as well as to sport performance (Ivarsson et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017).

As previously stated, time management has been shown to be a challenge to collegiate athletes. The NCAA rules state that collegiate athletes may only engage in required athletic activities for 4 h per day and 20 h/week during in-season and 8 h/week during off-season throughout the academic year. Although these rules have been clearly outlined, the most recent NCAA GOALS (2016) study reported alarming numbers regarding time commitment to athletic-related activities. Data from over 21,000 collegiate athletes from 600 schools across Divisions I, II, and III were included in this study. Although a breakdown of time commitments was not provided, collegiate athletes reported dedicating up to 34 h per week to athletics (e.g., practices, weight training, meetings with coaches, tactical training, competitions, etc.), in addition to spending between 38.5 and 40 h per week working on academic-related tasks. This report also showed a notable trend related to athletes spending an increase of ~2 more athletics-related hours per week compared to the 2010 GOALS study, along with a decrease of 2 h of personal time (from 19.5 h per week in 2010 to 17.1 in 2015). Furthermore, ~66% of Division I and II and 50% of Division III athletes reported spending as much or more time in their practices during the off-season as during the competitive season (DTHOMAS, 2013). These numbers show how important it is for collegiate athletes to develop time management skills to be successful in both academics and athletics. Overall, most collegiate athletes have expressed a need to find time to enjoy their college experience outside of athletic obligations (Paule and Gilson, 2010). Despite that, because of the increasing demand for excellence in academics and athletics, collegiate athletes' free time with family and friends is often scarce (Paule and Gilson, 2010). Consequently, trainers, coaches, and teammates will likely be the primary source of their weekly social interactivity.

Social interactions within their sport have also been found to relate to factors that may impact an athlete's perceived stress. Interactions with coaches and trainers can be effective or deleterious to an athlete. Effective coaching includes a coaching style that allows for a boost of the athlete's motivation, self-esteem, and efficacy in addition to mitigating the effects of anxiety. On the other hand, poor coaching (i.e., the opposite of effective coaching) can have detrimental psychological effects on an athlete (Gearity and Murray, 2011). In a closer examination of the concept of poor coaching practices, Gearity and Murray ( 2011) interviewed athletes about their experiences of receiving poor coaching. Following analysis of the interviews, the authors identified the main themes of the "coach being uncaring and unfair," "practicing poor teaching inhibiting athlete's mental skills," and "athlete coping." They stated that inhibition of an athlete's mental skills and coping are associated with the psychological well-being of an athlete. Also, poor coaching may result in mental skills inhibition, distraction, insecurity, and ultimately team division (Gearity and Murray, 2011). This combination of factors may compound the negative impacts of stress in athletes and might be especially important for in injured athletes.

Injured athletes have previously been reported to have elevated stress as a result of heightened worry about returning to pre-competition status (Crossman, 1997), isolation from teammates if the injury is over a long period of time (Podlog and Eklund, 2007) and/or reduced mood or depressive symptoms (Daly et al., 1995). In addition, athletes who experience prolonged negative thoughts may be more likely to have decreased rehabilitation attendance or adherence, worse functional outcomes from rehabilitation (e.g., on measures of proprioception, muscular endurance, and agility), and worse post-injury performance (Brewer, 2012).

Monitoring Considerations

In addition to poor coaching, insufficient workload management can hinder an athlete's ability to recover and adapt to training, leading to fatigue accumulation (Gabbett et al., 2017). Excessive fatigue can impair decision-making ability, coordination and neuromuscular control, and ultimately result in overtraining and injury (Soligard et al., 2016). For instance, central fatigue was found to be a direct contributor to anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players (Mclean and Samorezov, 2009). Introducing monitoring tools may serve as a means to reduce the detrimental effects of stress in collegiate athletes. Recent research on relationships between athlete workloads, injury, and performance has highlighted the benefits of athlete monitoring (Drew and Finch, 2016; Jaspers et al., 2017).

Athlete monitoring is often assessed with the measuring and management of workload associated with a combination of sport-related and non-sport-related stressors (Soligard et al., 2016). An effective workload management program should aim to detect excessive fatigue, identify its causes, and constantly adapt rest, recovery, training, and competition loads respectively (Soligard et al., 2016). The workload for each athlete is based off their current levels of physical and psychological fatigue, wellness, fitness, health, and recovery (Soligard et al., 2016). Accumulation of situational or physical stressors will likely result in day-to-day fluctuations in the ability to move external loads and strength train effectively (Fry and Kraemer, 1997). Periods of increased academic stress may cause increased levels of fatigue, which can be identified by using these monitoring tools, thereby assisting the coaches with modulating the workload during these specific periods. Coaches who plan to incorporate monitoring and management strategies must have a clear understanding of what they want to achieve from athlete monitoring (Gabbett et al., 2017; Thornton et al., 2019).

Monitoring External Loads

External load refers to the physical work (e.g., number of sprints, weight lifted, distance traveled, etc.) completed by the athlete during competition, training, and activities of daily living (Soligard et al., 2016). This type of load is independent of the athlete's individual characteristics (Wallace et al., 2009). Monitoring external loading can aid in the designing of training programs which mimic the external load demands of an athlete's sport, guide rehabilitation programs, and aid in the detection of spikes in external load that may increase the risk of injury (Clubb and McGuigan, 2018).

The means of quantifying external load can involve metrics as simple as pitch counts in baseball and softball (Fleisig and Andrews, 2012; Shanley et al., 2012) or quantifying lifting session training loads (e.g., sum value of weight lifted during an exercise x number of repetitions × the number of sets). Neuromuscular function testing is another more common way of analyzing external load. This is typically done using such measures such as the counter movement jump, squat jump, or drop jump. A force platform can be used to measure a myriad of outcomes (e.g., peak power, ground contact time, time to take-off, reactive strength index, and jump height), or simply measure jump height in a more traditional manner. Jumping protocols, such as the countermovement jump, have been adopted to examine the recovery of neuromuscular function after athletic competition with significant decreases for up to 72 h commonly reported (Andersson et al., 2008; Magalhães et al., 2010; Twist and Highton, 2013). (Gathercole et al., 2015) found reductions in 18 different neuromuscular variables in collegiate athletes following a fatiguing protocol. The variables of eccentric duration, concentric duration, total duration, time to peak force/power, and flight time:contraction time ratio, derived from a countermovement jump were deemed suitable for detecting neuromuscular fatigue with the rise in the use of technology for monitoring, certain sports have adopted specific software that can aid in the monitoring of stress. For example, power output can be measured using devices such as SRM™ or PowerTap™ in cycling (Jobson et al., 2009). This data can be analyzed to provide information such as average power or normalized power. The power output can then be converted into a Training Stress Score™ via commercially available software (Marino, 2011). More sophisticated measures of external load may involve the use of wearable technology devices such as Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, accelerometers, magnetometer, and gyroscope inertial sensors (Akenhead and Nassis, 2016). These devices can quantify external load in several ways, such as duration of movement, total distance covered, speed of movement, acceleration, and decelerations, as well as sport specific movement such as number and height of jumps, number of tackles, or breakaways, etc. (Akenhead and Nassis, 2016). The expansion of marketing of wearable devices has been substantial; however, there are questions of validity and reliability related to external load tracking limitations related to proprietary metrics, as well as the overall cost that should be considered when considering the adoption of such devices (Aughey et al., 2016; Torres-Ronda and Schelling, 2017).

Monitoring Internal Loads

While external load may provide information about an athlete's performance capacity and work completed, it does not provide clear evidence of how athletes are coping with and adapting to the external load (Halson, 2014). This type of information comes from the monitoring of internal loads. The term internal load refers to the individual physiological and psychological response to the external stress or load imposed (Wallace et al., 2009). Internal load is influenced by a number of factors such as daily life stressors, the environment around the athlete, and coping ability (Soligard et al., 2016). Indirect measures, such as the use of heart rate (HR) monitoring, and subjective measurements, such as perceived effort (i.e., ratings of perceived exertion), are examples of internal load monitoring. Using subjective measurement systems is a simple and practical method when dealing with large numbers of athletes (Saw et al., 2016; Nässi et al., 2017). Subjective reporting of training load (Rating of Perceived Exertion-RPE) (Coyne et al., 2018), Session Rating of Perceived Exertion-sRPE) (Coyne et al., 2018), perceived stress and recovery (Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes-RESTQ-S), and psychological mood states (Profile of Mood States-POMS) have all been found to be a reliable indicator of training load (Robson-Ansley et al., 2009; Saw et al., 2016) and only take a few moments to complete. In addition, subjective measures can be more responsive to tracking changes or training responses in athletes than objective measures (Saw et al., 2016).

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is a common intrinsic measure of how the body is responding to stress. With training, the reduction of resting HR is typically a clear indication of the heart becoming more efficient and not having to beat as frequently. Alternately, increases of resting HR over time with a continuation of training may be an indicator of too much stress. Improper nutrition, such as regular or ongoing suboptimal intakes of vitamins or minerals, may result in increased ventilation and/or increased heart rate (Lukaski, 2004). It has been suggested that the additional stress may lead to parasympathetic hyperactivity, leading to an increase in resting HR (Statler and DuBois, 2016). This largely stems from research examining the sensitivity of various HR derived metrics, such as resting HR, HR variability (HRV), and HR recovery (HRR) to fluctuations in training load (Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009). HRR in athlete monitoring is the rate of HR decline after the cessation of exercise. A common measure of HHR is the use of a 2 min step test followed by a 60 s HR measurement. The combination of the exercise (stress) on the cardiovascular system and then its subsequent return toward baseline has been used as an indicator of autonomic function and training status in athletes (Daanen et al., 2012). In collegiate athletes it was found that hydration status impacted HRR following moderate to hard straining sessions (Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018). Athletes who followed a prescription hydration plan performed better in the standing long jump, tracked objects faster, and showed faster HRR vs. athletes who followed their normal self-selected hydration plan (Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018). To date, HR monitoring and the various derivatives have mainly been successful in detecting changes in training load and performance in endurance athletes (Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009; Lamberts et al., 2009; Thorpe et al., 2017). Although heart rate monitoring can provide additional physiological insight for aerobic sessions or events, it thus far has not been found to be an accurate measurement for quantifying internal load during many explosive, short duration anaerobic activities (Bosquet et al., 2008).

A multitude of studies have reported the reliability and validity of using RPE and sRPE across a range of training modalities (Foster, 1998; Impellizzeri et al., 2004; Sweet et al., 2004). This measure can be used to create a number of metrics such as session load (sRPE × duration in minutes), daily load (sum of all session loads for that day), weekly training load (sum of all daily training loads for entire week), monotony (standard deviation of weekly training load), and strain (daily or weekly training load × monotony) (Foster, 1998). Qualitative questionnaires that monitor stress and fatigue have been well-established as tools to use with athletes (see Table 1 for examples of commonly used questionnaires in research). Using short daily wellness questionnaires may allow coaches to generate a wellness score which then can be adjusted based off of the stress the athlete may be feeling to meet the daily load target (Foster, 1998; Robson-Ansley et al., 2009). However, strength and conditioning coaches need to be mindful that these questionnaires may require sports psychologist or other licensed professional to examine and provide the results. An alternative that may be better suited for strength and conditioning professionals to use could be to incorporate some of the themes of those questionnaires into programing.

Table 1

Category of training load

Variable examined

Tests or Methods of collection

References

External load: defined as the work completed by the athlete, measured independently of their individual characteristics (Wallace et al., 2009)

Power output

Various devices

Pyne and Martin, 2011

Time-motion analysis

GPS tracking

Aughey, 2011; Halson, 2014

Movement pattern analysis via digital video

Taylor et al., 2012; Halson ( 2014)

Internal load: related to physiological and psychological stress imposed (Wallace et al., 2009)

Perception of effort

Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)

Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009

Training Impulse (TRIMP)

Morton et al., 1990; Pyne and Martin, 2011

Qualitative questionnaires*

Profile of Mood States (ROMS)

Morgan et al., 1987

A Multifaceted Approach

Dissociation between external and internal load units may be indicative of the state of fatigue of an athlete. Utilizing a monitoring system in which the athlete is able to make adjustments to their training loads in accordance with how they are feeling in that moment can be a useful tool for assisting the athlete in managing stress. Auto-regulation is a method of programming that allows for adjustments based on the results of one or more readiness tests. When implemented properly, auto regulation enables the coach or athlete to optimize training based on the athlete's given readiness for training on a particular day, thereby aiming to avoid potential overtraining (Kraemer and Fleck, 2018). Several studies have found that using movement velocity to designate resistance training intensities can result in significant improvements in maximal strength and athletic performance (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2014, 2017; Mann et al., 2015). Velocity based training allows the coach and athlete to view real time feedback for the given lifts, thereby allowing them to observe how the athlete is performing in that moment. If the athlete is failing to meet the prescribed velocity or the velocity drops greater than a predetermined amount between sets, then this should signal the coach to investigate. If there is a higher than normal amount of stress on that athlete for the day, that could be a potential reason. This type of combination style program of using a quantitative or objective measurement (s) and a subjective measure of wellness (qualitative questionnaire) has recently been reported to be an effective tool in monitoring individuals apart of a team (Starling et al., 2019). The subjective measure in this study was the readiness to train questionnaire (RTT-Q) and the objective measures were the HRR 6min test (specifically the HRR 60s = recorded as decrease in HR in the 60 s after termination of the test) to assess autonomic function and the standing long jump (SLJ) to measure neuromuscular function. The findings found that, based on the absolute typical error of measurement, the HRR 60s and SLJ could detect medium and large changes in fatigue and readiness. The test took roughly 8 min for the entire team, which included a group consisting of 24 college-age athletes. There are many other combinations of monitoring variables and strategies that coaches and athletes may utilize.

Data Analysis - How to Utilize the Measures

Regardless of what type of monitoring tool a coach or athlete may incorporate, it is essential to understand how to analyze this data. There are excellent resources available which discuss this topic in great detail (Gabbett et al., 2017; Clubb and McGuigan, 2018; Thornton et al., 2019). This section will highlight two main conclusions from these sources and briefly describe two of the main statistical practices and concepts discussed. The use of z-scores or modified z-scores has been proposed as a method of detecting meaningful change in athlete data (Clubb and McGuigan, 2018; Thornton et al., 2019). For different monitoring tools listed in Table 1 , the following formula would be an example of how to assess changes: (Athlete daily score-Baseline score)/Standard deviation of baseline. The baseline would likely be based off an appropriate period such as the scores across 2 weeks during the preseason.

In sports and sports science, the use of a magnitude-based inference (MBI) has been suggested as more appropriate and easier to understand when examining meaningful changes in athletic data, than null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) (Buchheit, 2014). Additional methods to assess meaningful change that are similar to MBI are using standard deviation, typical error, effect sizes, smallest worthwhile change (SWC), and coefficient of variation (Thornton et al., 2019). It should be noted that all of these methods have faced criticism from sources such as statisticians. It is important to understand that the testing methods, measurements, and analysis should be based on the resources and intended goals from use, which will differ from every group and individual. Once identified, it is up to the practitioner to keep this system the same, in order to collect data that can then be examined to understand meaningful information for each setting (Thornton et al., 2019).

Managing and Coping Strategies

Once the collegiate-athlete has been able to identify the need to balance their stress levels, the athlete may then need to seek out options for managing their stress. Coaches are be able to assist them by sharing information on health and wellness resources available for the students, both on and off campus. Another way a coach can potentially support their athletes is by establishing an open-door policy, wherein the team members feel comfortable approaching a member of the strength and conditioning staff in order to seek out resources for coping with challenges related to stress.

There are some basic skills that strength and conditioning coaches can teach (while staying within their scope of practice). Coaches can introduce their athletes to basic lifestyle concepts, such as practicing deep breathing techniques, positive self-talk, and developing healthy sleep habits (i.e., turning off their mobile devices 1 h before bed and aiming for 8 h of sleep each night, etc.). A survey of strength and conditioning practitioners by Radcliffe et al. ( 2015) found that strategies used by practitioners included a mix of cognitive and behavioral strategies, which was used as justification for recommending practitioners find opportunities to guide professional development toward awareness strategies. Practitioners reported using a wide variety of psychological skills and strategies, which following survey analysis, highlighted a significant emphasis on strategies that may influence athlete self-confidence and goal setting. Themes identified by Radcliffe et al. ( 2015) included confidence building, arousal management, and skill acquisition. Additionally, similar lower level themes that are connected (i.e., goal setting, increasing, or decreasing arousal intensities, self-talk, mental imagery) are all discussed in the 4th edition of the NSCA Essentials of Strength and Conditioning book (Haff et al., 2016). When the interventions aiming to improve mental health expand from basic concepts to mental training beyond a coach's scope, it would be pertinent for the coach to refer the collegiate-athlete to a sport psychology or other mental health consultant (Fogaca, 2019). Moreover, strength and conditioning coaches may find themselves in a position to become key players in facilitating management strategies for collegiate athletes, thereby guiding the athlete in their quest to learn how to best manage the mental and physical energy levels required in the quest for overall optimal performance (Statler and DuBois, 2016).

Conclusion and Future Directions

This review article has summarized some of the ways that strength and conditioning professionals may be able to gain a better understanding of the types of stressors encountered by collegiate athletes, the impact these stressors may have on athletic performance, and suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce the potential negative physiological and psychological impacts of stress. It has been suggested that strategies learned in the context of training may have a carry-over effect into other areas such as competition. More education is needed in order for strength and conditioning professionals to gain a greater understanding of how to support their athletes with stress-management techniques and resources. Some ways to disseminate further education on stress-management tools for coaches to share with their athletes may include professional development events, such as conferences and clinics.

Author Contributions

All of the authors have contributed to the development of the manuscript both in writing and conceptual development.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The handling editor declared a past collaboration with one of the authors RL.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies

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College students are required to manage a variety of stressors related to academic, social, and financial commitments. In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their ...

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STUDENT-ATHLETE TIME DEMANDS APRIL 2015 

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STUDENT-ATHLETE TIME DEMANDS APRIL 2015 

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Student-athletes are generally satisfied with their college experience, but being a student-athlete can be a challenging yet rewarding experience. Because athletics is a time-consuming field, student-athletes are under a lot of pressure. Penn Schoen Berland conducted a study of 409 Pac-12 student-athletes from nine different universities to assess student-athlete time demands and evaluate areas for potential reform. “On average, Pac-12 athletes are spending 50 hours a week on athletics during season. Student- athletes report spending an average of 21 hours per week on required athletic activities, only one hour more than the 20 hour limit. However, they spend an additional 29 hours on other activities including voluntary athletics (4 hours), receiving treatment (4 hours) and traveling for competitions (22 hours). Qualitatively, Pac-12 athletes say traveling for competitions is extremely stressful, as it forces student- athletes to miss class and takes up much needed time for homework, studying and sleeping.” (Penn). The average time commitment of the student-athletes in this study of 50 hours per week shows that their athletic activities not only take up a lot of time, but also far exceed the standard 40 hours for a full-time job. Mandatory physical activity takes up 21 hours per week, already exceeding the NCAA's 20-hour limit, but student-athletes still need to put in an additional approximately 29 hours of time, including voluntary physical activity, receiving treatment and traveling for games. These extra activities make their schedules even busier, not only causing them to miss class time but also taking away from the time they need to complete academic work and get adequate rest.

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Primary Source - Red
Secondary Source - Blue
Scholarly Source - Green

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"The Impact of Time Commitments on Student Athletes" 

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"The Impact of Time Commitments on Student Athletes" 

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It is known that the more time student-athletes spend in athletics, the lower their physical fitness is. Training and practice take a physical toll on players' bodies. Physical exhaustion is one of the top issues for student-athletes. The survey concluded “Considering also that athletes are known to take pain and suffering with glory, it can be posited that there is a higher than usual tendency to overexert themselves physically. “(Jay, Michael, 2022) This quote hints at the mentality of athletes and attitude. Athletes are driven by the pursuit of honor and success and their passion for competitive sports, and they are willing to go the extra mile to achieve success. This mentality may lead them to overexert themselves during physical activities, as they may endure pain and difficulty as part of the honor. They may push themselves beyond their limits in order to win. But this tendency to overwork is one of the main causes of adverse effects on an athlete's body and health. While athletes are to be commended for their perseverance and dedication, they also require moderate physical training and adequate rest.

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1 Department of Psychology, Central Luzon State University, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 3121, Philippines

2 Department of Sport Management, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

Article Information

Identifiers and Pagination:

Article History:

Received Date: 15/2/2022
Revision Received Date: 5/4/2022
Acceptance Date: 12/5/2022
Electronic publication date: 07/10/2022
Collection year: 2022

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* Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Psychology, College of Arts and Social Sciences, Central Luzon State University, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 3121, Philippines; E-mail: jcsantos@clsu.edu.ph

Keywords: Mental health, Time demands, NCAA, Student-athletes, Well-being, Academic time use, Athletic time use.

Obtaining a college degree, being a priority of any college student, is academic in nature. While this also holds true for student-athletes, there are athletic expectations that come into play. The rigor of routine practices and other athletic activities while attending regular classes and complying with course requirements adds to the typical challenges of intercollegiate athletics. As such, it can be argued that because they deal with time constraints in meeting their academic and athletic responsibilities, the state of their well-being can be compromised. While the outcomes of the academic time commitment of the general college student population have been well-explored in the academic literature, the state of research on student-athletes' well-being as a consequence of the challenges that arise from academic and athletic time use needs to be investigated.

Previous studies have established that subjective well-being is improved by engagement in physical activity, including sports [-]. However, the results of studies on the subjective well-being of student-athletes, in general, are mixed and seemingly contradicting. In fact, it was previously argued that sports can be detrimental or beneficial to the well-being of athletes []. As some research claimed that sports participation alone promotes positive well-being, a past study investigated the role of sports involvement on subjective well-being and put forward that playing sports can indeed influence subjective well-being []. It was posited that adults who play sports on a regular basis rate their happiness higher than non-players. Meanwhile, another study compared the subjective well-being of active and retired elite athletes and found that the subjective well-being index of active athletes is higher than those of retired athletes []. The findings demonstrate that retired athletes have lower subjective well-being a year after retirement than athletes who are still active in competitions.

Van Rens and colleagues [] investigated the link between student-athlete identities and well-being. Their findings revealed that student-athletes' academic identity is significantly correlated with life satisfaction. In addition, Surujlal et al. [] ascertained that subjective well-being positively correlates with coping skills, while the same variable is negatively correlated with perceived stress. Moreover, Galli and Reel [] examined the adversities experienced by student-athletes from three universities in the western part of the United States. The top three adversities identified by the respondents were time demands, physical stress, and mental stress.

Evidence of the benefits of physical activities such as sport and exercise is established. For instance, Salmon [] noted that physical exercise acted as a buffer against anxiety, depression, and stress. Another benefit is emotional well-being, which has been claimed to facilitate positive development among adolescents []. The positive impact of physical activity, including sport, on emotional well-being encompasses different populations, such as middle-aged women [], adults [], adolescents [-], children [, ], and college students [, ].

While research on emotional well-being in general is extensive, literature specific to student-athletes is sparse. Some clues, however, can be derived from related studies. Brunstein et al. [] examined the relationship between personal goals and the emotional well-being of college students. They found that emotional well-being is positively predicted by the interaction of goal commitment and goal attainability of motive-congruent goals. In addition, high commitment to motive-incongruent goals predicted a decrease in emotional well-being. These results can serve as a foundation for determining the effects of student-athletes' time use on their emotional well-being. According to the NCAA [], there are more student-athletes who intend to graduate from college than to pursue a career in professional sports. This finding is supported by the NCAA GOALS data, which indicated that student-athletes spend more time in academics rather than athletics []. The goals of student-athletes are more educational than athletic, and thus, it can be argued that time used in academics will positively predict higher emotional well-being while time used in athletics will negatively predict emotional well-being.

On positioning for success in intercollegiate athletics, one has to be physically prepared. Contrastingly however, Wiese-Bjornstal [] believes that the most effective means of being competitive in college athletics can also be destructive to physical health. The author pointed out that sports injury can be debilitating to student-athletes, given that athletes are prone to the excessive effort to the point of overtraining. Aside from the risks involved in playing, athletes can also get injured in training and practice. The tendency for them to glorify pain and suffering [] only adds to these risks.

Accordingly, there is the contention that athletic participation can be detrimental to physical health. The risks are notably high and the chance of being seriously injured becomes akin to playing the sport itself. Once injured, it can be assumed that subjective and emotional well-being suffer, too, as reported in various studies [, , ]. Interestingly, studies on the direct link between time use and the physical well-being of student-athletes are virtually scarce. As such, the need to study the impact of time use on physical well-being has been warranted. Further, research on student-athletes' well-being has not directly explored its connection to time utilization. The need for more studies on the life satisfaction of young adults, where most college student-athletes belong, has been echoed []. Studies on subjective well-being specific to the group of student-athletes are necessary given their unique context and the research evidence that showed the role of culture on subjective well-being []. Fundamentally, context can influence subjective well-being, as shown in the significantly different levels of life satisfaction among Korean and American adolescents []. Thus, the current study examined the effects of academic time use and athletic time use on subjective well-being, physical well-being, and emotional well-being using a large representative sample of NCAA student-athletes. The following research questions were investigated:

RQ1: To what extent does academic time use predict subjective emotional and physical well-being?

RQ2: To what extent does athletic time use predict subjective, emotional, and physical well-being?

It is hypothesized that academic time use would be a significant positive predictor of subjective, emotional, and physical well-being, while athletic time use would negatively predict the three well-being dimensions.

The sample is composed of 5,042 respondents from the NCAA GOALS 2015 dataset, which was provided by the NCAA Research through a data use agreement. The approval of the university's Institutional Review Board was sought prior to data release. The authors were given access to a sample of 21,219 respondents. Random sampling was employed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Most of the respondents are men (n = 2,752; 54.6%) and White (n = 3,634; 72.1%). There are almost the same number of research participants per division level: Division I = 1,720 (34.1%), Division II = 1,517 (30.1%), and Division III = 1,805 (35.8%).

Academic time use and athletic time use are the independent variables. Academic time use includes the number of hours per week spent on attending classes and doing class-related activities such as study halls and tutorials. Athletic time use pertains to the number of hours spent per week on athletic activities such as training, games, and travel to game sites. The dependent measures include the 3-item physical well-being, 2-item emotional well-being, and 3-item subjective well-being. These measures were developed by the NCAA through their GOALS research program and validated in succeeding research []. Higher scores indicate a higher level of well-being.

The items for subjective well-being included "In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way?", "In the last month, how often have you felt about your ability to handle your personal problems?", and "All things considered, how happy are you today?" This measure has a Cronbach's alpha of .64. Participants answered these items using a 5-point scale (1 = very often; 2 = fairly often; 3 = sometimes; 4 = almost never; 5 = never).

"In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them?" and "In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life?" were the items for emotional well-being. The Cronbach's alpha attached to this measure is .77. Participants also answered both items using a 5-point scale (1 = very often; 2 = fairly often; 3 = sometimes; 4 = almost never; 5 = never).

The items, "During the last 30 days, how many days did you have a headache?", "During the last 30 days, how many days did you have a cold, flu or similar illness?", and "During the last 30 days, how many days did you have trouble sleeping?" captured physical well-being (PWB). The items were reported using a frequency scale that comprised the following categories of 15+ days, 8-14 days, 4-7 days, 1-3 days, and none. The Cronbach's alpha is measured at .58.

A series of two-step hierarchical regression analyses were performed to answer the two research questions. Before conducting the regression analysis, gender was dummy coded as 1 for men and 0 for women, the race was dummy coded as 1 for Whites and 0 for student-athletes of color, and division level was dummy coded as 1 for Division I and 0 for Divisions II and III. In step 1, race, division level, and gender as control variables were loaded in block 1. Step 2 placed a predictor variable (academic time use or athletic time use) in block 2. For each research question, three separate two-step hierarchical regressions predicting each of the well-being indicators (subjective well-being, emotional well-being, and physical well-being) were conducted. For RQ1, academic time use was used as a predictor of subjective well-being, emotional well-being, and physical well-being in different regression models. Similarly, for RQ2 athletic time use served as the independent variable for each of the three well-being indicators in separate regression analyses. The R 2 for step 1, ∆ R 2 for step 2, the total R 2, and the standardized beta (β) values are reported below. The significance level was determined at p < .05.

The results for RQ1 and RQ2 are summarized in two regression analysis tables. Table shows the extent to which athletic time use predicts the three indicators of well-being. For effect on subjective well-being, results of Step 1 showed that the control variables accounted for .002% of the variance in the dependent variable, F(3, 5038) = 3.373, p = .018. Within block 1, race, β = -.033, p = .019 and gender, β = -.034, p = .016 were found to be statistically significant covariates in the model, but division level was not significant, β = -.008, p = .571. Adding academic time use in Step 2 indicated a significant .1% variance increase, β = .033, p = .023, = .001, and the model remains significant, F(4, 5037) = 3.825, p = .004.

For effect on emotional well-being, results in Step 1 revealed that the demographic variables significantly contributed to 1.3% of the variance, F(3, 5038) = 22.134, p < .001. Race, β = .068, p < .001, and gender, β = .100, p < .001, are statistically significant, but division level is not significant, β = -.008, p = .559. When academic time use was added in Step 2, the variance did not change, β = -.023, p = .114, < .001, although the model remains significant, F(4, 5037) = 17.365, p < .001. For effect on physical well-being, results in Step 1 showed that the demographic variables significantly explained 1.5% of the variance, F(3, 5038) = 25.862, p < .001. Division level, β = -.033, p = .018, and gender, β = .119, p < .001, are statistically significant, but race is not significant, β = .002, p = .866. The variance did not change after adding academic time use to the model, β = -.004, p = .788, = .000, but the model remains significant, F(4, 5037) = 19.411, p < .001.

The extent to which academic time use predicts the three well-being indicators is shown in Table 2 .

For the effect on subjective well-being, adding athletic time use to the model explained a significant .2% variance increase, β = .041, p = .003, = .002, and the model remains significant, F(4, 5037) = 4.670, p = .001. For the effect on emotional well-being, adding athletic time use to the model explained a significant variance increase of .3%, β = -.054, p < .001, = .003. The model after Step 2 remains significant, F(4, 5037) = 20.469, p < .001. For the effect on physical well-being, adding athletic time use to the model increased the variance by .3%, β = -.058, p < .001, = .003. The model after Step 2 continues to be significant F(4, 5037) = 23.641, p < .001.

The finding that athletic time use negatively predicts emotional well-being can be explained by the dynamics of the relationship between emotional well-being and personal goals. Previous research has established that among college students, emotional well-being is positively predicted by the interaction of goal commitment and goal attainability of motive-congruent goals but negatively predicted by a high commitment to motive-incongruent goals []. The foremost goal of any college student is towards an eventual degree. For student-athletes, however, there is an opportunity for a professional sports career after their college playing years are over. In fact, according to NCAA [], student-athletes indeed have strong athletic expectations, which suggests that academics may not be their priority. However, universities exist for academic reasons, and research has shown that student-athletes are reminded of the importance of having academic and athletic balance in the landscape []; hence, most student-athletes prefer having a college degree []. Therefore, it is asserted that spending too much time on athletics does not help the commonly-accepted purpose of attending college getting a college degree because any time spent outside academics can compromise the advancement towards that goal. In addition, academic time use facilitates better quality of life in college [], which further suggests that time spent on other aspects of college life, especially the magnitude of time student-athletes spend on athletics, is detrimental to well-being. Hence, the negative effect of athletic time utilization on emotional well-being.

Athletic time use has a positive effect on subjective well-being, as indicated by the derived values. This offers a fresh perspective to reexamine how athletic time must be framed. This finding, being counterintuitive, thus opens an area for further investigation. One possible explanation for this is that sport is seen as a form of escape for student-athletes and away from their foremost tasks and responsibilities in academics as students. In arguing that sport serves as an escape from the challenges of everyday life, Segrave [] stated, "At worst, sport is not so much an escape from life but an inversion of it first, and ultimately evasion altogether" (p. 76). As such, time devoted to athletics can have a cathartic effect. Previous research has found that stress and sports fandom are positively correlated [], indicating that the utility of athletics in subjective well-being goes beyond the athletes themselves.

The results demonstrated that academic time use positively predicts subjective well-being. This finding is consistent with the results of a previous study that the time spent in academics is a significant predictor in the quality of life of college students []. This suggests that because college students, student-athletes included, are in school primarily for a degree, spending time to that end and consequently getting related tasks to make them feel better about themselves. In addition, time spent in academics suggests decisiveness in their career goals. It can be inferred from these findings that student-athletes who prioritize academics over athletics seem to understand that a bachelor's degree is more valuable. Past studies suggested that career-decidedness is a significant predictor of subjective well-being among college students [].

Both time utilizations in academics and athletics are significant predictors of subjective well-being. Athletic time use negatively predicts emotional well-being and physical well-being, indicating the toll athletics have on well-being. While significant findings are in place, caution must be observed when considering the standards of Cohen [] in interpreting the value of variance explained in multiple regression. None of the values is higher than the 2% cut-off for small effect size. Some limitations of the study must also be emphasized. First, our study did not test for covariates. Second, the psychometric properties could be improved with further iterations. Beyond these, however, our findings open up some potential areas and topics for succeeding research to advance the knowledge and practice aligned with the variables of interest examined in this study.

We are thankful to the NCAA Research, especially to Keke Liu and Lydia Bell.

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effects of time utilization on the well-being of college athletes

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Effects of Time Utilization on the Well-being of College Athletes

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Effects of Time Utilization on the Well-being of College Athletes

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The delicate balance between academics and athletics is a challenge faced by student-athletes around the world. This topic becomes significant when we consider the negative consequences that can arise when these dual commitments conflict. To delve deeper into this intricate dynamic, this exploration was inspired by the article "The Flaws of the 20-Hour Rule," which sheds light on the grueling lives of NCAA student-athletes. It’s clear that student-athletes often struggle with time management, and this struggle has a profound impact on their overall well-being.
Student-athletes are not just students or athletes, but individuals who must excel in both areas. They must complete rigorous coursework while devoting significant time to their respective sports. This balancing act can lead to several negative consequences: student-athletes face time constraints that may prevent them from excelling academically; and rigorous training and competition schedules take a toll on student-athletes' physical and mental health. Fatigue and injuries can impact their performance and overall health; student-athletes may have limited opportunities to explore career options and gain work experience outside of sport, which may impact their postcollege career prospects.
This exploration seeks to provide an in-depth look at the multifaceted challenges student-athletes face when balancing academics and athletics. In understanding these negative impacts, we can begin to explore solutions and support systems that allow student-athletes to thrive academically and athletically. For example, a final question is how to improve the employment of athletic students after graduation.

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"What are the negative impacts on student athletes face when juggling academics and athletics?"

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Time management has proven to be a challenge for college athletes. The increase in sports-related time, the decrease in personal time, and the balance of off-season and competitive season training time simultaneously reflect how athletes face increasing complexities in the allocation of their time while striving to pursue success in sports, and the impact these challenges may have on their lives. and academic impact. In the Time Study: “athletes spending an increase of ~2 more athletics-related hours per week compared to the 2010 GOALS study, along with a decrease of 2 h of personal time (from 19.5 h per week in 2010 to 17.1 in 2015 ). Furthermore, ~66% of Division I and II and 50% of Division III athletes reported spending as much or more time in their practices during the off-season as during the competitive season )” (Marcel, Melissa, Cody, Robert, Brent, Bryan, Jay). These figures show that compared to 2010, training time increased and personal time decreased in 2015. Athletes' time commitment to performing physical activity has increased, possibly due to more intense training demands or an increasingly competitive environment. They also have less time for daily activities and rest, and may no longer have enough time for rest, recreation, or other non-sport-related activities. And they spend the same or more time training in the off-season as in the competitive season. This demonstrates that even outside of the season, many athletes still face considerable time pressure to maintain a high level of physical readiness.

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School of Kinesiology, Applied Health and Recreation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States

Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton, CA, United States

Department of Kinesiology, Point Loma Nazarene University, San Diego, CA, United States

Department of Kinesiology and Sport Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States

College students are required to manage a variety of stressors related to academic, social, and financial commitments. In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their sporting abilities. The strength and conditioning professional sees the athlete on nearly a daily basis and is able to recognize the changes in performance and behavior an athlete may exhibit as a result of these stressors. As such, the strength and conditioning professional may serve an integral role in the monitoring of these stressors and may be able to alter training programs to improve both performance and wellness. The purpose of this paper is to discuss stressors experienced by collegiate athletes, developing an early detection system through monitoring techniques that identify the detrimental effects of stress, and discuss appropriate stress management strategies for this population.

Introduction

The college years are a period of time when young adults experience a significant amount of change and a variety of novel challenges. Academic performance, social demands, adjusting to life away from home, and financial challenges are just a few of the burdens college students must confront ( Humphrey et al., 2000; Paule and Gilson, 2010; Aquilina, 2013). In addition to these stressors, collegiate athletes are required to spend a substantial amount of time participating in activities related to their sport, such as attending practices and training sessions, team meetings, travel, and competitions ( Humphrey et al., 2000; López de Subijana et al., 2015; Davis et al., 2019; Hyatt and Kavazis, 2019). These commitments, in addition to the normal stress associated with college life, may increase a collegiate-athlete's risk of experiencing both physical and mental issues ( Li et al., 2017; Moreland et al., 2018) that may affect their overall health and wellness. For these reasons, it is essential that coaches understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes face in order to help them manage the potentially deleterious effects stress may have on athletic and academic performance.

Strength and conditioning coaches are allied health care professionals whose primary job is to enhance fitness of individuals for the purpose of improving athletic performance ( Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). As such, many universities and colleges hire strength and conditioning coaches as part of their athletic staff to help athletes maximize their physical potential ( Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). Strength and conditioning coaches strive to increase athletic performance by the systematic application of physical stress to the body via resistance training, and other forms of exercise, to yield a positive adaptation response ( Massey et al., 2002, 2004, 2009). For this reason, they need to understand and to learn how to manage athletes' stress. Additionally, based on the cumulative nature of stress, it is important that both mental and emotional stressors are also considered in programming. It is imperative that strength and conditioning coaches are aware of the multitude of stressors collegiate athletes encounter, in order to incorporate illness and injury risk management education into their training programs ( Radcliffe et al., 2015; Ivarsson et al., 2017).

Based on the large number of contact hours strength and conditioning coaches spend with their athletes, they are in an optimal position to assist athletes with developing effective coping strategies to manage stress. By doing so, strength and conditioning coaches may be able to help reach the overarching goal of improving the health, wellness, fitness, and performance of the athletes they coach. The purpose of this review article is to provide the strength and conditioning professional with a foundational understanding of the types of stressors collegiate athletes may experience, and how these stressors may impact mental health and athletic performance. Suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce potential physiological and psychological impacts of stress will also be provided.

Stress and the Stress Response

In its most simplistic definition, stress can be described as a state of physical and psychological activation in response to external demands that exceed one's ability to cope and requires a person to adapt or change behavior. As such, both cognitive or environmental events that trigger stress are called stressors ( Statler and DuBois, 2016). Stressors can be acute or chronic based on the duration of activation. Acute stressors may be defined as a stressful situation that occurs suddenly and results in physiological arousal (e.g., increase in hormonal levels, blood flow, cardiac output, blood sugar levels, pupil and airway dilation, etc.) ( Selye, 1976). Once the situation is normalized, a cascade of hormonal reactions occurs to help the body return to a resting state (i.e., homeostasis). However, when acute stressors become chronic in nature, they may increase an individual's risk of developing anxiety, depression, or metabolic disorders ( Selye, 1976). Moreover, the literature has shown that cumulative stress is correlated with an increased susceptibility to illness and injury ( Szivak and Kraemer, 2015; Mann et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019). The impact of stress is individualistic and subjective by nature ( Williams and Andersen, 1998; Ivarsson et al., 2017). Additionally, the manner in which athletes respond to a situational or environmental stressor is often determined by their individual perception of the event ( Gould and Udry, 1994; Williams and Andersen, 1998; Ivarsson et al., 2017). In this regard, the athlete's perception can either be positive (eustress) or negative (distress). Even though they both cause physiological arousal, eustress also generates positive mental energy whereas distress generates anxiety ( Statler and DuBois, 2016). Therefore, it is essential that an athlete has the tools and ability to cope with these stressors in order to have the capacity to manage both acute and chronic stress. As such, it is important to understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes are confronted with and how these stressors impact an athlete's performance, both athletically and academically.

Methods

Literature Search/Data Collection

The articles included in this review were identified via online databases PubMed, MEDLINE, and ISI Web of Knowledge from October 15th 2019 through January 15th 2020. The search strategy combined the keywords "academic stress," "athletic stress," "stress," "stressor," "college athletes," "student athletes," "collegiate athletes," "injury," "training," "monitoring." Duplicated articles were then removed. After reading the titles and abstracts, all articles that met the inclusion criteria were considered eligible for inclusion in the review. Subsequently, all eligible articles were read in their entirety and were either included or removed from the present review.

Inclusion Criteria

The studies included met all the following criteria: (i) published in English-language journals; (ii) targeted college athletes; (iii) publication was either an original research paper or a literature review; (iv) allowed the extraction of data for analysis.

Data Analysis

Relevant data regarding participant characteristics (i.e., gender, academic status, sports) and study characteristics were extracted. Articles were analyzed and divided into two separate sections based on their specific topics: Academic Stress and Athletic Stress. Then, strategies for monitoring and workload management are discussed in the final section.

Academic Stress

Fundamentally, collegiate athletes have two major roles they must balance as part of their commitment to a university: being a college student and an athlete. Academic performance is a significant source of stress for most college students ( Aquilina, 2013; López de Subijana et al., 2015; de Brandt et al., 2018; Davis et al., 2019). This stress may be further compounded among collegiate athletes based on their need to be successful in the classroom, while simultaneously excelling in their respective sport ( Aquilina, 2013; López de Subijana et al., 2015; Huml et al., 2016; Hamlin et al., 2019). Davis et al. (2019) conducted surveys on 173 elite junior alpine skiers and reported significant moderate to strong correlations between perceived stress and several variables including depressed mood ( r = 0.591), sleep disturbance ( r = 0.459), fatigue ( r = 0.457), performance demands ( r = 0.523), and goals and development ( r = 0.544). Academic requirements were the highest scoring source of stress of all variables and was most strongly correlated with perceived stress ( r = 0.467). Interestingly, it was not academic rigor that was viewed by the athletes as the largest source of direct stress; rather, the athletes surveyed reported time management as being their biggest challenge related to academic performance ( Davis et al., 2019). This further corroborates the findings of Hamlin et al. (2019). The investigators reported that during periods of the academic year in which levels of perceived academic stress were at their highest, students had trouble managing sport practices and studying. These stressors were also associated with a decrease in energy levels and overall sleep quality. These factors may significantly increase the collegiate athlete's susceptibility to illness and injury ( Hamlin et al., 2019). For this reason, coaches should be aware of and sensitive to the stressors athletes experience as part of the cyclical nature of the academic year and attempt to help athletes find solutions to balancing athletic and academic demands.

Mental health issues are a significant concern among college students. There has been an increased emphasis placed on the mental health of collegiate athletes in recent years ( Petrie et al., 2014; Li et al., 2017, 2019; Reardon et al., 2019). Based on the 2019 National College Health Assessment survey from the American College Health Association (ACHA) consisting of 67,972 participants, 27.8% of college students reported anxiety, and 20.2% reported experiencing depression which negatively affected their academic performance ( American College Health Association American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II, 2019). Approximately 65.7% (50.7% males and 71.8% females) reported feeling overwhelming anxiety in the past 12 months, and 45.1% (37.1% males and 47.6% females) reported feeling so depressed that it was difficult for them to function. However, only 24.3% (13% males and 28.4% females) reported being diagnosed and treated by a professional in the past 12 months. Collegiate athletes are not immune to these types of issues. According to information presented by the NCAA, many certified athletic trainers anecdotally state that anxiety is an issue affecting the collegiate-athlete population ( NCAA, 2014). However, despite the fact that collegiate athletes are exposed to numerous stressors, they are less likely to seek help at a university counseling center than non-athletes ( NCAA, 2014), which could be related to stigmas that surround mental health services ( NCAA, 2014; Kaier et al., 2015; Egan, 2019). This not only has significant implications related to their psychological well-being, but also their physiological health, and consequently their performance. For instance, in a study by Li et al. (2017) it was found that NCAA Division I athletes who reported preseason anxiety symptoms had a 2.3 times greater injury incidence rate compared to athletes who did not report. This same study discovered that male athletes who reported preseason anxiety and depression had a 2.1 times greater injury incidence, compared to male athletes who did not report symptoms of anxiety and depression. ( Lavallée and Flint, 1996) also reported a correlation between anxiety and both injury frequency and severity among college football players ( r = 0.43 and r = 0.44, respectively). In their study, athletes reporting high tension/anxiety had a higher rate of injury. It has been suggested that the occurrence of stress and anxiety may cause physiological responses, such as an increase in muscle tension, physical fatigue, and a decrease in neurocognitive and perception processes that can lead to physical injuries ( Ivarsson et al., 2017). For this reason, it is reasonable to consider that academic stressors may potentiate effects of stress and result in injury and illness in collegiate athletes.

Athletic Stress

The domain of athletics can expose collegiate athletes to additional stressors that are specific to their cohort (e.g., sport-specific, team vs. individual sport) ( Aquilina, 2013). Time spent training (e.g., physical conditioning and sports practice), competition schedules (e.g., travel time, missing class), dealing with injuries (e.g., physical therapy/rehabilitation, etc.), sport-specific social support (e.g., teammates, coaches) and playing status (e.g., starting, non-starter, being benched, etc.) are just a few of the additional challenges collegiate athletes must confront relative to their dual role of being a student and an athlete ( Maloney and McCormick, 1993; Scott et al., 2008; Etzel, 2009; Fogaca, 2019). Collegiate athletes who view the demands of stressors from academics and sports as a positive challenge (i.e., an individual's self-confidence or belief in oneself to accomplish the task outweighs any anxiety or emotional worry that is felt) may potentially increase learning capacity and competency ( NCAA, 2014). However, when these demands are perceived as exceeding the athlete's capacity, this stress can be detrimental to the student's mental and physical health as well as to sport performance ( Ivarsson et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017).

As previously stated, time management has been shown to be a challenge to collegiate athletes. The NCAA rules state that collegiate athletes may only engage in required athletic activities for 4 h per day and 20 h/week during in-season and 8 h/week during off-season throughout the academic year. Although these rules have been clearly outlined, the most recent NCAA GOALS (2016) study reported alarming numbers regarding time commitment to athletic-related activities. Data from over 21,000 collegiate athletes from 600 schools across Divisions I, II, and III were included in this study. Although a breakdown of time commitments was not provided, collegiate athletes reported dedicating up to 34 h per week to athletics (e.g., practices, weight training, meetings with coaches, tactical training, competitions, etc.), in addition to spending between 38.5 and 40 h per week working on academic-related tasks. This report also showed a notable trend related to athletes spending an increase of ~2 more athletics-related hours per week compared to the 2010 GOALS study, along with a decrease of 2 h of personal time (from 19.5 h per week in 2010 to 17.1 in 2015). Furthermore, ~66% of Division I and II and 50% of Division III athletes reported spending as much or more time in their practices during the off-season as during the competitive season ( DTHOMAS, 2013). These numbers show how important it is for collegiate athletes to develop time management skills to be successful in both academics and athletics. Overall, most collegiate athletes have expressed a need to find time to enjoy their college experience outside of athletic obligations ( Paule and Gilson, 2010). Despite that, because of the increasing demand for excellence in academics and athletics, collegiate athletes' free time with family and friends is often scarce ( Paule and Gilson, 2010). Consequently, trainers, coaches, and teammates will likely be the primary source of their weekly social interactivity.

Social interactions within their sport have also been found to relate to factors that may impact an athlete's perceived stress. Interactions with coaches and trainers can be effective or deleterious to an athlete. Effective coaching includes a coaching style that allows for a boost of the athlete's motivation, self-esteem, and efficacy in addition to mitigating the effects of anxiety. On the other hand, poor coaching (i.e., the opposite of effective coaching) can have detrimental psychological effects on an athlete ( Gearity and Murray, 2011). In a closer examination of the concept of poor coaching practices, Gearity and Murray (2011) interviewed athletes about their experiences of receiving poor coaching. Following analysis of the interviews, the authors identified the main themes of the "coach being uncaring and unfair," "practicing poor teaching inhibiting athlete's mental skills," and "athlete coping." They stated that inhibition of an athlete's mental skills and coping are associated with the psychological well-being of an athlete. Also, poor coaching may result in mental skills inhibition, distraction, insecurity, and ultimately team division ( Gearity and Murray, 2011). This combination of factors may compound the negative impacts of stress in athletes and might be especially important for in injured athletes.

Injured athletes have previously been reported to have elevated stress as a result of heightened worry about returning to pre-competition status ( Crossman, 1997), isolation from teammates if the injury is over a long period of time ( Podlog and Eklund, 2007) and/or reduced mood or depressive symptoms ( Daly et al., 1995). In addition, athletes who experience prolonged negative thoughts may be more likely to have decreased rehabilitation attendance or adherence, worse functional outcomes from rehabilitation (e.g., on measures of proprioception, muscular endurance, and agility), and worse post-injury performance ( Brewer, 2012).

Monitoring Considerations

In addition to poor coaching, insufficient workload management can hinder an athlete's ability to recover and adapt to training, leading to fatigue accumulation ( Gabbett et al., 2017). Excessive fatigue can impair decision-making ability, coordination and neuromuscular control, and ultimately result in overtraining and injury ( Soligard et al., 2016). For instance, central fatigue was found to be a direct contributor to anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players ( Mclean and Samorezov, 2009). Introducing monitoring tools may serve as a means to reduce the detrimental effects of stress in collegiate athletes. Recent research on relationships between athlete workloads, injury, and performance has highlighted the benefits of athlete monitoring ( Drew and Finch, 2016; Jaspers et al., 2017).

Monitoring External Loads

External load refers to the physical work (e.g., number of sprints, weight lifted, distance traveled, etc.) completed by the athlete during competition, training, and activities of daily living ( Soligard et al., 2016). This type of load is independent of the athlete's individual characteristics ( Wallace et al., 2009). Monitoring external loading can aid in the designing of training programs which mimic the external load demands of an athlete's sport, guide rehabilitation programs, and aid in the detection of spikes in external load that may increase the risk of injury ( Clubb and McGuigan, 2018).

The means of quantifying external load can involve metrics as simple as pitch counts in baseball and softball ( Fleisig and Andrews, 2012; Shanley et al., 2012) or quantifying lifting session training loads (e.g., sum value of weight lifted during an exercise x number of repetitions × the number of sets). Neuromuscular function testing is another more common way of analyzing external load. This is typically done using such measures such as the counter movement jump, squat jump, or drop jump. A force platform can be used to measure a myriad of outcomes (e.g., peak power, ground contact time, time to take-off, reactive strength index, and jump height), or simply measure jump height in a more traditional manner. Jumping protocols, such as the countermovement jump, have been adopted to examine the recovery of neuromuscular function after athletic competition with significant decreases for up to 72 h commonly reported ( Andersson et al., 2008; Magalhães et al., 2010; Twist and Highton, 2013). ( Gathercole et al., 2015) found reductions in 18 different neuromuscular variables in collegiate athletes following a fatiguing protocol. The variables of eccentric duration, concentric duration, total duration, time to peak force/power, and flight time:contraction time ratio, derived from a countermovement jump were deemed suitable for detecting neuromuscular fatigue with the rise in the use of technology for monitoring, certain sports have adopted specific software that can aid in the monitoring of stress. For example, power output can be measured using devices such as SRM™ or PowerTap™ in cycling ( Jobson et al., 2009). This data can be analyzed to provide information such as average power or normalized power. The power output can then be converted into a Training Stress Score™ via commercially available software ( Marino, 2011). More sophisticated measures of external load may involve the use of wearable technology devices such as Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, accelerometers, magnetometer, and gyroscope inertial sensors ( Akenhead and Nassis, 2016). These devices can quantify external load in several ways, such as duration of movement, total distance covered, speed of movement, acceleration, and decelerations, as well as sport specific movement such as number and height of jumps, number of tackles, or breakaways, etc. ( Akenhead and Nassis, 2016). The expansion of marketing of wearable devices has been substantial; however, there are questions of validity and reliability related to external load tracking limitations related to proprietary metrics, as well as the overall cost that should be considered when considering the adoption of such devices ( Aughey et al., 2016; Torres-Ronda and Schelling, 2017).

Monitoring Internal Loads

While external load may provide information about an athlete's performance capacity and work completed, it does not provide clear evidence of how athletes are coping with and adapting to the external load ( Halson, 2014). This type of information comes from the monitoring of internal loads. The term internal load refers to the individual physiological and psychological response to the external stress or load imposed ( Wallace et al., 2009). Internal load is influenced by a number of factors such as daily life stressors, the environment around the athlete, and coping ability ( Soligard et al., 2016). Indirect measures, such as the use of heart rate (HR) monitoring, and subjective measurements, such as perceived effort (i.e., ratings of perceived exertion), are examples of internal load monitoring. Using subjective measurement systems is a simple and practical method when dealing with large numbers of athletes ( Saw et al., 2016; Nässi et al., 2017). Subjective reporting of training load (Rating of Perceived Exertion-RPE) ( Coyne et al., 2018), Session Rating of Perceived Exertion-sRPE) ( Coyne et al., 2018), perceived stress and recovery (Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes-RESTQ-S), and psychological mood states (Profile of Mood States-POMS) have all been found to be a reliable indicator of training load ( Robson-Ansley et al., 2009; Saw et al., 2016) and only take a few moments to complete. In addition, subjective measures can be more responsive to tracking changes or training responses in athletes than objective measures ( Saw et al., 2016).

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is a common intrinsic measure of how the body is responding to stress. With training, the reduction of resting HR is typically a clear indication of the heart becoming more efficient and not having to beat as frequently. Alternately, increases of resting HR over time with a continuation of training may be an indicator of too much stress. Improper nutrition, such as regular or ongoing suboptimal intakes of vitamins or minerals, may result in increased ventilation and/or increased heart rate ( Lukaski, 2004). It has been suggested that the additional stress may lead to parasympathetic hyperactivity, leading to an increase in resting HR ( Statler and DuBois, 2016). This largely stems from research examining the sensitivity of various HR derived metrics, such as resting HR, HR variability (HRV), and HR recovery (HRR) to fluctuations in training load ( Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009). HRR in athlete monitoring is the rate of HR decline after the cessation of exercise. A common measure of HHR is the use of a 2 min step test followed by a 60 s HR measurement. The combination of the exercise (stress) on the cardiovascular system and then its subsequent return toward baseline has been used as an indicator of autonomic function and training status in athletes ( Daanen et al., 2012). In collegiate athletes it was found that hydration status impacted HRR following moderate to hard straining sessions ( Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018). Athletes who followed a prescription hydration plan performed better in the standing long jump, tracked objects faster, and showed faster HRR vs. athletes who followed their normal self-selected hydration plan ( Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018). To date, HR monitoring and the various derivatives have mainly been successful in detecting changes in training load and performance in endurance athletes ( Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009; Lamberts et al., 2009; Thorpe et al., 2017). Although heart rate monitoring can provide additional physiological insight for aerobic sessions or events, it thus far has not been found to be an accurate measurement for quantifying internal load during many explosive, short duration anaerobic activities ( Bosquet et al., 2008).

A multitude of studies have reported the reliability and validity of using RPE and sRPE across a range of training modalities ( Foster, 1998; Impellizzeri et al., 2004; Sweet et al., 2004). This measure can be used to create a number of metrics such as session load (sRPE × duration in minutes), daily load (sum of all session loads for that day), weekly training load (sum of all daily training loads for entire week), monotony (standard deviation of weekly training load), and strain (daily or weekly training load × monotony) ( Foster, 1998). Qualitative questionnaires that monitor stress and fatigue have been well-established as tools to use with athletes (see Table 1 for examples of commonly used questionnaires in research). Using short daily wellness questionnaires may allow coaches to generate a wellness score which then can be adjusted based off of the stress the athlete may be feeling to meet the daily load target ( Foster, 1998; Robson-Ansley et al., 2009). However, strength and conditioning coaches need to be mindful that these questionnaires may require sports psychologist or other licensed professional to examine and provide the results. An alternative that may be better suited for strength and conditioning professionals to use could be to incorporate some of the themes of those questionnaires into programing.

Table 1. Overview of common tool/measures used by researchers to monitor training load.

A Multifaceted Approach

Dissociation between external and internal load units may be indicative of the state of fatigue of an athlete. Utilizing a monitoring system in which the athlete is able to make adjustments to their training loads in accordance with how they are feeling in that moment can be a useful tool for assisting the athlete in managing stress. Auto-regulation is a method of programming that allows for adjustments based on the results of one or more readiness tests. When implemented properly, auto regulation enables the coach or athlete to optimize training based on the athlete's given readiness for training on a particular day, thereby aiming to avoid potential overtraining ( Kraemer and Fleck, 2018). Several studies have found that using movement velocity to designate resistance training intensities can result in significant improvements in maximal strength and athletic performance ( Pareja-Blanco et al., 2014, 2017; Mann et al., 2015). Velocity based training allows the coach and athlete to view real time feedback for the given lifts, thereby allowing them to observe how the athlete is performing in that moment. If the athlete is failing to meet the prescribed velocity or the velocity drops greater than a predetermined amount between sets, then this should signal the coach to investigate. If there is a higher than normal amount of stress on that athlete for the day, that could be a potential reason. This type of combination style program of using a quantitative or objective measurement (s) and a subjective measure of wellness (qualitative questionnaire) has recently been reported to be an effective tool in monitoring individuals apart of a team ( Starling et al., 2019). The subjective measure in this study was the readiness to train questionnaire (RTT-Q) and the objective measures were the HRR 6min test (specifically the HRR 60s = recorded as decrease in HR in the 60 s after termination of the test) to assess autonomic function and the standing long jump (SLJ) to measure neuromuscular function. The findings found that, based on the absolute typical error of measurement, the HRR 60s and SLJ could detect medium and large changes in fatigue and readiness. The test took roughly 8 min for the entire team, which included a group consisting of 24 college-age athletes. There are many other combinations of monitoring variables and strategies that coaches and athletes may utilize.

Data Analysis - How to Utilize the Measures

In sports and sports science, the use of a magnitude-based inference (MBI) has been suggested as more appropriate and easier to understand when examining meaningful changes in athletic data, than null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) ( Buchheit, 2014). Additional methods to assess meaningful change that are similar to MBI are using standard deviation, typical error, effect sizes, smallest worthwhile change (SWC), and coefficient of variation ( Thornton et al., 2019). It should be noted that all of these methods have faced criticism from sources such as statisticians. It is important to understand that the testing methods, measurements, and analysis should be based on the resources and intended goals from use, which will differ from every group and individual. Once identified, it is up to the practitioner to keep this system the same, in order to collect data that can then be examined to understand meaningful information for each setting ( Thornton et al., 2019).

Managing and Coping Strategies

Once the collegiate-athlete has been able to identify the need to balance their stress levels, the athlete may then need to seek out options for managing their stress. Coaches are be able to assist them by sharing information on health and wellness resources available for the students, both on and off campus. Another way a coach can potentially support their athletes is by establishing an open-door policy, wherein the team members feel comfortable approaching a member of the strength and conditioning staff in order to seek out resources for coping with challenges related to stress.

There are some basic skills that strength and conditioning coaches can teach (while staying within their scope of practice). Coaches can introduce their athletes to basic lifestyle concepts, such as practicing deep breathing techniques, positive self-talk, and developing healthy sleep habits (i.e., turning off their mobile devices 1 h before bed and aiming for 8 h of sleep each night, etc.). A survey of strength and conditioning practitioners by Radcliffe et al. (2015) found that strategies used by practitioners included a mix of cognitive and behavioral strategies, which was used as justification for recommending practitioners find opportunities to guide professional development toward awareness strategies. Practitioners reported using a wide variety of psychological skills and strategies, which following survey analysis, highlighted a significant emphasis on strategies that may influence athlete self-confidence and goal setting. Themes identified by Radcliffe et al. (2015) included confidence building, arousal management, and skill acquisition. Additionally, similar lower level themes that are connected (i.e., goal setting, increasing, or decreasing arousal intensities, self-talk, mental imagery) are all discussed in the 4th edition of the NSCA Essentials of Strength and Conditioning book ( Haff et al., 2016). When the interventions aiming to improve mental health expand from basic concepts to mental training beyond a coach's scope, it would be pertinent for the coach to refer the collegiate-athlete to a sport psychology or other mental health consultant ( Fogaca, 2019). Moreover, strength and conditioning coaches may find themselves in a position to become key players in facilitating management strategies for collegiate athletes, thereby guiding the athlete in their quest to learn how to best manage the mental and physical energy levels required in the quest for overall optimal performance ( Statler and DuBois, 2016).

Conclusion and Future Directions

This review article has summarized some of the ways that strength and conditioning professionals may be able to gain a better understanding of the types of stressors encountered by collegiate athletes, the impact these stressors may have on athletic performance, and suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce the potential negative physiological and psychological impacts of stress. It has been suggested that strategies learned in the context of training may have a carry-over effect into other areas such as competition. More education is needed in order for strength and conditioning professionals to gain a greater understanding of how to support their athletes with stress-management techniques and resources. Some ways to disseminate further education on stress-management tools for coaches to share with their athletes may include professional development events, such as conferences and clinics.

Author Contributions

All of the authors have contributed to the development of the manuscript both in writing and conceptual development.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The handling editor declared a past collaboration with one of the authors RL.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies

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College students are required to manage a variety of stressors related to academic, social, and financial commitments. In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their sporting abilities.