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1000-500 B.C.- The formation of the greek city states

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1000-500 B.C.- The formation of the greek city states

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The formation of the city states started with the Mycenaean civilization and many more would form by the year 500 B.C.

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This hand-colored woodcut gives us an artist's concept of what Athens might've looked like in the time of the Roman emperor Hadrian, when its iconic monuments and temples were still in their prime.

Photograph by North Wind Picture Archive / Alamy Stock Photo

Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary

A city-state, or polis, was the community structure of ancient Greece. Each city-state was organized with an urban center and the surrounding countryside. Characteristics of the city in a polis were outer walls for protection, as well as a public space that included temples and government buildings. The temples and government buildings were often built on the top of a hill, or acropolis. A surviving example of a structure central to an ancient acropolis is the famous Parthenon of Athens. The Parthenon was a temple built to honor the goddess Athena. The majority of a polis's population lived in the city, as it was the center of trade, commerce, culture, and political activity.

There grew to be over 1,000 city-states in ancient Greece, but the main poleis were Athína (Athens), Spárti (Sparta), Kórinthos (Corinth), Thíva (Thebes), Siracusa (Syracuse), Égina (Aegina), Ródos (Rhodes), Árgos, Erétria, and Elis. Each city-state ruled itself. They differed greatly from the each other in governing philosophies and interests. For example, Sparta was ruled by two kings and a council of elders. It emphasized maintaining a strong military, while Athens valued education and art. In Athens every male citizen had the right to vote, so they were ruled by a democracy. Rather than have a strong army, Athens maintained their navy.

Greek city-states likely developed because of the physical geography of the Mediterranean region. The landscape features rocky, mountainous land and many islands. These physical barriers caused population centers to be relatively isolated from each other. The sea was often the easiest way to move from place to place. Another reason city-states formed, rather than a central, all-encompassing monarchy, was that the Greek aristocracy strove to maintain their city-states' independence and to unseat any potential tyrants.

loosely united civilization founded on and around the Peloponnese peninsula, lasting from about the 8th century BCE to about 200 BCE.

system of government in which national power is invested in one person, usually a king or queen.

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Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

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National Geographic Society

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Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society
Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

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Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society
Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

Last Updated

March 15, 2019

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Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Author

National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society
Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society
Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

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Image This hand-colored woodcut gives us an artist's concept of what Athens might've looked like in the time of the Roman emperor Hadrian, when its iconic monuments and temples were still in their prime. Photograph by North Wind Picture Archive / Alamy Stock Photo Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary A city-state, or polis, was the community structure of ancient Greece.

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600 B.C.-The introduction of Greek currency 

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600 B.C.-The introduction of Greek currency 

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The Greeks created their own form of currency which was a silver coin called a drachma. They quickly spread this throughout their cities and used it as the primary currency.

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Drachma: Drachma, silver coin of ancient Greece, dating from about the mid-6th century bc, and the former monetary unit of modern Greece. The drachma was one of the world's earliest coins.

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461-429 B.C.-The building of the Parthenon 

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461-429 B.C.-The building of the Parthenon 

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The Parthenon is a large temple built during Pericle's reign. It was built to honor the God Athena during the Golden age of Athens.

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Few monuments in the world are more recognizable than the Parthenon. Sitting atop a limestone hill rising some 500 feet above the Ilissos Valley in Athens, this soaring marble temple built in tribute to the goddess Athena brings the glory of ancient Greece into the modern world.

Constructed with impressive speed during a massive fifth-century building project at the hilltop citadel known as the Acropolis, the Parthenon was not only beautiful-it was built to last.

Through bombardments, occupations, neglect, vandalism and even earthquakes, the Parthenon and other structures of the Acropolis have remained standing, thanks to the sophisticated methods used in their construction.

An Interrupted Construction

The Acropolis was inhabited as far back as the Bronze Age, when the Mycenaeans built a large walled compound there to house one of their leaders. In 490 B.C., the Athenians began building a large temple to Athena on the site, but they were still working on it when Persian forces sacked Athens a decade later, destroying the temple-in-progress along with nearly every other structure in the Acropolis

In 447 B.C., after Athens led a coalition of Greek city-states to victory over the Persians, the great Athenian general and statesman Pericles ordered new construction at the citadel to begin.

"Athens under Pericles wanted to promote itself as the greatest of Greek cities," says Jeffrey Hurwit, a professor emeritus of art history and classics at the University of Oregon and author of The Athenian Acropolis. Over some 50 years, the Periclean building program produced not only the large temple to Athena Parthenos ("Athena the Virgin," in Greek), but the Propylaea, the gateway to the Acropolis, as well as two smaller temples, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike.

"There were several different Athenas who were worshipped on the Acropolis," Hurwit explains. "The Erechtheion is really the last temple to Athena Polyas, or Athena the guardian of the city. The Temple of Athena Nike is devoted to Athena in her role as a warrior goddess who defended Athens. It's still the same goddess, but she was worshipped in different ways and in different guises."

The Gloriously Deviant Parthenon

Construction of the Parthenon began in 447 B.C. Its design is credited to two architects, Ictinus and Callicrates, as well as the sculptor Phidias. Ancient and modern observers alike have marveled at the sophisticated techniques used to construct the temple, which mixed the Doric and Ionic styles of classical Greek architecture to stunning effect.

DEA/A. Dagli Orti/De Agostini/Getty Images

Though the Parthenon looks perfectly straight and symmetrical, in fact it is subtly curved, beginning at the foundation and running up through the steps, colonnade and even the roof. Rather than a settling of the blocks over time, this was an effect the temple's builders deliberately created-through techniques like beveling or angling the blocks of the steps, tilting the columns slightly inward and making the corner columns slightly thicker than the others. In addition, the columns have a slight swelling near the middle, known as entasis.

The Roman architect Vitruvius argued that such refinements were made to counter the effects of an optical illusion: When viewed from a distance, a perfectly straight line would appear to sag, whereas the temple's curvature would counteract that illusion. But Hurwit suggests another, more artistically motivated reason for the refinements.

"A building as large as the Parthenon that was perfectly straight, with perfect horizontals and perfect verticals, would appear less interesting visually than a building that has these deviations, which are at first sensed rather than actually seen or experienced," he says. "It seems more active this way. The Parthenon is a building, but it's [also] almost a sculpture."

Built to Last

The Parthenon was apparently completed by 438 B.C., when a massive gold-and-ivory statue of Athena Parthenos was installed inside. In all, construction took just nine years. The Propylaea, the gateway to the Acropolis, took even less time-just five years-to build.

"From our perspective, the construction of these buildings was very, very quick," Hurwit points out. "Plutarch, who wrote a life of Pericles, comments about how remarkably fast the construction of the buildings of the Periclean building program was. It impressed people even in antiquity."

Though Pericles died in 429 B.C., the building project he began would be completed after his death. After 1,000 years as the religious center of Athens, the Acropolis was transformed into a Christian place of worship in the fifth century A.D., under the rule of the Romans and Byzantines. After the Ottoman conquest in the 15th century, it was used as a mosque. By the time Greece won its independence in the 19th century, the buildings of the Acropolis were heavily damaged, but still standing.

The Parthenon and other structures have showed particular resilience when it comes to earthquakes. Hurwit says they survived an early test when an earthquake rocked Athens in 426 B.C., dislodging the columns by only a fraction of an inch but leaving the structure otherwise intact.

In 2015, a panel of engineers at a workshop on contemporary interventions in the monuments of the Athenian Acropolis concluded that the modular columns used to build the Parthenon and other structures were deliberately designed to have "excellent seismic performance properties," as one engineer told the Greek Reporter during the opening of the workshop.

Thanks to great feats of engineering and artistry, Pericles's ambitious vision of the Acropolis has endured, becoming the most famous symbol of ancient Greece's golden age.

"Pericles himself claimed that Athens was 'the school of Hellas,' the school of Greece," Hurwit says. "The Acropolis was the great classroom of this effort to promote Athens as the greatest of all Greek cities, and the Athenians as the greatest of all Greeks."

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How the Ancient Greeks Designed the Parthenon to Impress-And Last

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Few monuments in the world are more recognizable than the Parthenon. Sitting atop a limestone hill rising some 500 feet above the Ilissos Valley in Athens, this soaring marble temple built in tribute to the goddess Athena brings the glory of ancient Greece into the modern world.

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The two types of Greek Drama was comedy and tragedy. The popularization of drama in Greece showed how successful they were in the war with Persia.

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The Greeks invented drama from their wild religious ceremonies involving drinking, dancing, and revelry. This can be seen in the words that we use to describe drama today; for instance, theater originally meant "a spectacle or sight to behold", which is related to the Ancient Greek word thauma, "a miracle".

This spectacle created by the Greeks involved and enveloped the entire population of a Greek town in secret rites honoring a god, usually Dionysus, whose followers carried phallic symbols, imbibed wine, and were transported to states of ecstasy. In Athens the theater building was considered a temple, and the god was believed to be present for the performances.

The Greeks used the word orgy to describe these rites, in accordance with the original sense of the word as described by the Merriam Webster Dictionary: "secret ceremonial rites held in honor of an ancient Greek or Roman deity and usually characterized by ecstatic singing and dancing".

Nearly all of the parodies, melodies, and mysteries seen or heard in modern times are connected to ancient Greece, where those terms were invented. A parody was a song, or ode, about something (para, "about").

A mystery was a secret religious ceremony. A melody was the tune sung by the chorus. Modern television shows, movies, plays, and many popular songs emerged out of these intense Greek religious rites. This is true whether the movie is a comedy, a tragedy, or a satire.

Origins and Evolution

The popular view is that Greek tragedy evolved out of jovial folk hymns to Dionysus, called dithyrambs, and that the other forms of drama evolved from this. Dithyrambs were composed as early as the seventh century b.c.e., and spread from Athens to many other Greek city-states. A chorus of up to 50 people sang the dithyrambs, and competitions enlivened religious festivals.

Dionysus is also known as Bacchus, the god who roamed the world followed by throngs of crazed women (called Bacchantes or Maenads, from whom we get the term mania). The god and his followers were often found drunk on grape wine, which was held sacred to Dionysus.

Originally, festivals honoring Dionysus took the form of choreographed dances performed by a chorus about an altar on an orchestra, or "dancing ground". This evolved into performances designed to produce such a powerful rush of emotions that the entire audience achieved an intense communal emotional rush known as catharsis, which cleansed and revitalized the people.

Catharsis became one of the hallmarks of performances of tragedy, a word that literally means "goat ode", the goat being the symbol of Dionysus. In contrast, William Ridgeway claims that tragedy arose out of the worship of and communion with the dead.

Since this communion was presided over by Dionysus as well, and since tragedy refers to a symbol of Dionysus, the worship of Dionysus was most likely integral to the inception and performance of tragedy.

The 12- to 50-member chorus, singing, dancing, and critiquing throughout the play, was a major distinguishing facet of Greek tragedy. The chorus was held by some to represent the will and opinions of the society, as if the populace itself were onstage with the chorus, commenting upon and making sense of the action. Many famous Greek dramatists were successful playwrights and actors and were responsible for major innovations in the form of tragedy.

Thespian of Icaria in 534 b.c.e. separated the leader of the chorus from the rest of the group, to become Athens's first actor, reading the parts of several characters and wearing a different mask for each. Thus, we now call actors thespians, after the man who, for the first time, made a play that consisted of more than simply a chorus.

Aeschylus, a highly honored Greek playwright, added a second actor and stage decorations to his play, while giving costumes to the already masked actors and chorus. His tragedies, such as Prometheus Bound, Agamemnon, and Seven against Thebes, portray humans who are punished by cosmic forces for their misdeeds and failings.

Sophocles, another famous Greek author, added a third actor and in a groundbreaking move gave the actors more emphasis than the chorus. He also added three members to the chorus, bringing the total to 15.

Comedies and satires evolved from tragedy. The oldest known comedies were breaks between tragedies or between parts of a single tragedy, in which exaggerated characters lampooned the tragedy in a spoof that closely followed the format, costumes, and masks of the tragedy.

Soon entire comic plays arose. These are referred to as Old Comedy, referring to comedies performed in the period beginning with Pericles' establishment of democracy c. 450 b.c.e. Old Comedy followed the strict format of tragedy and included the chorus.

Satire was a third type of Greek drama that bridged the gap between comedy and tragedy. Satire, a word coming from the satyrs sacred to Dionysus, is a term for a play that was performed to make fun of tragedy and lighten the impact of the tragedies the audience had just seen.

The satyrs were odd and amusing creatures who made possible a unique sort of parody of the typical tragedy. The hairy, half-human satyrs had the hoofed, short legs of a goat, together with the goat's short horns, and the tail and ears of a horse.

The chorus of satyrs was always known to be jovial, bawdy, rustic, and roguish in their humor. Clearly, the illustrious citizens characterized in tragedies should be above such company-which is why it was so amusing to place them in the midst of a carousing chorus of satyrs.

In attempting to fit in with such a crowd, the famous characters had to suffer a certain loss of dignity, and thus, the satire made fun of the tragedy and perhaps also of itself.

Notable authors such as Aristophanes ridiculed and satirized all aspects of the Greek society, particularly the famous, noble, and most upstanding citizens of their day, or even of revered, legendary figures.

His Clouds lampooned the philosopher Socrates as a quarrelsome Sophist, and his Wasps attacked the Athenian courts and their proceedings. In satires the main characters were exaggerated buffoons, who spoke and performed every manner of nonsense.

No aspect of society was sacred in these comedies, and often even the very gods were lampooned. No limits were placed on the extent to which the author could go to ridicule his subject.

Experiencing The Drama

Greeks devoted two to four major religious holidays a year entirely to seeing plays-much as with modern three-day music festivals. Contests were held to determine the best tetralogy, or set of four plays.

Each tetralogy consisted of three tragedies followed by a satire. Each such quartet was performed on a single day, and many would never be repeated during the playwright's lifetime.

The festivals, called by such names as the Lesser Dionysia and the Greater Dionysia, were believed necessary to keep the cosmos in proper order, to enable the crops to grow, and the people to survive. Since the outlying villages held their own Dionysia on different days, it was possible to attend several such festivals during one season.

These ceremonies were so important that their proper conduct was a major responsibility of the state, which selected the actors and the choruses-and charged wealthy citizens special taxes to defray the costs.

All of Athens attended plays; those who could not afford to attend were provided with ticket money by the state. Dwarfing any modern theater, the Dionysian Theater held the whole town-estimates range from 14,000 to upward of 20,000 people. As these people were all Athenians, they were likely more homogenous in their outlook than a modern crowd.

Thus, the playwright could address plays very directly to his audience, making fun of individual Athenians, suggesting a course of action on current issues, referencing an inside joke, or even jokingly accusing someone in the audience of misconduct. The people watched plays from morning to evening, still maintaining an appetite for the subsequent days' performances.

With a single-minded audience in such rapt attention, leading tragic poets had an enormous opportunity to make an impact upon the people and upon the political process in towns such as Athens. They were thought of as teachers of the populace and bore an incredible responsibility for shaping the character of a powerful nation-state.

As these festivals were established at the urging of an oracle, all legal proceedings and business were put on hold. To disturb the proceedings, to strike the performers, or even to remove a person who had taken the wrong seat would be a crime that might well be punished with death.

The theater was treated like a temple. The high priest of Dionysus was seated in the center of the front row. An altar of Dionysus stood in the orchestral dancing ground, and the audience was seated on stone benches on the hillside. Across the dancing ground was the skene, a building where the actors could change their costumes.

Between the skene and the orchestra was the proskenion, which would later be called a stage. The chorus would parade in military formation up the paradoi, the entrance ramps leading to the proskenion.

Greek drama greatly influenced drama all over Europe throughout Roman times and during the Middle Ages. Many modern movies bear the influences of ancient Greek authors. Modern songs have choruses. Even if some of the religious implications have been dropped, the Greek influence remains.

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The Greeks invented drama from their wild religious ceremonies involving drinking, dancing, and revelry. This can be seen in the words that we use to describe drama today; for instance, theater originally meant "a spectacle or sight to behold", which is related to the Ancient Greek word thauma, "a miracle".

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The Romans conquered the Greek peninsula, this was the beginning of the end of ancient Greece. The Romans however would capture Egypt until later.

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Written by GreekBoston.com in Ancient Greek History, Greek Culture

Greece was one of the areas that dominated the ancient world. They fought off the Persian Empire and expanded their boundaries, especially during Alexander's reign. However, this didn't last forever because Greece was eventually invaded by Rome. Here's an overview of how this came to be:

Alexander Fears Rome's Strength

Even though Alexander the Great made many conquests, he sensed that Greece would eventually be overcome by the Roman Empire. In reference to Rome, he said, "I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion." Although Greece would remain strong for a while even after Alexander's death, it was only a matter of time before his fears were realized when General Mummius defeated the Greek army at the Battle of Corinth in 146 AD.

Rome Slowly Overtakes Greece

However, the Battle of Corinth was just the beginning. Rome's conquest of Corinth did not lead to complete domination of Greece immediately. Since each Greek city-state was independent, Rome extended its power over Greece step by step. Its victory over Corinth destroyed the Achaean League, a loose organization of northern city-states. This opened the door to further victories over the rest of the Greek peninsula. Rome first made Macedonia, the northernmost territory, a Roman province. From this base of operations, the conquerors methodically extended power over other Greek cities through diplomacy and war. By 27 B.C., the conquest was complete when Augustus Caesar made the entire Greek peninsula the province of Achaea.

Greece Influences Roman Culture

What is interesting is that after Rome conquered Greece, it is actually the Greek culture that influenced the Roman one. Usually, it's the other way around. Though defeated, the Greek culture deeply influenced the Romans in many ways. First, Greek construction and architecture attracted much attention from the Romans. The Romans rebuilt much of Greece that had been destroyed over the century of wars. Julius Caesar and Augustus rebuilt Athens with the construction of the Roman Agora. A large concert hall called the Agrippa was built in 15 B.C. by the Roman general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Hadrian built a library in 132 A.D. and finished the Temple of Olympian Zeus. Second, Roman rulers and citizens held Greek culture in high regard. Wealthy Romans sought Greek tutors to teach their children. The literature and learning of Greece also influenced Roman scholars of the time. For example, Virgil was inspired by the tales of Homer to write his Aeneid. Finally, the Greek language became the favored in the Roman Empire over the Latin language. Since Greece was the gateway to Rome's territories in the east, Greek became the trade language that united the empire. All of these influences prompted Horace, the Roman poet, to conclude, "Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror." As the Roman Empire grew larger in the second and third centuries, it became necessary to divide it into a western and eastern section. The western division eventually dissolved into fragmented parts by the fifth-century A.D. The eastern section, with its capital at Constantinople, continued strong for almost a 1000 years, and Greece was an important reason for that strength and stability. With its long tradition of strong city-states, Greece enjoyed a new golden age of prosperity and stability with nearly 80 cities that endured into the Seventh Century A.D.

Source: Greece in the Roman Era Battle of Corinth

Categorized in: Ancient Greek History, Greek Culture

This post was written by GreekBoston.com

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What to Know About the Roman Conquest of Greece

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Written by GreekBoston.com in Ancient Greek History, Greek Culture Greece was one of the areas that dominated the ancient world. They fought off the Persian Empire and expanded their boundaries, especially during Alexander's reign. However, this didn't last forever because Greece was eventually invaded by Rome.

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Even though the creation of the silk road was way before the time of the tang dynasty it played a major role in economy. The trading of goods with foreign countries allowed Chinas economy to grow.

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In 31 B.C. the Romans Captured Egypt after the Greeks ruled there for hundreds of years.

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History of Ancient Egypt under Roman Rule

The history of Roman Rule in ancient Egypt is long, having lasted close to 700 years. Before annexation by the Roman Empire, Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great, followed by the general Ptolemy. The Ptolemaic empire ruled Egypt for approximately 300 years.

The take-over by Rome was set in motion only a century into Greek reign, as the Ptolemies began forming alliances with the Romans. These alliances grew stronger and more abundant over time. Upon the death of Ptolemy Auletes in 51 B.C. the care of his children, including Cleopatra VII, fell to a Roman named Pompey.

The famed Cleopatra VII was the last Ptolemaic ruler. The story of Cleopatra, Marc Antony, and Caesar Augustus is the story of Roman conquest of Egypt. Augustus defeated Marc Antony, deposed Cleopatra, and annexed Ptolemaic Egypt to Rome. He then renamed it Aegyptus.

Egypt as a Roman Province

To block the influence of the Roman Senate on the new Aegyptus territory Caesar Augustus appointed a Prefect to rule Egypt. A Prefect was a man who was of the Equestrian Class, the lowest aristocratic class of Rome. The Roman Empire province of Egypt included most of todays' Egypt, except for the Sinai Peninsula. The Prefect Tragan later conquered and added Sinai.

The first Prefect of Egypt was Gaius Cornelius Gallus. Gallus brought Upper Egypt under full Roman control by military might. He brought Lower Egypt back into the Kingdom, which the Ptolemies abandoned. It was the job of the Prefect to administrate justice, provide military security, and organize finance and taxation for the province.

The third Prefect, Gaius Petronius, improved the province's wealth. He accomplished this by focusing on agriculture and restoring Egypt's neglected irrigation canals. This action brought about a boom in agriculture and economy that lasted for hundreds of years.

© Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. - Roman Coin depicting Egypt as a woman holding a sistrum

Roman Government

Roman government in ancient Egypt further divided the province into smaller provinces. Each had its own leadership that was subject to the Prefect. Roman administration maximized efficiency and revenue. This design as applied to Egypt was successful for the first few centuries.

Roman Military

The Roman military in ancient Egypt was at first made up of Greek and Egyptian soldiers. These soldiers had belonged to the Ptolemaic military. Three legions of Roman soldiers were then stationed in Aegyptus and used to expand or attempt to expand the province. The legions brought great security to the new province. Each legion had 5,120 men, plus servants and slaves. They were also used to keep the conquered under control and the people knew them for their harsh tactics.

The Romans had adapted their military for 500 years by the time they annexed Egypt. It was the most professional and effective military in the world. The size and strength of their infantry force was unequaled and would not be matched again for a thousand years. Like the Egyptians, the Romans utilized chariots to great effect.

© Wally Gobetz - Busts of Roman Emperors

Egyptian Economy under Roman Rule

The last century or so of Ptolemaic rule had seen the Egyptian economy in decline. The Romans advanced administrative knowledge and application improved the economy during Roman rule. Rome had developed a much more efficient and complex system of taxation. They also encouraged entrepreneurship by landowners and the wealthy by giving them lower tax rates.

The government encouraged the privatization of land and business. They monetized the economy. Goods and services moved around on a huge scale. The renewal of agriculture meant that large amounts of grains could be processed and shipped to Rome. Egypt was supplying most of Rome's grain in a short time. The poor and working class earned their living by working on lands owned by the Emperor or wealthy landowners.

The system taxed and burdened the lower classes at higher rates. The lower classes were exploited for the enrichment of the Empire and the wealthy classes. Over time this system of exploitation combined with corruption in the leadership of the smaller provinces caused a collapse. Reform became a theme during the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine 1. These reforms restored some of the productivity and resulting income.

Social Structure

Bust of a Roman Nobleman

A complicated system of social structure existed during Roman rule. Social classes were based on race and where you lived. The system divided classes as Roman citizens, Greeks, metropolites, and rural Egyptians.

The Romans viewed the Hellenic Greeks as Egyptians, which neither the Greeks nor the Egyptians agreed with. People who lived in a major city had a higher social status and paid lower taxes than those who lived in smaller cities or in the rural areas. Greeks paid higher taxes than Romans, but lower than Egyptians.

Only those who were citizens of Alexandria could become Roman citizens. This meant they could enjoy the privileges that went with that rank. There were also many Jewish communities in Egypt, and these held their own class and rank separate from the others.

There were few options for ascending in social class. Joining the Roman military was the simplest and most often used option. Native Egyptians were only allowed into the auxiliary forces. Once they finished their tour of duty, they became Roman citizens. The only other option for a native Egyptian was to become a citizen of Alexandria, but one had to prove familial ties to the city to do so.

A freed slave attained the status of his or her previous owner. Your social status also influenced the justice system. Roman citizens were executed by beheading, for instance, rather than crucified. One could not whip a Roman citizen, only an Egyptian. Greeks had the lesser punishment of beating by a rod.

Religion

Religion did not change much at first under Roman rule. The Emperors of course demanded worship as gods, but this was not foreign to the Egyptian way of life. The people also kept their other gods. Temples were built and well-kept during Ptolemaic rule. It seems the influence of the priests and priestesses on daily life had diminished with time.

Mark the Evangelist introduced Christianity to Egypt in 33 A.D. It was surprisingly well accepted by the Egyptian people. There were close similarities between the ancient religion of Egypt and Christianity. By 200 A.D. Alexandria was recognized as a major center of Christianity. It became the official religion of the land under Constantine 1.

The Council of Nicene, the desert fathers, and monasticism are all products of Egyptian Christianity. These practices helped set the course for the new religion.

Facts about Roman Ruled Egypt

Egypt annexed to Rome by Caesar Augustus in 30 B.C.

Caesar Augustus renamed Egypt to Aegyptus, which it remained while Rome ruled.

Aegyptus was ruled by a Prefect appointed by each Emperor.

Prefects were responsible for the administration, protection, and finances of the province.

Egypt was divided into smaller provinces that reported to the Prefect.

Egyptian agriculture thrived under Roman supervision.

The economy improved under Roman rule to begin with, then fell to corruption.

Reforms during the reign of Diocletian and Constantine 1 again saw improvement.

The Emperor stationed three Roman legions in Egypt for military strength and protection.

Social status was based upon a person's ethnicity and place of living.

Social statuses were Roman citizen, Greek, Metropolite, Egyptian, and Jew.

Taxation and justice were based on your social status.

Military service was the most common method of improving your status.

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The history of Roman Rule in ancient Egypt is long, having lasted close to 700 years. Before annexation by the Roman Empire, Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great, followed by the general Ptolemy. The Ptolemaic empire ruled Egypt for approximately 300 years.

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200-600 C.E.-Fall of the Han dynasty and the rise of the Tang dynasty 

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200-600 C.E.-Fall of the Han dynasty and the rise of the Tang dynasty 

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This is the period filled with war and violence between the Han and Tang dynasty.

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Factions and Land distribution

Factions - Factions arose between rich families being brought together through marriage. they would form a network among the family members. They only sought out for their raise in leader ship in the governmental ladder, while trying to put others down as well. This resulted in huge, uncontrollable fights.

Land Distribution - Another problem they had to deal with was the equal distribution of land. This plan however, did not work out well. Wang Mang's (who created this plan) short term (9-23c.e) even out lasted this plan. The plan did not work out well, when the land was given to the poorer peoples from the rich, the poor could not maintain the land effectively. Thus worsening the land condition overall.

Disease and Rebellion

Diseases - During the second and third centuries C.E., the Han Dynasty and Roman dynasty suffered large-scale outbreaks of epidemic disease. The most destructive of these diseases was smallpox and the measles. With Small pox being the most devastating. The diseases reached China much later than the Mediterranean, by the year 200 C.E., The Han dynasty had a population of 60 million, then by 400 C.E. (After the Han collapsed), they lost 10 million people.

Rebellion - The previous developments (Land distribution) caused the rich people to get very angry. Because the government was taking away their land to give to the poor. Anyway, the rich people gathered up small armies. They forced the government to push many of the taxes onto the poor people. The poor people got mad about this and revolted. This started the Yellow Turban rebellion. The significance of the Yellow turban rebellion is that even though they didn't "win", they shook up the government leaving them weak and susceptible to any future harming (which happened).

After the Han Dynasty

By 190 C.E., the Han Emperor became a mere puppet because the generals were gaining so much power. The generals sided with the wealthy landowners and established themselves as "warlords" over the area. The generals still recognized the emperor until 220 C.E., when they split the country up into 3 different kingdoms. Effectively ending the Han Dynasty.

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Factions - Factions arose between rich families being brought together through marriage. they would form a network among the family members. They only sought out for their raise in leader ship in the governmental ladder, while trying to put others down as well. This resulted in huge, uncontrollable fights.

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618 C.E.-The Tang dynasty begins, Li Yuan names himself the emperor  

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618 C.E.-The Tang dynasty begins, Li Yuan names himself the emperor  

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The Tang dynasty was founded by a military commander, Li Yuan,  who proclaimed himself emperor in 618 after suppressing a coup staged by the attendants-turned-assassins of the Sui emperor, Yangdi

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Emperor Gaozu of Tang (566-635) was the founder and first emperor of this great dynasty. He was born Li Yuan, and given the courtesy name of Shude. He took the name Gaozu, meaning High Founder or Progenitor, upon establishing the Tang Dynasty in 618.

Early Life

Li Yuan (Gaozu) was born to father Li Bing, Duke Ren of Tang, and mother Duchess Dugu. Li Yuan inherited the title Duke of Tang when his father died in 572. When Northern Wei fell to the Sui dynasty in 582, Li Yuan retained this title, as he was nephew to the founding emperor's wife.

In the early years of the Sui dynasty Li Yuan was a governor under first Emperor Wen, and later Emperor Yang (Li Yuan's first cousin). During a period of upheaval in 613 Li Tuan became a military general in charge of operations in the region west of Tong Pass.

He declined to return when Emperor Yang recalled him that same year. During this time Li Yuan gained much military experience and support.

In 615 Li Yuan was in charge military operations in the Hedong area. In 616 he became a governor based in the vital city of Taiyuan. Here he continued to gather power and support. He also developed peaceful relations with the Gokturks, nomadic peoples dominating the important Silk Road trade.

Around this time the rule of the Sui dynasty was crumbling. Li Yuan began to plot a rebellion at the urging of his second son, Li Shimin. He strengthened his troops claiming it necessary due to threats from the Eastern Tujue. He disguised his efforts as a campaign to make Yang You, Emperor Yang's grandson the emperor. With the help of several of his sons and daughters, Li Yuag was able to capture the capitol of Chang'an and established Yang You as Emperor Gong of Sui in late 617. Although many cities continued to recognize Emperor Yang, Li Yuan and his armies continued gradually defeating them.

The Tang Dynasty

Early in 618, Emperor Yang was killed by his general. Li Yuan convinced Emperor Gong to relinquish power. Li Yuan established the Tang Dynasty and became Emperor Gaozu on June 18th, 618. He was emperor during the first eight years of the Tang Dynasty. His sons were given royal titles and positions, including Li Shimin, named the Prince of Qin.

Emperor Gaozu worked to conquer other regions, thus unifying china under rule of the new Tang Dynasty. He restored many policies of the original Sui Emperor Wen, reversing several changes implemented by Emperor Wang. He also relaxed the harsh laws of the region and worked to promote trade.

Emperor Gaozu faced several military challenges early in the Tang Dynasty, the first of which came from Xue Ju, the leader of a neighboring small dynasty. Xue Ju fell ill and died early in the battle, and forces led by Li Shimin soon defeated his predecessor. Several more attempted uprisings were defeated by armies under Li Shimin, resulting in the incorporation of new regions into the Tang Dynasty.

In 1920, the Tang armies under Li Shimin began to invade the Zheng state. Wang, leader of Zheng, created an alliance with Dou, leader of the Xia state. Despite near victory of these combined forces, they were defeated by Tang forces in 1921. Zhenge territory and, briefly, Xia territory were incorporated into the Tang Dynasty. That same year Liang and Wu were defeated, and these regions also became part of the rapidly growing Tang Dynasty.

As the Tang Dynasty was beginning to thrive, rivalry was forming amongst Emperor Gaozu's sons. Li Shimin had the best military records, and his forces led to defeat of the Tang Dynasty's key rivals. This led him to have a superior military reputation, as well as the favor of his father, who considered naming Li Shimin crown prince. Meanwhile, Li Jiancheng made his own significant, if less impressive, contributions. Another son, Li Yuanji, supported Li Jiancheng and assisted in petitioning Emperor Gaozu to make him the crown prince instead.

In 622 Li Jiancheng led the battle against Liu Heita - the only remaining serious threat to the Tang Dynasty. The following year Liu was captured by one of his own officials. He was turned over to Li Jiancheng who executed him. Shortly thereafter, victory was declared. The goal of uniting China was nearly complete. By 624 however, Li Jianchenge began to bulk up his armies against Emperor Gaozu's wishes and ignored his rulings. When the emperor learned of this, he put Li Jiancheng under arrest and promised to make Li Shimin crown prince. However, as soon as Li Shimin had left the city on a mission, supporters of Li Jiancheng, including Li Yuanji, successfully petitioned on his behalf. Emperor Gaozu released him and allowed him to remain crown prince.

End of Reign as Emperor

Throughout the reign of Emperor Gaozu economic and cultural development within the Tang Dynasty flourished - as did military power. The only remaining threat was frequent challenges from the Eastern Tujue, near the capitol city, Chang'an. However, by 626 the bitter rivalry between his sons was beginning to overshadow foreign threats.

When Li Shimin fell ill after eating at Li Jiancheng's palace, both he and the emperor thought it was an assassination attempt. Both sons had loyal officials supporting their case with the Emperor while encouraging them to attack the other first.

The climax of the rivalry came when Emperor was set to send Li Shimin to lead the battle against yet another invasion by the Eastern Tujue. Li Jiancheng convinced the emperor to send Li Yuchi instead. Concerned by the idea that Li Jiancheng's biggest supporter had a large army in his command, Li Shimin told his father that both Li Jiancheng and Li Yuchi were committing adultery, having relations with their father's concubines. When Emperor Gaozu summoned the accused pair to return to the capitol, Li Shimin arranged an ambush to kill both of them on their way into the city.

After this brutal attack, Emperor Gaozu established Li Shimin as the crown prince. Only two months later, he released the throne making Li Shimin (who became Emperor Taizong) the Emperor of Tang.

Once retired, Emperor Gaozu had little control or influence on the policies of Tang. Despite relinquishing the throne in 626, he did not leave the main Taiji Palace until 629. At that time he moved to Hongyi Palace, and Emperor Taizong moved into the Taiji Palace. The following year Emperor Gaozu led the celebration when Emperor Taizong accomplished the long sought after victory over the Eastern Tujue. Emperor Gaozu fell ill in 634 and died in 635.

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Li Yuan Biography: Emperor Gaozu of Tang Dynasty (566-635)

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Emperor Gaozu of Tang (566-635) was the founder and first emperor of this great dynasty. He was born Li Yuan, and given the courtesy name of Shude. He took the name Gaozu, meaning High Founder or Progenitor, upon establishing the Tang Dynasty in 618.

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~600-700 C.E.-Woodblock printing was invented

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~600-700 C.E.-Woodblock printing was invented

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Somewhere between 600-700 woodblock printing was created. They mostly used this to make religious texts and it wasn't until the song dynasty that they used it for copying writings and books.

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Inspired by the art of Hokusai and other masters of Japanese woodblock prints? Or just looking to get your hands dirty and express yourself creatively? The ancient art of woodblock printing is a perfect craft to get started with printmaking. And the uses are endless. From decorative wrapping paper to wall art, there's so much you can do with woodblock prints. Of course, block printing can also be done using linoleum or rubber, but it's also just as easy to use wood scraps you have around the house or pick up at the hardware store.

What supplies are needed for woodblock printing?

Gouges of varying sizes will help carve away large areas or create fine details. The V-gouge is used to carve against the grain, while the U-gouge carves with the grain. You'll want to remember to not force the blades and keep them at a slight angle when carving to keep them from breaking. Also, remember to sharpen them, as this will make carving go more smoothly. Beginners may also find X-Acto knives to be a handy tool for incising fine lines.

This is what you'll use to roll the ink onto your woodblock. Brayers are created to apply the ink evenly, ensuring that you'll get a uniform distribution on the block. Just be sure not to overload your brayer with ink or you'll end up with a murky print.

Printing ink is specifically created to give even coverage and consistency so that the final print will come out clearly. Water-soluble inks are good for beginners, as they allow for quick cleanup. If you want to print on textiles, however, you'll want to pick up ink created specifically for printing on fabric. You'll also want a piece of glass to spread the ink on, prior to printing.

More of an optional tool, a baren is used to place even pressure on the back of the block when printing. Some people simply use their palm, wooden spoons, or other utensils to apply pressure, but a baren will ensure uniformity in the final product.

What type of wood is used for woodblock printing?

Part of the fun when starting with a new craft is experimentation, and picking the right wood for your print is no exception. Softer wood like pine, cedar, and poplar are easier to carve, but will be difficult for images with fine details. Soft woods are also prone to not holding up well during repeated printing. Hardwoods like ash, birch, apple, and cherry will fair better after multiple prints and they'll retain more detail, but their tight grain will make them more difficult to carve and will require you to continually sharpen your tools.

Alternatively, many printmakers use MDF or plywood as an affordable option, particularly when creating large images. MDF doesn't have grain, so you won't have to worry about splinters or cracks. But, it won't retain detail quite as well as real wood, and will dull your tools quickly. Cherry plywood is quite popular with printmakers for its solid outer veneer and tight grain. Shina plywood is also beloved for its blemish free surface and density, which holds detail.

No matter what type of wood you choose to experiment with, you'll want to select a piece free of knots, warps, and cracks.

How can I transfer an image to the woodblock?

Once you have your piece of wood selected, you'll need an image to carve. Some people prefer to draw directly on the block-remember the image will come out reversed when printed-while others transfer their images. If you aren't up to sketching yourself, there are many sources for free stock images -just check the fine print on usage to see if it's ok to use.

When transferring the image, you can use carbon paper or trace your image using a thick graphite pencil and then transfer it just as you would with carbon paper. You can also try using image transferring mediums like ModPodge for more complex drawings.

Once your image is traced on the wood, you may want to seal the block with a thin layer of clear acrylic varnish. This will help close the pores of the wood, meaning the ink won't soak in and warp the block during the printing process.

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How to Make Your Own Woodblock Print Like the Japanese Masters

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Inspired by the art of Hokusai and other masters of Japanese woodblock prints? Or just looking to get your hands dirty and express yourself creatively? The ancient art of woodblock printing is a perfect craft to get started with printmaking. And the uses are endless.

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Buddhism was already popular in China, but with the invention of Woodblock printing the Buddhist monks were able to spread their religion even more. During this time the monks gained more and more power in China and the leaders were not happy.

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This is part of a series that examines Chinese belief systems: how people think and behave, philosophically and religiously. In understanding Chinese belief systems, it is important not to take terms at face value; the word "religion" (zongjiao), for example, did not exist in the Chinese lexicon until the 19th century. Appreciating the complexity of Chinese belief systesm is crucial to understanding the forces that helped shape China.

Buddhism, a cultural system of beliefs and practices based on principles of compassion and non-attachment, originated in the sixth century BCE in what is today Nepal. It was brought to China by Buddhist monks from India during the latter part of the Han dynasty (ca. 150 CE) and took over a century to become assimilated into Chinese culture.

One of the key forces of Buddhism's success was Daoism. To help the Chinese comprehend Buddhist concepts, Buddhists borrowed ideas from Daoism via the Chinese language. Both Buddhism and Daoism benefited from this exchange. Daoists expanded their ideas about the cosmos and ways to structure their monastic orders. Buddhists gained a lexicon that made it easier to teach their tradition.

Over time Buddhism became a popular force in the lives of the Chinese, from the common people to the emperor himself. In fact, by the sixth century, Buddhism rivaled Daoism in popularity and political influence. It was during this time, and over the course of the next three centuries, that major schools of Chinese Buddhism formed. Two schools that retain their influence today are Pure Land Buddhism and Chan (Zen) Buddhism. Even in mainland China, where religion is often suppressed by the government, there are practitioners of these two schools of Chinese Buddhism.

Buddhism in China-as is the case with religious Daoism and Confucianism-also underwent many changes throughout the country's history and was varied in its social and religious manifestations and philosophical beliefs. Most scholars think of Buddhism as many Buddhisms. In the so-called classical period of Buddhism in China (Tang dynasty, 618-907 CE), there were a number of schools of Buddhism that taught and promoted their own philosophies and meditation practices. The Huayen and Tiantai schools, for instance, varied in philosophy, location, and political influence. The teachings of various schools influenced and were adapted by Korea and Japan.

One of the most popular figures in Chinese Buddhism is the Bodhisattva Guanyin (the one who perceives the laments of the world-Guanshiyin). Having originated from Indian Buddhism as a superior being who aids the suffering of the world, Guanyin has become a key figure in the devotional practices of Chinese Buddhists and Daoists alike.

Author: Geoff Foy

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This is part of a series that examines Chinese belief systems: how people think and behave, philosophically and religiously. In understanding Chinese belief systems, it is important not to take terms at face value; the word "religion" (zongjiao), for example, did not exist in the Chinese lexicon until the 19th century.

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After Buddhism gained a massive amount of popularity so did the monks, the royal court did not like the power of the monks so they decided to try to limit their power. "Nearly 50,000 monasteries and chapels were destroyed, 150,000 slaves seized and 250,000 monks and nuns forced back into civilian life." In 845 the court stopped, and their orders were abolished.

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Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine, and material culture.

The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations together with works composed in China into a printed canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the Chinese cultural sphere, including Korea, Japan, Ryukyu Islands and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism is also marked by the interaction between Indian religions, Chinese religion, and Taoism.

Various legends tell of the presence of Buddhism in Chinese soil in very ancient times. Nonetheless, the scholarly consensus is that Buddhism first came to China in the first century CE during the Han dynasty, through missionaries from India.

Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)

Earliest historical arrivals

Generations of scholars have debated whether Buddhist missionaries first reached Han China via the maritime or overland routes of the Silk Road. The maritime route hypothesis, favored by Liang Qichao and Paul Pelliot, proposed that Buddhism was originally practiced in southern China, the Yangtze River and Huai River region, where prince Ying of Chu (present day Jiangsu) was jointly worshipping the Yellow Emperor, Laozi, and Buddha in 65 CE.[citation needed ] The overland route hypothesis, favored by Tang Yongtong, proposed that Buddhism disseminated eastward through Yuezhi and was originally practiced in western China, at the Han capital Luoyang (present day Henan), where Emperor Ming of Han established the White Horse Temple in 68 CE. Rong Xinjiang, a history professor at Peking University, reexamined the overland and maritime hypotheses through a multi-disciplinary review of recent discoveries and research, including the Gandhāran Buddhist Texts, and concluded:

The view that Buddhism was transmitted to China by the sea route comparatively lacks convincing and supporting materials, and some arguments are not sufficiently rigorous. Based on the existing historical texts and the archaeological iconographic materials discovered since the 1980s, particularly the first-century Buddhist manuscripts recently found in Afghanistan, the commentator believes that the most plausible theory is that Buddhism reached China from the Greater Yuezhi of northwest India and took the land route to reach Han China. After entering into China, Buddhism blended with early Daoism and Chinese traditional esoteric arts and its iconography received blind worship.

Traditional accounts

A number of popular accounts in historical Chinese literature have led to the popularity of certain legends regarding the introduction of Buddhism into China. According to the most popular one, Emperor Ming of Han (28-75 CE) precipitated the introduction of Buddhist teachings into China. The (early 3rd to early 5th century) Mouzi Lihuolun first records this legend:

In olden days Emperor Ming saw in a dream a god whose body had the brilliance of the sun and who flew before his palace; and he rejoiced exceedingly at this. The next day he asked his officials: "What god is this?" the scholar Fu Yi said: "Your subject has heard it said that in India there is somebody who has attained the Dao and who is called Buddha; he flies in the air, his body had the brilliance of the sun; this must be that god."

The emperor then sent an envoy to Tianzhu (Southern India) to inquire about the teachings of the Buddha. Buddhist scriptures were said to have been returned to China on the backs of white horses, after which White Horse Temple was named. Two Indian monks also returned with them, named Dharmaratna and Kaśyapa Mātaṅga.

An 8th-century Chinese fresco at Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu portrays Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141-87 BCE) worshiping statues of a golden man; "golden men brought in 121 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads". However, neither the nor histories of Emperor Wu mentions a golden Buddhist statue (compare Emperor Ming above).

The first translations

The first documented translation of Buddhist scriptures from various Indian languages into Chinese occurs in 148 CE with the arrival of the Parthian prince-turned-monk An Shigao (Ch. 安世高). He worked to establish Buddhist temples in Luoyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselytism that was to last several centuries. An Shigao translated Buddhist texts on basic doctrines, meditation, and abhidharma. An Xuan (Ch. 安玄), a Parthian layman who worked alongside An Shigao, also translated an early Mahāyāna Buddhist text on the bodhisattva path.

Mahāyāna Buddhism was first widely propagated in China by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. 支婁迦讖, active c. 164-186 CE), who came from the ancient Buddhist kingdom of Gandhāra. Lokakṣema translated important Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, as well as rare, early Mahāyāna sūtras on topics such as samādhi, and meditation on the buddha Akṣobhya. These translations from Lokakṣema continue to give insight into the early period of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This corpus of texts often includes emphasizes ascetic practices and forest dwelling, and absorption in states of meditative concentration:

Paul Harrison has worked on some of the texts that are arguably the earliest versions we have of the Mahāyāna sūtras, those translated into Chinese in the last half of the second century CE by the Indo-Scythian translator Lokakṣema. Harrison points to the enthusiasm in the Lokakṣema sūtra corpus for the extra ascetic practices, for dwelling in the forest, and above all for states of meditative absorption ( samādhi). Meditation and meditative states seem to have occupied a central place in early Mahāyāna, certainly because of their spiritual efficacy but also because they may have given access to fresh revelations and inspiration.

Early Buddhist schools

During the early period of Chinese Buddhism, the Indian early Buddhist schools recognized as important, and whose texts were studied, were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas, Kāśyapīyas, Sarvāstivādins, and the Mahāsāṃghikas.

The Dharmaguptakas made more efforts than any other sect to spread Buddhism outside India, to areas such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China, and they had great success in doing so. Therefore, most countries which adopted Buddhism from China, also adopted the Dharmaguptaka vinaya and ordination lineage for bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs. According to A.K. Warder, in some ways in those East Asian countries, the Dharmaguptaka sect can be considered to have survived to the present. Warder further writes that the Dharmaguptakas can be credited with effectively establishing Chinese Buddhism during the early period:

It was the Dharmaguptakas who were the first Buddhists to establish themselves in Central Asia. They appear to have carried out a vast circling movement along the trade routes from Aparānta north-west into Iran and at the same time into Oḍḍiyāna (the Suvastu valley, north of Gandhāra, which became one of their main centres). After establishing themselves as far west as Parthia they followed the "silk route", the east-west axis of Asia, eastwards across Central Asia and on into China, where they effectively established Buddhism in the second and third centuries A.D. The Mahīśāsakas and Kāśyapīyas appear to have followed them across Asia into China. [...] For the earlier period of Chinese Buddhism it was the Dharmaguptakas who constituted the main and most influential school, and even later their Vinaya remained the basis of the discipline there.

Six Dynasties (220-589)

Early translation methods

Initially, Buddhism in China faced a number of difficulties in becoming established. The concept of monasticism and the aversion to social affairs seemed to contradict the long-established norms and standards established in Chinese society. Some even declared that Buddhism was harmful to the authority of the state, that Buddhist monasteries contributed nothing to the economic prosperity of China, that Buddhism was barbaric and undeserving of Chinese cultural traditions. However, Buddhism was often associated with Daoism in its ascetic meditative tradition, and for this reason a concept-matching system was used by some early Indian translators, to adapt native Buddhist ideas onto Daoist ideas and terminology.

Buddhism appealed to Chinese intellectuals and elites and the development of gentry Buddhism was sought as an alternative to Confucianism and Daoism, since Buddhism's emphasis on morality and ritual appealed to Confucianists and the desire to cultivate inner wisdom appealed to Daoists. Gentry Buddhism was a medium of introduction for the beginning of Buddhism in China, it gained imperial and courtly support. By the early 5th century Buddhism was established in south China. During this time, Indian monks continued to travel along the Silk Road to teach Buddhism, and translation work was primarily done by foreign monks rather than Chinese.

The arrival of Kumārajīva (334-413 CE)

When the famous monk Kumārajīva was captured during the Chinese conquest of the Buddhist kingdom of Kucha, he was imprisoned for many years. When he was released in AD 401, he immediately took a high place in Chinese Buddhism and was appraised as a great master from the West. He was especially valued by Emperor Yao Xing of the state of Later Qin, who gave him an honorific title and treated him like a god. Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism with his high quality translations (from AD 402-413), which are still praised for their flowing smoothness, clarity of meaning, subtlety, and literary skill. Due to the efforts of Kumārajīva, Buddhism in China became not only recognized for its practice methods, but also as high philosophy and religion. The arrival of Kumārajīva also set a standard for Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, effectively doing away with previous concept-matching systems.

The translations of Kumārajīva have often remained more popular than those of other translators. Among the most well-known are his translations of the Diamond Sutra, the Amitabha Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, and the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.

A completed Sūtra Piṭaka

Around the time of Kumārajīva, the four major Sanskrit āgamas were also translated into Chinese. Each of the āgamas was translated independently by a different Indian monk. These āgamas comprise the only other complete surviving Sūtra Piṭaka, which is generally comparable to the Pali Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism. The teachings of the Sūtra Piṭaka are usually considered to be one of the earliest teachings on Buddhism and a core text of the Early Buddhist Schools in China.

Early Chinese Buddhist traditions

Due to the wide proliferation of Buddhist texts available in Chinese and the large number of foreign monks who came to teach Buddhism in China, much like new branches growing from a main tree trunk, various specific focus traditions emerged. Among the most influential of these was the practice of Pure Land Buddhism established by Hui Yuan, which focused on Amitābha Buddha and his western pure land of Sukhāvatī. Other early traditions were the Tiantai, Huayan and the Vinaya school. Such schools were based upon the primacy of the Lotus Sūtra, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, and the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, respectively, along with supplementary sūtras and commentaries. The Tiantai founder Zhiyi wrote several works that became important and widely read meditation manuals in China such as the "Concise samatha-vipasyana", and the " Great samatha-vipasyana."

Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589) and Sui Dynasty (589-618 CE)

Chán: pointing directly to the mind

In the 5th century, the Chán (Zen) teachings began in China, traditionally attributed to the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma, a legendary figure. The school heavily utilized the principles found in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, a sūtra utilizing the teachings of Yogācāra and those of Tathāgatagarbha, and which teaches the One Vehicle (Skt. Ekayāna) to buddhahood. In the early years, the teachings of Chán were therefore referred to as the "One Vehicle School." The earliest masters of the Chán school were called "Laṅkāvatāra Masters", for their mastery of practice according to the principles of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.

The principal teachings of Chán were later often known for the use of so-called encounter stories and koans, and the teaching methods used in them. Nan Huai-Chin identifies the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra ( Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) as the principle texts of the Chán school, and summarizes the principles succinctly:

The Zen teaching was a separate transmission outside the scriptural teachings that did not posit any written texts as sacred. Zen pointed directly to the human mind to enable people to see their real nature and become buddhas.

Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)

Xuanzang's journey to the west

During the early Tang dynasty, between 629 and 645, the monk Xuanzang journeyed to India and visited over one hundred kingdoms, and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. During his travels he visited holy sites, learned the lore of his faith, and studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nālanda University. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. Xuanzang also returned with relics, statues, and Buddhist paraphernalia loaded onto twenty-two horses. With the emperor's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra, or "Consciousness-only".

The force of his own study, translation and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school in East Asia. Although the school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lack the necessary background in Indian logic. Another important disciple was the Korean monk Woncheuk.

Xuanzang's translations were especially important for the transmission of Indian texts related to the Yogācāra school. He translated central Yogācāra texts such as the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra and the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, as well as important texts such as the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra and the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabharāja Sūtra (Medicine Buddha Sūtra). He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun ( Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi Śāstra) as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sūtra became and remains the standard in all East Asian Buddhist sects. The proliferation of these sūtras expanded the Chinese Buddhist canon significantly with high quality translations of some of the most important Indian Buddhist texts.

Caves, art, and technology

The popularization of Buddhism in this period is evident in the many scripture-filled caves and structures surviving from this period. The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan and the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi are the most renowned examples from the Northern, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.

Monks and pious laymen spread Buddhist concepts through story-telling and preaching from sutra texts. These oral presentations were written down as bianwen (transformation stories) which influenced the writing of fiction by their new ways of telling stories combining prose and poetry. Popular legends in this style included Mulian Rescues His Mother, in which a monk descends into hell in a show of filial piety.

Making duplications of Buddhist texts was considered to bring meritorious karma. Printing from individually carved wooden blocks and from clay or metal movable type proved much more efficient than hand copying and eventually eclipsed it. The Diamond Sūtra ( Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) of 868 CE, a Buddhist scripture discovered in 1907 inside the Mogao Caves, is the first dated example of block printing.

Arrival of Esoteric Buddhism

The Kaiyuan's Three Great Enlightened Masters, Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, established Esoteric Buddhism in China from AD 716 to 720 during the reign of emperor Xuanzong. They came to Daxing Shansi (大兴善寺, Great Propagating Goodness Temple), which was the predecessor of Temple of the Great Enlightener Mahavairocana. Daxing Shansi was established in the ancient capital Chang'an, today's Xi'an, and became one of the four great centers of scripture translation supported by the imperial court. They had translated many Buddhist scriptures, sutra and tantra, from Sanskrit to Chinese. They had also assimilated the prevailing teachings of China: Daoism and Confucianism, with Buddhism, and had further evolved the practice of the Esoteric school.

They brought to the Chinese a mysterious, dynamic, and magical teaching, which included mantra formula and detailed rituals to protect a person or an empire, to affect a person's fate after death, and, particularly popular, to bring rain in times of drought. It is not surprising, then, that all three masters were well received by the emperor Tang Xuanzong, and their teachings were quickly taken up at the Tang court and among the elite. Mantrayana altars were installed in temples in the capital, and by the time of emperor Tang Daizong (r. 762-779) its influence among the upper classes outstripped that of Daoism. However, relations between Amoghavajra and Daizong were especially good. In life the emperor favored Amoghavajra with titles and gifts, and when the master died in 774, he honored his memory with a stupa, or funeral monument. The Esoteric Buddhist lineage of China (and almost all of Buddhism in China at the time) was nearly wiped out by the Emperor Tang Wuzong, leading to the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution. Historically, the Hanmi Chinese Esoteric School of Buddhism was also thought to have been lost when Emperor Tang Wuzong banned the teaching. Huiguo, the last known disciple of Amoghavajra, left China with Kukai traveling to Japan to establish the Japanese Esoteric school of Buddhism, later known as Shingon.

A disciple of Amoghavajra, Huisu, secretly continued the lineage in China and has been passed on through one master per generation. In 1989 the 48th Maha-Acharya Master Huiling of the Chinese Esoteric School passed the teaching to the 49th Lineage Bearer Master Yu Tian Jian who revived the school.

The Esoteric Buddhist lineages transmitted to Japan under the auspices of the monks Kūkai and Saicho, later formulated the teachings transmitted to them to create the Shingon sect and the Tendai sect.

Tang state repression of 845

There were several components that led to opposition of Buddhism. One factor is the foreign origins of Buddhism, unlike Daoism and Confucianism. Han Yu wrote, "Buddha was a man of the barbarians who did not speak the language of China and wore clothes of a different fashion. His sayings did not concern the ways of our ancient kings, nor did his manner of dress conform to their laws. He understood neither the duties that bind sovereign and subject, nor the affections of father and son."

Other components included the Buddhists' withdrawal from society, since the Chinese believed that Chinese people should be involved with family life. Wealth, tax-exemption status and power of the Buddhist temples and monasteries also annoyed many critics.

As mentioned earlier, persecution came during the reign of Emperor Wuzong in the Tang Dynasty. Wuzong was said to hate the sight of Buddhist monks, who he thought were tax-evaders. In 845, he ordered the destruction of 4,600 Buddhist monasteries and 40,000 temples. More than 400,000 Buddhist monks and nuns then became peasants liable to the Two Taxes (grain and cloth). Wuzong cited that Buddhism was an alien religion, which is the reason he also persecuted the Christians in China. David Graeber argues that Buddhist institutions had accumulated so much precious metals which the government needed to secure the money supply. Ancient Chinese Buddhism never fully recovered from the persecution.

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907-960/979)

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period ( simplified Chinese: 五代十国; traditional Chinese: 五代十國; pinyin: Wǔdài Shíguó ) was an era of political upheaval in China, between the fall of the Tang Dynasty and the founding of the Song Dynasty. During this period, five dynasties quickly succeeded one another in the north, and more than 12 independent states were established, mainly in the south. However, only ten are traditionally listed, hence the era's name, "Ten Kingdoms". Some historians, such as Bo Yang, count eleven, including Yan and Qi, but not Northern Han, viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han. This era also led to the founding of the Liao Dynasty.

After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, China was without effective central control during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. China was divided into several autonomous regions. Support for Buddhism was limited to a few areas. The Hua-yen and T'ien-t'ai schools suffered from the changing circumstances, since they had depended on imperial support. The collapse of T'ang society also deprived the aristocratic classes of wealth and influence, which meant a further drawback for Buddhism. Shenxiu's Northern Chán School and Henshui's Southern Chán School didn't survive the changing circumstances. Nevertheless, Chán emerged as the dominant stream within Chinese Buddhism, but with various schools developing various emphasises in their teachings, due to the regional orientation of the period. The Fayan school, named after Fa-yen Wen-i (885-958) became the dominant school in the southern kingdoms of Nan-T'ang ( Jiangxi, Chiang-hsi) and Wuyue (Che-chiang).

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

The Song Dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song ( Chinese: 北宋, 960-1127), the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of inner China. The Southern Song ( Chinese: 南宋, 1127-1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jin dynasty. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze River and established their capital at Lin'an (now Hangzhou). Although the Song Dynasty had lost control of the traditional birthplace of Chinese civilization along the Yellow River, the Song economy was not in ruins, as the Southern Song Empire contained 60 percent of China's population and a majority of the most productive agricultural land.

During the Song Dynasty, Chán (禪) was used by the government to strengthen its control over the country, and Chán grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. An ideal picture of the Chán of the Tang period was produced, which served the legacy of this newly acquired status.

In the early Song Dynasty "Chán-Pure Land syncretism became a dominant movement." Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Daoism, due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Various Confucian scholars of the Song dynasty, including Zhu Xi ( wg: Chu Hsi), sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo-Confucianism.

During the Song Dynasty, in 1021 CE, it is recorded that there were 458,855 Buddhist monks and nuns actively living in monasteries. The total number of monks was 397,615, while the total number of nuns was recorded as 61,240.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

During the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol emperors made Esoteric Buddhism an official religion of China, and Tibetan lamas were given patronage at the court. A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Mongol Yuan Dynasty was overthrown and the Ming Dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path.

Ming dynasty (1368-1644)

According to Weinstein, by the Ming Dynasty, the Chan school was so firmly established that all monks were affiliated with either the Linji school or the Caodong school.

During the Ming Dynasty, Hanshan Deqing was one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chán and Pure Land methods, and advocated the use of the ("Mindfulness of the Buddha") technique to purify the mind for the attainment of self-realization. He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator, and admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.

According to Jiang Wu, for Chan masters in this period such as Hanshan Deqing, training through self-cultivation was encouraged, and clichéd or formulaic instructions were despised. Eminent monks who practiced meditation and asceticism without proper Dharma transmission were acclaimed for having acquiring "wisdom without a teacher."

Qing dynasty (1644-1911)

The Qing court endorsed the Gelukpa School of Tibetan Buddhism. Early in the Taiping rebellion, the Taiping rebels targeted Buddhism. In the Battle of Nanjing (1853), the Taiping army butchered thousands of monks in Nanjing[citation needed ]. But from the middle of the Taiping rebellion, Taiping leaders took a more moderate approach, demanding that monks should have licences.[citation needed ]

Around 1900, Buddhists from other Asian countries showed a growing interest in Chinese Buddhism. Anagarika Dharmapala visited Shanghai in 1893, intending "to make a tour of China, to arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole world", but eventually limiting his stay to Shanghai. Japanese Buddhist missionaries were active in China in the beginning of the 20th century.

Republic of China (established 1912)

The modernisation of China led to the end of the Chinese Empire, and the installation of the Republic of China, which lasted on the mainland until the Communist Revolution and the installation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 which also led to the ROC government's exodus to Taiwan.

Under influence of the western culture, attempts were being made to revitalize Chinese Buddhism. Most notable were the Humanistic Buddhism of Taixu, and the revival of Chinese Chán by Hsu Yun. Hsu Yun is generally regarded as one of the most influential Buddhist teachers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Other influential teachers in the early 20th century included Pure land Buddhist Yin Guang ( 印光) and artist Hong Yi. Layman Zhao Puchu worked much on the revival.

Until 1949, monasteries were built in the Southeast Asian countries, for example by monks of Guanghua Monastery, to spread Chinese Buddhism. Presently, Guanghua Monastery has seven branches in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. Several Chinese Buddhist teachers left mainland China during the Communist Revolution, and settled in Hong Kong and Taiwan.

Master Hsing Yun (1927-present) is the founder of Fo Guang Shan monastery and lay organization the Buddha's Light International Association. Born in Jiangsu Province in mainland China, he entered the Sangha at the age of 12, and came to Taiwan in 1949. He founded Fo Guang Shan monastery in 1967, and the Buddha's Light International Association in 1992. These are among the largest monastic and lay Buddhist organizations in Taiwan from the late 20th to early 21st centuries. He advocates Humanistic Buddhism, which the broad modern Chinese Buddhist progressive attitude towards the religion.

Master Sheng Yen (1930-2009) was the founder of the Dharma Drum Mountain, a Buddhist organization based in Taiwan. During his time in Taiwan, Sheng Yen was well known as one of the progressive Buddhist teachers who sought to teach Buddhism in a modern and Western-influenced world.

Master Wei Chueh was born in 1928 in Sichuan, mainland China, and ordained in Taiwan. In 1982, he founded Lin Quan Temple in Taipei County and became known for his teaching on Ch'an practices by offering many lectures and seven-day Ch'an retreats.

People's Republic of China (established 1949)

Chinese Buddhist Association

Unlike Catholicism and other branches of Christianity, there was no organization in China that embraced all monastics in China, nor even all monastics within the same sect. Traditionally each monastery was autonomous, with authority resting on each respective abbot. In 1953, the Chinese Buddhist Association was established at a meeting with 121 delegates in Beijing. The meeting also elected a chairman, 4 honorary chairmen, 7 vice-chairmen, a secretary general, 3 deputy secretaries-general, 18 members of a standing committee, and 93 directors. The 4 elected honorary chairmen were the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama, the Grand Lama of Inner Mongolia, and Venerable Master Hsu Yun.

Reform and opening up - Second Buddhist Revival

Since the reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a new revival of Chinese Buddhism has been taking place. Ancient Buddhist temples are being restored and new Buddhist temples are being built.

Chinese Buddhist temples, administrated by local governments, have become increasingly commercialized by sales of tickets, incense, or other religious items; soliciting donations; and even the listing of temples on the stock market and local governments obtain large incomes. In October 2012, the State Administration for Religious Affairs announced a crackdown on religious profiteering. Many sites have done enough repairs and have already cancelled ticket fares and are receiving voluntary donation instead.

The 108-metre-high Guan Yin of the South Sea of Sanya statue was enshrined on April 24, 2005 with the participation of 108 eminent monks from various Buddhist groups from Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, and tens of thousands of pilgrims. The delegation also included monks from the Theravada and Tibetan Buddhist traditions. China is one of the countries with the most of the world's highest statues, many of which are Buddhist statues.

In April 2006 China organized the World Buddhist Forum, an event now held every two years, and in March 2007 the government banned mining on Buddhist sacred mountains. In May of the same year, in Changzhou, the world's tallest pagoda was built and opened. In March 2008 the Taiwan-based organizations Tzu Chi Foundation and Fo Guang Shan were approved to open a branch in mainland China.

Currently, there are about 1.3 billion Chinese living in the People's Republic. Surveys have found that around 18.2% to 20% of this population adheres to Buddhism. Furthermore, PEW found that another 21% of the Chinese population followed Chinese folk religions that incorporated elements of Buddhism.

Chinese Buddhism in Southeast Asia

Chinese Buddhism is mainly practiced by ethnic Han-Chinese in Southeast Asia.

Chinese Buddhism in the West

The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua, who taught Chán and other traditions of Chinese Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s. He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas, a monastery and retreat center located on a 237-acre (959,000 m²) property near Ukiah, California. Chuang Yen Monastery and Hsi Lai Temple are also large centers.

Sheng Yen also founded dharma centers in the USA.

Esoteric Buddhism

In China and countries with large Chinese populations such as Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore, Esoteric Buddhism is most commonly referred to as the Chinese term Mìzōng (密宗), or "Esoteric School." Traditions of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism are most commonly referred to as referred as Tángmì (唐密), "Tang Dynasty Esoterica," or Hànchuán Mìzōng (漢傳密宗), "Han Transmission Esoteric School" (Hànmì 漢密 for short), or Dōngmì (東密), "Eastern Esoterica," separating itself from Tibetan and Newar traditions. These schools more or less share the same doctrines as Shingon, and in some cases, Chinese monks have traveled to Japan to train and to be given esoteric transmission at Mount Koya and Mount Hiei.

Unrecognised sects

There are many sects and organisations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit ( fo or fu: "awakening", "enlightenment") that are not recognised as legitimate Buddhism by the Chinese Buddhist Association and the government of the People's Republic of China. This group includes:

Dajiang Foguo (大江佛国 "Land of Awakening of the Great River")

Fo Dang / Fo Guo (佛党 "Party of Awakening" / 佛国 "Nation of Awakening")

Fo Shengmen (佛圣门 "Holy Gate of Awakening")

Guanyin Famen (观音法门 "Guanyin Gateway")

Guanyin Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] (观音佛教 Guānyīn Fójiào) or Guanyin Church (观音会 Guānyīn Huì)

Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] of the Lord of Heaven of Infinite Thriving of the Mountain of Longevity (寿山万隆天主佛教 Shòushān Wànlóng Tiānzhǔ Fójiào)

Church of the Heaven and the Earth of the Immortal Awakened Ones (天地佛仙会 Tiāndì Fúxiān Huì)

Wulian Jingang Dadao ("Great Way of the Innumerable Attendants of Awakening")

Gate of Awakening of the Numinous Mountain of the Western Heaven (西天灵山佛门 Xītiān Língshān Fómén)

Yuandun Famen (圆顿法门 "Gateway of the Cycle End")

Yuan Nong Foheguo (元农佛和国 "Yuan Peasants' Nation of Awakening")

Vajrayana movements:

Basic concepts

Chinese Buddhism incorporates elements of traditional Buddhism and Taoism.

Common practices include

praying with incense

paying respect to dead ancestors during Qingming and Hungry Ghost festival

praying to multitude of deities such as Guanyin, Deva who resides in the heavenly realm

recognition of existence of ghosts and hell realm

reincarnation (超生)

retribution (報應)

people affinity (緣份)

perform religious ceremonies to help the soul find peace (超渡)

vegetarianism and compassion towards all living beings

Incense burning

During the Zhou dynasty, Chinese believed that smoke resulting from burning wood act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits. When Buddhism reached China, this wood evolved into sandalwood incense which were originally burned by Indian Buddhists so they could concentrate better.

It can be seen that incense burning as it is known today is a merger between Chinese culture and Buddhist culture.

Laypeople in Chinese Buddhism

In Chinese Buddhism, lay practitioners have traditionally played an important role, and lay practice of Buddhism has had similar tendencies to those of monastic Buddhism in China. Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci which provide extensive and revealing accounts to the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China.

Traditional practices such as meditation, mantra recitation, mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha, asceticism, and vegetarianism were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people. It is known from accounts in the Ming Dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chán traditions, as well as the study of the Buddhist sūtras. The Heart Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra were the most popular, followed by the Lotus Sūtra and the .

Laypeople were also commonly devoted to the practice of mantras, and the Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī were very popular. Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the populace and the elite.

Mahāyāna figures such as Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva, Amitābha Buddha, and the Medicine Buddha, were all widely known and revered. Beliefs in karma and rebirth were held at all levels of Chinese society, and pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and the four holy mountains of China were undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.

These are the holy days that Chinese Buddhists celebrate by visiting temples to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers and donations. On such days they observe the moral precepts very strictly as well as a full day's vegetarian diet, a practice originally from China.

The dates given are based on the Chinese calendar system so that 8.4 means the Eighth day of the fourth month in Chinese calendar and so on.

8.12 - Enlightenment Day of Śākyamuni Buddha

1.1 - Birthday of Maitreya Buddha

9.1 - Birthday of Śakra, Lord of the Devas

8.2 - Renunciation Day of Śākyamuni Buddha

15.2 - Mahāparinirvāṇa Day of Śākyamuni Buddha

19.2 - Birthday of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guan Yin)

21.2 - Birthday of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra

4.4 - Birthday of Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī

8.4 - Birthday of Śākyamuni Buddha

15.4 - Vesak Day

13.5 - Birthday of Bodhisattva Sangharama (Qie Lan)

3.6 - Birthday of Skanda (Wei Tuo)

19.6 - Enlightenment Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara

13.7 - Birthday of Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta

15.7 - Ullambana Festival Ghost Festival

24.7 - Birthday of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna

30.7 - Birthday of Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha

22.8 - Birthday of Dīpaṃkara Buddha (an ancient buddha)

19.9 - Renunciation Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara

30.9 - Birthday of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha (Medicine Buddha)

5.10 - Anniversary of the death of Bodhidharma

17.11 - Birthday of Amitābha Buddha

References

Broughton, Jeffrey L. (1999), The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-21972-4

Chen, Kenneth Kuan Sheng. Buddhism in China: A historical survey. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1964.

Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History, 1: India and China, Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, ISBN 0-941532-89-5

Han Yu. "Sources of Chinese Tradition. c. 800.

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-66991-X (paperback).

Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. John E. Hill. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.

Hodus, Lewis (1923), Buddhism and Buddhists in China

Kambe, Tstuomu, Bodhidharma. A collection of stories from Chinese literature (PDF)

Lai, Hongyi Harry (2003), The Religious Revival in China. In: Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies 18

Laliberte, Andre (2011), Buddhist Revival under State Watch, in: Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 40, 2,107-134

Liebenthal, Walter. Chao Lun - The Treatises of Seng-Chao Hong Kong, China, Hong Kong University Press, 1968

Liebenthal, Walter. Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, 1952 http://data.datacite.org/10.5169/seals-145467

McRae, John R. (2000), "The Antecedents of Encounter Dialogue in Chinese Ch'an Buddhism", in Heine, Steven; Wright, Dale S., The Kōan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism, Oxford University Press

McRae, John (2003), Seeing Through Zen, The University Press Group Ltd

Mullin, Glenn H.The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnations (2001) Clear Light Publishers. ISBN 1-57416-092-3

Saunders, Kenneth J. (1923). "Buddhism in China: A Historical Sketch", The Journal of Religion, Vol. 3.2, pp. 157-169; Vol. 3.3, pp. 256-275.

Welch, Holmes. The practice of Chinese Buddhism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967.

Welch, Holmes. The Buddhist revival in China. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968.

Welch, Holmes. Buddhism under Mao. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972.

Welter, Albert (2000), Mahakasyapa's smile. Silent Transmission and the Kung-an (Koan) Tradition. In: Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright (eds)(2000): "The Koan. Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Yang, Fenggang; Wei, Dedong, THE BAILIN BUDDHIST TEMPLE: THRIVING UNDER COMMUNISM (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on June 6, 2010

Zhu, Caifang (2003), Buddhism in China Today: The Example of the Bai Lin Chan Monastery. Perspectives, Volume 4, No.2, June 2003 (PDF)

Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1987), "The Sound of the One Hand", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 107, No. 1, 107 (1): 125-126, doi:10.2307/602960, JSTOR 602960

Further reading

Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (1999). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 1: A General Survey. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 1, 91-103. Archived from the original

Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2001). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 2: The Earliest Period; Chapter 3: Hui-yuan of Mt.Lu; and Chapter 4: The Translation of Texts-Spurious Scriptures. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 3, 241-275. Archived from the original

Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2002). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter Five: The Early Pure Land Faith: Southern China, and Chapter Six: The Early Pure Land Faith: Northern China. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 4, 259-279. Archived from the original

Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2000). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 7: T'an-luan. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 2, 149-165. Archived from the original

First Buddhist revival

Contemporary Chinese Buddhism

External links

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Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine, and material culture. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations together with works composed in China into a printed canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the Chinese cultural sphere, including Korea, Japan, Ryukyu Islands and Vietnam.

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In the 800s Chinese scientists were trying to find a substance that would cause immortality but instead discovered gunpowder which became the most deadly thing in the world.

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The invention of gunpowder by Tang Dynasty Chinese alchemists, around 850 A.D. led to military applications in China and eventually around the world.

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The Tang dynasty ended when a military governor named Zhu Wen took the throne of Emperor Ai. A year later Zhu Wen poisoned Ai and died.

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Tang dynasty is one of the most magnificent dynasties of China. Tang projected its power over Manchuria, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and Central Asia. In fact, Tang was probably the strongest empire in the early medieval period.

Chinese scholars usually called the decline and fall of imperial dynasties "a vicious cycle." No matter how glorious Tang was, Tang could not escape an inevitable fate that befell on other dynasties.

An Shi Rebellion

An Shi Rebellion was the first catalyst that led to Tang's eventual downfall. There were many causes of this rebellion. In the mid-8th century, the Tang court was in complete decadence. Emperor Xuanzong ignored his duties and spent most of his time with consort Yang Guifei. This put the court under the control of Yang Guozhong, a highly corrupt chancellor.

Furthermore, the emperor also gave excessive military power to non-Han generals, providing them many capabilities to revolt.

In 755, An Lushan started a rebellion and marched toward the heart of the Tang dynasty. Literally, no one could stop him, because his troops were experienced frontier guards, while the imperial troops were left rotten in the capital for years.

An Lushan quickly conquered Luoyang, the eastern capital. He then marched west to strike Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the capital of the Tang dynasty. Tang resistance was fierce. However, the rebels finally overcame the defense and captured the capital, forcing emperor Xuanzhong to flee to Sichuan. Soon, he abdicated in favor of his son, Emperor Suzong.

The new emperor formed his new army and sent it to crush the rebels. Both sides fought fiercely in the central plains of China for years. In the end, Tang dynasty was finally able to subjugate the rebels.

However, at what cost?

Consequences

Chinese historians compared two consensuses, the pre-rebellion one and post-rebellion one. The pre-rebellion recorded that the empire had a population of 52,919,309 in 755. However, the post-rebellion one showed that the population was only 16,900,000 in 764 or the year that the rebellion was over.

The difference between the two was 36 million. However, this certainly does not imply that the rebellion caused 36 million deaths. This was because the protracted war could certainly lead many to flee their hometowns, creating a huge error in the collection of data.

By the way, the death toll was still significant. The numbers may be up to ten million deaths. A sharp decline in population also led to a plunge in imperial revenue, as fewer taxpayers were available, causing financial problems in later decades.

Constant warfare in the rebellion permanently destroyed the fertility of the central region of China. Chang'an and Luoyang had to rely on grains from the southern areas ever since. As a result, trade and commerce in the southern area prospered. The economic power thus started to slip from the imperial grip at Chang'an.

Loss of imperial power

Military governors (Jiedushi)

Tang dynasty was in gradual decline after the rebellion, despite numerous attempts to stop it. One of the most problematic issues in this period was the rise in power of the regional military governors (Jiedushi, 节度使.)

Theoretically, the Jiedushis were military governors appointed by the Tang imperial court. The original propose of creating them was to fend off foreign invaders. However, as their posts were far from the capital, and all Jiedushis directly controlled the army, they took that opportunity to expand their influence.

The Jiedushis took the assigned regions as their own and became the regions' de-facto ruler. They can conscript more men into the army, collect taxes for themselves and even promote or demote their retainers or generals.

Hence, the Jiedushis became a regional power that the imperial court could not ignore. If the imperial court attempted to strip their titles or ranks, these Jiedushis, such as An Lushan, could rebel.

Prolonged Trouble from the Jiedushis

Initially, the Tang court could not risk another rebellion, as it could put the dynasty into an abrupt end. The imperial court chose a pacifist policy. The Tang government decided to control these regions nominally. To obtain the loyalty of these Jiedushis, Tang court made their titles hereditary. This meant that the descendants of the Jiedushis would remain Jiedushis.

Even though this policy kept the Jiedushis in check, the force that threatened the dynasty would never disappear. Those regions under Jiedushis would never come back under imperial control. Imperial authority over those lands was gone forever.

This fact was clear to several Tang emperors such as Emperor Dezong and Emperor Xianzong. Hence, they tried to quell the power of these military governors and restore imperial authority. Though there were some successes, all of them were temporary. Tang court in the 8th-9th century had to spend resources trying to suppress these warlords for a century without any long-term success.

Frequent wars against these Jiedushis significantly worsened the imperial treasury. Tax revenues that suffered from the decreased population could not cover the expenses. To finance the expedition, the Tang government had to increase the taxes on peasants, leading to widespread discontent over the realm.

Eunuchs

Eunuchs are men who served the emperor in the palace after their castration. Throughout Chinese history, eunuchs usually become powerful in imperial politics. Strong emperors would keep these eunuchs in check, while weak emperors fell into the grasp of the eunuchs.

The rise of eunuch was repeated in every major Chinese dynasty. Tang dynasty was not an exception.

Eunuchs' power in the Tang dynasty

These eunuchs rose in prominence in the reign of Emperor Dezong of Tang. As the emperor attempted to crush the Jiedushis, he relied on the advice of these eunuchs. Since the emperor put his trust in them, they were gradually promoted, so their power increased as well.

Several Tang emperors also died relatively young, so their legitimate heirs were either too young or weak to handle administrative affairs. Thus, he had to put their faith on the eunuchs, whom most of the time were the same people who brought up these emperors. Thus, it was inevitable that the eunuchs possessed imperial powers.

As the court was under the eunuchs' control, leaders of the eunuchs would exterminate everyone who obstructed their power. Honest and capable ministers would be expelled or executed. Soon, the eunuchs' powers would be too formidable for even emperors to openly challenge them. In the late Tang dynasty, several emperors such as Emperor Jingzong and Wenzong were murdered by these formidable eunuchs.

The administration under these eunuchs was disastrous. Corruption was rampant. People's sufferings were ignored. Hence, they began to lose faith in the government. Many would believe that Tang had already lost their Mandate of Heaven (Tianming), and the new dynasty was imminent.
Well, they were in fact correct.
Overall, Tang emperors not only lost their imperial authority over key states to the Jiedushis, and but also imperial power to the eunuchs. As a result, they became puppet emperors.

Agrarian Rebellion

As the whole court was under the eunuchs' control, Tang emperors, who were now puppet emperors, had no need or power to govern by themselves. Hence, they spent their time on alcohols, women, and luxuries.

The imperial families were no different. For instance, when a daughter of Emperor Yizong married, she spent five million taels of silver on her lavish ceremony. That equaled to cumulative yearly incomes of tens of thousands of peasants.

Certainly, imperial treasuries could not keep up with their spending. They became strained in the late Tang period. Tang administration solved this problem by increasing taxes on the population.

That was another grave mistake. It led to widespread discontent, especially among the peasants who suffered most. Their incomes already plunged because natural disasters in the 860-870 AD destroyed their crops.

Finally, the peasants had no choice. They could not tolerate anymore, so they decided to rebel in 874. Thus began the major rebellion of late Tang dynasty.

Beginning

Their leaders were Wang Xianzhi and Huang Chao. Many peasants quickly joined their ranks. The rebels soon numbered more than 10,000 and started attacking major provinces in the central part of China.

Tang court chose to implement a divide-and-conquer strategy to deal with the rebels. The emissary came to Wang Xianzhi and offered him a title of general. This caused a major break between Wang Xianzhi and Huang Chao. In 877, Huang Chao left Wang Xianzhi and campaigned by himself. Unfortunately for Wang Xianzhi, the negotiations failed. Tang imperial troops defeated and killed him in 878.

After Wang Xianzhi's death, his followers rejoined Huang Chao's army. Huang Chao attempted to raid Luoyang, Tang's eastern capital. However, he faced stiff resistance, so he marched south to avoid a battle with major Tang armies.

Rebels gained strength

Huang Chao quickly conquered several prefectures in the south of the Yangtze River. This caused turmoil in the Tang court. Thus, the Tang government tried to tame him by offering him several titles. However, both sides never reached an agreement.

In fall 879, the rebels attacked and sacked Guangzhou. Arab sources pointed out that foreign merchants up to 200,000 were killed. Whether the massacre really occurred was unclear, as it was not mentioned in any Chinese source.

Hot weather and illnesses in the south killed many of Huang Chao's troops. Hence, He decided to march back north. On his way, he fought with several imperial armies. Huang Chao suffered some defeats but still managed to plunder several prefectures. This pillage kept his army intact.

The tide of war turned against Tang dynasty, as Huang Chao defeated a major imperial army in 880. His victory increased his prestige among the people. Many more peasants who suffered from the Tang regime joined his army. Some who refused to do so were conscripted by Huang Chao. Within months, his army was as large as 150,000 men.

His army was near Chang'an in late 880. Tang generals attempted to block the rebels'advance to the capital. Unfortunately, they failed, as many imperial soldiers mutinied. Emperor Xizong of Tang had to abandon the capital and flee to Sichuan in early 881.

Tang's revival

After Huang Chao captured Chang'an, he executed many of the imperial Li Clan, and purged former imperial officers who were disobedient. Huang later declared himself emperor of Qi.

Huang Chao really made a terrible mistake for not following Emperor Xizong. This made the crumbling Tang regime regained an initiative. Emperor Xizong rallied troops from all regions and recruited even nomadic tribals to crush Huang Chao and his new regime.

Emperor Xizong appointed Li Keyong, a leader of the Shatuo tribe as a general. He combined his nomadic cavalry with the Tang imperial troops and struck the rebels. Many of Huang Chao's followers surrendered to Tang. The most prominent one was Zhu Wen.
*Remember Zhu Wen, we will talk about this guy later.
Li Keyong and the Tang army crushed the rebels' major army in spring 883. This victorious army then marched toward Chang'an to recapture it from the rebels. Huang Chao could not stay further in Chang'an, so he fled east. Huang Chao was defeated and killed in summer 884, though many sources pointed out that he committed suicide.

Into the abyss

Overall, this agrarian rebellion was disastrous for the Tang dynasty. The imperial government took a decade (874 AD-884 AD) to defeat the rebels. Subsequently, the Jiedeshis again rose in power. Some were ex-rebel generals who defected to Tang such as Zhu Wen. Some were generals who proved themselves in battles against rebels like Li Keyong.

Many of these warlords openly fought against each other. The entire realm was in disarray. In other words, no one feared the Tang emperor anymore.

Zhu Wen

After surrendering to Tang, Zhu Wen was instrumental in ending the rebellion. As a result, he received many promotions, making him one of the Jiedushis.

Zhu Wen took an opportunity of weakness in the imperial court to expand his influence. He built up his position at Xuanwu circuit and conquered other territories from fellow warlords. Within years, he was the strongest warlord in the realm.

He was far from being humble. In fact, Zhu Wen was extremely ambitious and bloodthirsty. He marched an army to seize Chang'an in 903. Emperor Zhaozong (Emperor Xizong's younger brother) was in Zhu Wen's hand. He quickly executed his enemies in the court and forced the emperor to move the capital to Luoyang.

Despite holding the emperor firmly in his hand, Zhu Wen was still apprehensive. He was afraid that the emperor would conspire with the officials and other Jiedushis against him.

He decided to eradicate this threat by starting another great purge. In 904, he ordered his troops to attack the palace and killed the emperor. Emperor Zhaozong died along with many members of his clans, loyal officials, and their family members.

The last emperor of the Tang Dynasty

Zhu Wen felt he was not ready to take the throne. He crowned Li Zuo, an infant son of Emperor Zhaozong, emperor. He would be remembered as Emperor Ai, the last Tang emperor.

Emperor Ai was an innocent child. Therefore, he could not obstruct Zhu Wen's authority. Zhu Wen later killed all older brothers of the new emperor. At this point, Zhu had already slaughtered almost every member of the imperial family.

In 907, Zhu Wen forced emperor Ai to yield the throne to him. The young emperor was too powerless to resist. He abdicated the throne in that spring. Zhu Wen then became the emperor of the Liang dynasty. Tang dynasty was effectively over.

Emperor Ai did not survive long. A year after his abdication, he was dead. His guards killed him on Zhu Wen's orders.

Cr: Zizhi Tongjian

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How the Tang Dynasty Declined and Fell - Victory Tale

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Tang dynasty is one of the most magnificent dynasties of China. Tang projected its power over Manchuria, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and Central Asia. In fact, Tang was probably the strongest empire in the early medieval period. Chinese scholars usually called the decline and fall of imperial dynasties "a vicious cycle."

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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/decline-of-the-tang-dynasty/
https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/tang-dynasty#:~:text=The%20Tang%20Dynasty%20is%20considered,culture%20across%20much%20of%20Asia.https://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/