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C'est un article sur le Pony Express qui était un service de publipostage qui a contribué à transformer l'Ouest Américain.

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On this day in 1860, the first Pony Express mail, traveling by horse and rider relay teams, simultaneously leaves St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. Ten days later, on April 13, the westbound rider and mail packet completed the approximately 1,800-mile journey and arrived in Sacramento, beating the eastbound packet's arrival in St. Joseph by two days and setting a new standard for speedy mail delivery. Although ultimately short-lived and unprofitable, the Pony Express captivated America's imagination and helped win federal aid for a more economical overland postal system. It also contributed to the economy of the towns on its route and served the mail-service needs of the American West in the days before the telegraph or an efficient transcontinental railroad.

The Pony Express debuted at a time before radios and telephones, when California, which achieved statehood in 1850, was still largely cut off from the eastern part of the country. Letters sent from New York to the West Coast traveled by ship, which typically took at least a month, or by stagecoach on the recently established Butterfield Express overland route, which could take from three weeks to many months to arrive. Compared to the snail's pace of the existing delivery methods, the Pony Express' average delivery time of 10 days seemed like lightning speed.

The Pony Express Company, the brainchild of William H. Russell, William Bradford Waddell and Alexander Majors, owners of a freight business, was set up over 150 relay stations along a pioneer trail across the present-day states of Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada and California. Riders, who were paid approximately $25 per week and carried loads estimated at up to 20 pounds of mail, were changed every 75 to 100 miles, with horses switched out every 10 to 15 miles. Among the riders was the legendary frontiersman and showman William "Buffalo Bill" Cody (1846-1917), who reportedly signed on with the Pony Express at age 14. The company's riders set their fastest time with Lincoln's inaugural address, which was delivered in just less than eight days.

The initial cost of Pony Express delivery was $5 for every half-ounce of mail. The company began as a private enterprise and its owners hoped to gain a profitable delivery contract from the U.S. government, but that never happened. With the advent of the first transcontinental telegraph line in October 1861, the Pony Express ceased operations. However, the legend of the lone Pony Express rider galloping across the Old West frontier to deliver the mail lives on today.

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On this day in 1860, the first Pony Express mail, traveling by horse and rider relay teams, simultaneously leaves St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. Ten days later, on April 13, the westbound rider and mail packet completed the approximately 1,800-mile journey and arrived in Sacramento, beating the eastbound packet's arrival in St.

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JULIE LB  Voici un article sur Hollywood, Californie. Il est célèbre pour son rôle dans le cinéma.

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JULIE LB  Voici un article sur Hollywood, Californie. Il est célèbre pour son rôle dans le cinéma.

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Hollywood | History, Movies, Map, Sign, & Facts

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Hollywood, district within the city of Los Angeles, California, whose name is synonymous with the American film industry. It was laid out as a real-estate subdivision in 1887 by Harvey Wilcox, and H.J. Whitley, known as the ‘Father of Hollywood,’ later transformed it into a wealthy and popular resid…

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NOAH                    Voici un article sur la ruée vers l'or en Californie. C'est court et très détaillé. Cela donne une bonne explication si vous êtes curieux.

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NOAH                    Voici un article sur la ruée vers l'or en Californie. C'est court et très détaillé. Cela donne une bonne explication si vous êtes curieux.

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- Sebastian Peng

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Sutter's Mill

On January 24, 1848, James Wilson Marshall, a carpenter originally from New Jersey, found flakes of gold in the American River at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains near Coloma, California.

At the time, Marshall was working to build a water-powered sawmill owned by John Sutter, a German-born Swiss citizen and founder of a colony of Nueva Helvetia (New Switzerland, which would later become the city of Sacramento). As Marshall later recalled of his historic discovery: "It made my heart thump, for I was certain it was gold."

Did you know? Miners extracted more than 750,000 pounds of gold during the California Gold Rush.

Days after Marshall's discovery at Sutter's Mill, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, ending the Mexican-American War and leaving California in the hands of the United States-a remarkable twist of fate with important ramifications for an America eager for westward expansion.

At the time, the population of the territory consisted of 6,500 Californios (people of Spanish or Mexican descent); 700 foreigners (primarily Americans); and 150,000 Native Americans (barely half the number that had been there when Spanish settlers arrived in 1769).

Sutter, in fact, had enslaved hundreds of Native Americans and used them as a free source of labor and makeshift militia to defend his territory and expand his empire.

Gold Fever Strikes

Though Marshall and Sutter tried to keep news of the discovery under wraps, word got out, and by mid-March at least one newspaper was reporting that large quantities of gold were being turned up at Sutter's Mill. Though the initial reaction in San Francisco was disbelief, storekeeper Sam Brannan set off a frenzy when he paraded through town displaying a vial of gold obtained from Sutter's Creek.

By mid-June, shops and businesses stood empty, as some three-quarters of the male population of San Francisco had abandoned the city for the gold mines, and the number of miners in the area ballooned to some 4,000 by August.

As news reports-many wildly overblown-of the easy fortunes being made in California spread worldwide, some of the first migrants to arrive were those from lands accessible by boat, such as Oregon, the Sandwich Islands (now Hawaii), Mexico, Chile, Peru and China.

Polk Spreads Gold Fever

When the news reached the East Coast, press reports were initially skeptical. Gold fever kicked off nationwide in earnest, however, after December 1848, when President James K. Polk announced the positive results of a report made by Colonel Richard Mason, California's military governor, in his inaugural address.

As Polk wrote, "The accounts of abundance of gold are of such an extraordinary character as would scarcely command belief were they not corroborated by the authentic reports of officers in the public service."

The '49ers Come to California

Throughout 1849, people around the United States (mostly men) with gold fever borrowed money, mortgaged their property or spent their life savings to make the arduous journey to California. In pursuit of the kind of wealth they had never dreamed of, they left their families and hometowns. In turn, women left behind took on new responsibilities such as running farms or businesses and caring for their children alone.

Thousands of would-be gold miners, known as 49ers for the year they arrived, traveled overland across the mountains or by sea, sailing to Panama or even around Cape Horn, the southernmost point of South America.

By the end of the year, the non-native population of California was estimated at 100,000, (as compared with 20,000 at the end of 1848 and around 800 in March 1848). To accommodate the needs of the 49ers, gold mining towns had sprung up all over the region, complete with shops, saloons, brothels and other businesses seeking to make their own Gold Rush fortune.

The overcrowded chaos of the mining camps and towns grew ever more lawless, including rampant banditry, gambling, alcoholism, prostitution and violence. San Francisco, for its part, developed a bustling economy and became the central metropolis of the new frontier.

Gold Rush Politics

The Gold Rush undoubtedly sped up California's admission to the Union as the 31st state. In late 1849, California applied to enter the Union with a constitution that barred the Southern system of racial slavery, provoking a crisis in Congress between proponents of slavery and anti-slavery politicians.

According to the Compromise of 1850, proposed by Kentucky's Senator Henry Clay, California was allowed to enter as a free state, while the territories of Utah and New Mexico were left to decide the legal status of slavery for themselves.

California's Mines

After 1850, the surface gold in California largely disappeared, even as miners continued to arrive. Mining had always been difficult and dangerous labor, and striking it rich required good luck as much as skill and hard work. Moreover, the average daily take for an independent miner working with his pick and shovel had by then sharply decreased from what it had been in 1848.

As gold became more and more difficult to reach, the growing industrialization of mining drove more and more miners from independence into wage labor. The new technique of hydraulic mining, developed in 1853, brought enormous profits but destroyed much of the region's landscape.

Though gold mining continued throughout the 1850s, it had reached its peak by 1852, when some $81 million was pulled from the ground. After that year, the total take declined gradually, leveling off to around $45 million per year by 1857. Settlement in California continued, however, and by the end of the decade the state's population was 380,000.

Impact of the Gold Rush

New mining methods and the population boom in the wake of the California Gold Rush permanently altered the landscape of California. The technique of hydraulic mining brought enormous profits but destroyed much of the region's landscape.

Dams designed to supply water to mine sites in summer altered the course of rivers away from farmland, while sediment from mines clogged others. The logging industry in the area was born from the need to construct extensive canals and feed boilers at mines, further consuming natural resources.

In 1884, hydraulic mining was outlawed by court order, and soon agriculture became the dominant industry in California, and it remains so today. While a few mines and Gold Rush towns remain, much of the heritage of that era is preserved at places such as Bodie State Historic Park, a decaying ghost town, and at Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park, where Sutter's Mill once stood.

Sources

Environmental Impact of the Gold Rush. Calisphere.org.
After the Gold Rush. National Geographic.

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Gold Rush: California, Date & Sutter's Mill - HISTORY

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The Gold Rush in California started in 1848 after gold was found at Sutter's Mill. Within a year, hundreds of thousands of 49ers seeking fortune poured into the state.

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Voici un article sur la cuisine de la Californie. La cuisine californienne est hispanique, européenne et asiatique. Par exemple, des hamburgers, des burritos et des sushis.

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Voici un article sur l'histoire de une attraction célèbre à San Francisco.

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The majority of the northern waterfront of the San Francisco area is claimed as the charming and historic neighborhood of "Fisherman's Wharf." When the days of the California Gold Rush were in full swing, Chinese immigrants swarmed here to fish for all kinds of under-the-sea delicacies for the growing city. They caught everything from shrimp, oysters, crabs, and tons of others. Italian immigrants joined the wharf and made a living catching seafood, as well. The wharf was one of the biggest growing neighborhoods in the area since people found out they could make a living on their own simply by throwing out a pole and selling it later that day.

However, the wharf wasn't just known for smelling like a beloved seafood restaurant chain, but it was becoming quite popular due to the joyful and harmonious songs the fishermen all sang. Their natural talent and desire for singing songs of home and work were heard in beautiful and creative renditions from Arias to Verdi. Although the waters remained foggy in the early mornings, and frankly most of the year, outside of the Golden Gate, singing men were a means of communication because although those on shore could not see a companion boat, they knew one was close by.

As technology progressed and fishermen wanted to go exploring in deeper waters, putt-putt boats, or what became known as the Monterey Hull boats, became a popular use of fishing transportation. These newly invented gas engines made it possible to fish more days of the year - despite colder weather and strong winds. They also gave a wider range for their operation in the ocean water to find other deep sea creatures they could sell and provided power to haul in much larger nets or lines.

Once popularity struck Fisherman's Wharf, lumbar trader Henry Meigg brought his industry to the wharf. Although it still stuck to its traditional fishermen roots, lumbar trading started coming to the docks and taking its course. It grew to become a place of play and relaxation for swimmers and sunbathers. Soon, the Ghirardelli Chocolate Factory - that is now a shopping mall - launched the wharf's peak of popularity.

The wharf has worn several different hats since its creation. It has been an epicenter for creating Army uniforms and blankets for soldiers during the Civil War and for the California Fruit Canners Association that soon became the largest in the world at the time.

Between the rich history, impeccable views of Alcatraz and the Golden Gate Bridge, and the popular seafood restaurants, Fisherman's Wharf is a must-see the next time you come to visit San Francisco!

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The majority of the northern waterfront of the San Francisco area is claimed as the charming and historic neighborhood of "Fisherman's Wharf." When the days of the California Gold Rush were in full swing, Chinese immigrants swarmed here to fish for all kinds of under-the-sea delicacies for the growing city.

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Ceci est un article sur San Francisco. L'article contient des informations intéressantes sur l'histoire de San Francisco.
https://www.britannica.com/place/San-Francisco-California

Si vous avez des questions sur San Francisco, n'hésitez pas à me les poser.

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Voici un article sur la cuisine de la Californie. La Cuisine de la Californie est hispanique, européenne, et asiatique. Par exemple, des hamburgers, des burritos, et des sushis.

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The cuisine of California reflects the diverse culture of California and is influenced largely by Hispanic America roots ( Mexican, Latin American, Spanish), alongside Eastern Asian and Oceanian influences ( Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese, Thai, Hawaii) and Western European influences ( Italian, French, Portuguese), as well as the food trends and traditions of larger American cuisine.

The main trends were influenced by a combination of mediterranean climate, geography and geology of the region's proximity to the ocean, its movie roots in Hollywood, its tech roots in Silicon Valley, and the Napa wine country, as well as its major produce production. Even California being part of Mexico influenced the state's food.

A varied range of micro-climates, dominated by a mild Mediterranean climate, and health-conscious diets and lifestyles in California, promote the production, use and consumption of fresh fruits, vegetables and meats, many of them organic.

In Northern California, with wine country nearby, French, Italian, and Mediterranean inspired food is prominent, as well as Asian-inspired fare. Many of the restaurants, cafes, bistros, and grills use ingredients sourced from local growers and farmers' markets.

The California coast, especially the North Coast and Central Coast regions, is a source of seafood, which is a staple in the California diet.

California produces almost all of the country's almonds, apricots, dates, figs, kiwi fruit, nectarines, olives, pistachios, prunes, and walnuts. It leads in the production of avocados, grapes, lemons, melons, peaches, plums, and strawberries.

This agricultural diversity of California's Central Valley provides fresh produce in the state. On less than 1 percent of the total farmland in the US, the Central Valley produces 8 percent of the nation's agricultural output by value.

Sunset, a magazine of the West published in California, has featured recipes that have influenced the cuisine of California, including the promotion of outdoor eating.

Sandwiches, burgers, and fast food

Southern California's car culture and the population's reliance on automobiles for transportation throughout California's vast cities, has widely contributed to the popularity of the classic drive-in and modern drive-thru restaurants. Restaurant chains such as McDonald's, Jack in the Box, In-N-Out Burger, Carl's Jr., Wienerschnitzel, Del Taco, Taco Bell, Panda Express, Original Tommy's, Fatburger, and Big Boy were all established in Southern California.

Regional fast food menus differ, generally depending on the ethnic composition of an area. In Southern California, smaller chains like The Hat feature hamburgers, Mexican food, chili fries, and pastrami.

While gastropubs are not unique to California, the concept of the gourmet burger is very popular.

Because of California's mostly colonial European Spanish roots, Mexican territorial history, and its original population consisting of Meso-Americans, Spanish colonizers and Mexican ranchers, Mexican and Spanish-origin cuisine is very influential and popular in California, particularly Southern California.

Commercial taquería-style Mexican fast food, consisting of offerings such as burritos, refried beans, tortas, tacos, nachos, quesadillas is widely popular. Taquerías can be found throughout California.

Traditional Mexican food, while not as common as commercial food, is still widely prepared and abundant in the ethnic Mexican American border communities of San Diego, the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the San Francisco Bay Area, and in Mexican-American enclaves throughout California. Examples of these foods include tamales, tortillas, tostadas, mole, menudo, pozole, sopes, chile relleno and enchiladas.

In addition to Mexican food, California restaurants serve up nearly every variation of Central American food there is. For example, pupuserías are common in areas with a large population of Salvadorans ( pupusas are stuffed tortillas from El Salvador).

More recently, "Fresh Mex" or "Baja-style" Mexican food, which places an emphasis on fresh ingredients and sometimes seafood, inspired by Baja California fare, is highly popular. El Pollo Loco, a fast food chain that originated in Northern Mexico, is a common sight. Rubio's Fresh Mexican Grill, Baja Fresh, Wahoo's Fish Taco, Chronic Tacos, Chipotle, Qdoba and La Salsa are examples of the Baja-style Mexican American food trend.

In Northern California and the Central Coastal region, Dungeness crab is abundant. Sardines and salmon were formerly major industries, before declines in fish stocks. Cioppino (a fish stew) is a classic example of Northern Californian cuisine.

Asian and Oceanian influences

As one of the U.S. states nearest Asia and Oceania, and with long-standing Asian American and Oceanian American populations, the state tends to adopt foods from those national styles. The American sushi craze undoubtedly began in California; the term ' California roll' is used to describe sushi with avocado as a primary ingredient. These days, items like mochi ice cream and boba are popular.

Fusion cuisine is quite popular in California. The emphasis of California cuisine is on the use of fresh, local ingredients which are often acquired daily at farmers markets. Menus are changed to accommodate the availability of ingredients in season. Some restaurants create a new menu daily.

California chef Wolfgang Puck is known as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine, popularizing such dishes as Chinese chicken salad at the restaurant Ma Maison in Los Angeles. His restaurant Chinois in Santa Monica was named after the term attributed to Richard Wing, who in the 1960s combined French and Chinese cooking at the former Imperial Dynasty restaurant in Hanford, California.

California-style pizza focuses on non-traditional pizza ingredients, such as fresh produce and barbecued meats. First popularized by Wolfgang Puck's Spago restaurants, it was later brought to the masses by restaurants such as California Pizza Kitchen.

Barbecue has been a part of California cuisine since Mexicans cooked beef in pit barbecues on ranches in the 1840s. Santa Maria is famous for the tri-tip, a special kind of beef cut that can be grilled, baked, braised, or roasted. California's barbecue style is also influenced by the regional Southwestern American styles of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma, brought on by thousands of Dust-Bowl migrants. Chicken, beef ribs, sausages, and steaks are also routinely grilled or smoked in a pit. The barbecue sauce used in this state is tomato-based, as with all other western states. Santa Maria barbecue, however, uses no sauce, relying instead on the flavor of the tri-tip and the slow live oak fire over which it is cooked. Pork baby back ribs are popular for barbecue in the Western region in comparison to the popular use of spare ribs in the Southern United States.

Many gourmet food products and companies had their start in California, including Peet's Coffee & Tea.

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The cuisine of California reflects the diverse culture of California and is influenced largely by Hispanic America roots ( Mexican, Latin American, Spanish), alongside Eastern Asian and Oceanian influences ( Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese, Thai, Hawaii) and Western European influences ( Italian, French, Portuguese), as well as the food trends and traditions of larger American cuisine.

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SOLWEIG                     Native Americans of California 

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SOLWEIG                     Native Americans of California 

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Voici un article sur les premiers habitants de Californie.

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People have lived in what's now California and Baja California (a part of Mexico) for almost 20,000 years. Because the landscape has so many different habitats-the rainy redwood forests; the snow-capped Sierra Nevada Mountains; the Central Valley farmlands; the Mojave Desert; and the Pacific Ocean coastline-the ancient people who settled here split into hundreds of smaller groups, each developing their own culture and lifestyle.

COOL CULTURE

The more than 500 tribes that lived in this region developed very different cultures from one another. The Pomo (POH-moh) lived along the northern coast and built homes using slabs of redwood tree bark. The mountain-dwelling Miwok (MEE-wuk) made cone-shaped bark houses, and the Maidu (MY-doo), who lived in valleys, created round lodges from earth. In the south, the Chumash (CHOO-mash) built circular frames using wooden poles, covering the structures with grass and marsh plants. In the summer, many tribes camped in temporary brush huts while they moved around to hunt and gather fruits and vegetables.

Tribal crafts differed depending on what natural resources were available. Tribes in the north, like the Tolowa (toh-LAW-wah), built canoes from giant redwood trees; in the south, the Cahuilla (kaw-WEE-ah) made clothing, nets, and sandals out of desert agave plants. In fact, these tribes produced so many different items that they created a huge trading network in which people traveled by foot or river to swap their goods. Some tribes, like the Chumash and Cahuilla, broke off pieces of giant clam shells to use as money.

People of the forest-based Cahto (KAH-toh) and Wintun (win-TOON) tribes ate caterpillars, bees, and grasshoppers. They also gathered acorns that could be ground into flour or made into soup. The desert-dwelling Cahuilla and Chemehuevi (cheh-meh-WAY-vee) snacked on snakes and lizards. Along the coasts, tribes like the Chumash fished and hunted sea lions and whales.

LIFE TODAY

When gold was discovered in 1848 in Coloma, California, thousands of settlers rushed onto tribal lands, pushing out native people. By the late 1800s, the U.S. government had forced the Native Americans to live only on small pieces of land called reservations. Many tribal members still live on reservations today, where they express their heritage while living a modern life.

Elders teach children traditional tribal dances and ceremonies such as the World Renewal Ceremony, in which dancers move and sing to ensure plentiful food and prevent disasters like earthquakes, and the Jumping Dance, meant to remove evil from the world and replace it with good. The Cahto still walk to the coast once a year, following the path their ancestors took to fish and gather seaweed.

Text and photos adapted from the Nat Geo Kids Encyclopedia of American Indian History and Culture.

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People have lived in what's now California and Baja California for almost 20,000 years.

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ANOUK R Voici un article sur la diversité culturelle de la ville de San Francisco. C'est très intéressant et explique comment différentes cultures comme le chinois et le japonais habites dans San Francisco. L'article explique les différents quartiers de la ville.

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ANOUK R Voici un article sur la diversité culturelle de la ville de San Francisco. C'est très intéressant et explique comment différentes cultures comme le chinois et le japonais habites dans San Francisco. L'article explique les différents quartiers de la ville.

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- Ashland McDonald

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The Castro, home to a large gay and lesbian community, is know as the "gay mecca." It's a great example of how San Francisco welcomes those looking for an alternate lifestyle.

CHINATOWN

For decades, San Francisco's Chinatown was the largest community of Chinese outside of Asia. Chinatown's residents have created a thriving community that retains much of its Chinese culture and is the second most popular destination for tourists (after the Golden Gate Bridge).

FILLMORE DISTRICT

The Fillmore District is one of San Francisco's most diverse neighborhoods. In addition to being a predominately African American neighborhood, it is also home to Japantown. After the Great Earthquake and Fire of 1906, many of San Francisco's Japanese American community relocated to the Fillmore District since it had been largely untouched by the disaster. In the 1920's and 1930's, Japantown covered more than twenty blocks. During World War II, many Japanese American residents were forced into internment camps never to return to their old neighborhood. During the war, many African Americans from the South migrated to the district. It became known as the "Harlem of the West," and was one of the world's leading jazz centers. In the 1960's & 1970's, it became a famous rock 'n roll mecca. Three of rock's most famous venues of the period were located in the Fillmore District: the Matrix, Winterland, and the Fillmore.
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HAIGHT ASHBURY

Just the name of this neighborhood conjures up images of '60s hippie culture. Although most of the old "head" shops are now exclusive boutiques and vintage-clothing stores, one can still feel "the vibes" of the old Haight with its flower-power, peace and love, acid-dropping, tie-dye-wearing, and incense burning. There are still shops with names like Dreams of Kathmandu, Pipe Dreams and The Love of Ganesha.

MISSION DISTRICT

A predominately Latino neighborhood, the Mission District is San Francisco's oldest neighborhood, dating back to the completion of Mission Dolores in 1776. During the 1940's, the area experienced a large influx of Mexican immigrants followed by Central and South Americans in the 1980's & 90's. The jingling bells of Mexican ice cream vendors' carts blend with the sounds of throbbing Norteño music. Carlos Santana is from this neighborhood. The Mission's flourishing mural scene owes much to the Mexican Mural movement of the 20's. The Mission District is home to taquerias, pupuserias, produce markets, Salvadoran bakeries, and Latino music stores.
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NORTH BEACH

North Beach, also known as Little Italy, is full of wonderful Italian restaurants, delicatessens, and bakeries. During the late 1800's, many Italian fishermen settled here. Joe DiMaggio, the son of a fisherman, grew up in North Beach. The heart of Little Italy is Saints Peter & Paul Church (also known as the Italian Cathedral). Located in the center of North Beach is Washington Square Park. The world's largest bank, Bank of America, began in North Beach as the Bank of Italy, founded by A.P. Giannini. North Beach is also famous for being the home of City Lights Bookstore, founded by beat poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti.

TENDERLOIN (LITTLE SAIGON)

During the last thirty years, many immigrants from Southeast Asia have made the Tenderloin neighborhood their home. There are now more than 250 Vietnamese American-owned businesses in this neighborhood including: restaurants, tailors, jewelers, acupuncturists, doctors, and dentists. The Tenderloin hosts an annual Tet Festival, the Vietnamese Lunar New Year celebration, which draws thousands of people to the neighborhood every year.
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You will need to download the free Adobe Acrobat Reader available at Map of San Francisco - PDF format
http://www.adobe.com/products/ acrobat/readstep2.html in order to access it.

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San Francisco Neighborhoods - Cultural Diversity and Alternate Lifestyles

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The Castro, home to a large gay and lesbian community, is know as the "gay mecca." It's a great example of how San Francisco welcomes those looking for an alternate lifestyle. CHINATOWN For decades, San Francisco's Chinatown was the largest community of Chinese outside of Asia.

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APOLLINE      Voici un article qui explique comment la Californie a une population si diversifiée. C'est vraiment intéressant et instructif!

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APOLLINE      Voici un article qui explique comment la Californie a une population si diversifiée. C'est vraiment intéressant et instructif!

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-Laaila Najam

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British historian James Bryce said California was the most striking state in the whole Union. The scholar examined the state's economy and culture in his classic, two-volume study called The American Commonwealth released in 1888. The historian said the region had the characteristics of a great country capable of standing alone in the world.

Bryce's statement is even truer in the modern era. California has one of the highest, most diverse populations within the nation. Almost 40.2 million residents live within the state. A 2018 U.S. federal study reported the area's bustling economy has surpassed the United Kingdom's to become the world's fifth largest.

WalletHub, a financial website, awarded California the number one spot on its Most & Least Diverse States in America list. The company said the area was the nation's most culturally diverse. This year, the publication ranked California cities as the most diverse in the nation. They include:

Los Angeles (4th)

Long Beach (6th)

San Jose (8th)

San Diego (9th).

Other Californian cities dominated in the top 20 rankings. These include:

Anaheim (12)

Fresno (13)

Sacramento (14)

and Oakland (15).

How did California become one of the nation's most diverse states? In today's article, you'll learn about the rich cultural diversity that has helped transform the region's historical legacy.

California's Native American Tribes

According to the University of Washington professor James N. Gregory, the state became the most populous in the nation because many people migrated to the area from other states and nations. The first inhabitants of coastal California were Native Americans. They occupied the land for thousands of years. Almost 300,000 Native Americans in the Pacific coast region before European settlers arrived. Archaeologists found that the area already had a variety of languages and cultures. These tribes spoke a combined 135 different languages. Many Native Americans contributed to the name of the state's most popular towns including Malibu, Tahoe, and Simi Valley.

Today, there are still living descendants from the Golden State's first inhabitants. California has 115 Native American tribes. According to the U.S. Census 2010, Native Americans make up 1.6 percent of the area's population.

Spanish Explorers and Californian Settlements

Europeans began their migration to the Americas in 1492. According to the National Park Service's Early History of the California Coast, Spanish explorers were the first ones to visit the Pacific area in the 1500s. The most famous explorer was Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. He and his crew entered San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542. Cabrillo named the region"Alta California." They developed cattle ranching in the area. The word, "ranch," comes from the Spanish word "rancho."

Spanish migrants established the first permanent settlement, Presidio at San Diego, in 1769. Franciscan Friar Junipero Serra had a significant impact on the colonization of the state. He sent more than 21 Spanish missions throughout California. Missions were churches with farms and work areas.

The missionaries wanted to convert Native Americans their Roman Catholicism. They also taught native inhabitants skills to help manage their farms. During the fall, one of Serra's expeditions explored San Francisco Bay.

Eventually, the Spaniards divided the Californian region into four military districts called presidio that protected the missions and their land. These missions also ensured Spanish control over native inhabitants. The country established presidios at San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San Francisco.

Modern-day California still maintains the rich inheritance its ancestral beginnings. Its metropolitan cities have retained their Spanish names including Los Angeles, Sacramento, and San Jose. Today, almost 39.1 percent of Californians have Hispanic ancestry. These include persons of Mexican, Latin American, and Spanish descent.

Mexican Independence and California's Bear Revolt

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. During this time, Alta California was no longer a Spanish colony; it was a Mexican province. The state remained a part of the country for more than 27 years.

In the mid-1800s, California began a new, prosperous era. Large ranches flourished throughout the territory, and American trappers traveled to the coastal area to hunt game and wildlife.

The Mexican government secularized missions in 1834 and later abandoned them. American settlers migrated to the area, and in 1846, they revolted against Mexico. They occupied Sonoma Plaza and proclaimed this area, the Republic of California. Historians call this insurrection, the Bear Flag Revolt. This June 1846 rebellion, along with other battles, resulted in California's separation from Mexico.

The California Gold Rush, Californios, and the European Migration

President James K. Polk believed the U.S. borders should expand to the Pacific Coast. The leader said this was America's manifest destiny. Polk argued that the United States should annex Texas, New Mexico, and California.

An international conflict helped Polk's vision become a reality. On April 25, 1846, Mexico's cavalry attacked and killed a dozen U.S. troops led by General Zachary Taylor. Congress declared war against Mexico on May 13, 1846.

American soldiers invaded the country and fought Mexican troops for two years. In September 1847, their battalion laid siege against Mexico City. Eventually, they won the war. Mexico and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848. Under the agreement, Mexico recognized America's annexation of Texas. The nation agreed to sell California and the land north of the Rio Grande for $15 million.

After the war ended, California's Gold Rush began. Miners discovered gold in the state's Sutter's Mill. This event ignited gold fever, dramatically changing the course of the area's history. Congress granted California statehood on September 9, 1850.

Mass migrations, along with abundant natural resources, fueled the state's population growth. Americans of European descent migrated in the thousands to search for gold in California. Foreigners from other nations also joined the rush. Immigrants traveled from Mexico, China, Australia, Ireland, Russia, Italy, and England. Californios, were Mexicans born in the U.S. prior to 1848. These residents owned acres of fertile farmland.

According to the U.S. Census, 74 percent of California's population is white. This includes Hispanic and non-Hispanic individuals.

African Americans in California

According to the latest U.S. Census, African-Americans make up 6.5 percent of California's total population. Black people began migrating to California from Mexico during the 1840s. Most were former slaves. Among them was William Leidesdorff, an African-American businessman that built San Francisco's first hotel in 1846.

The state's Black population grew slowly compared with other minorities within the state. Census records show that 962 African-Americans lived in the state in 1850, and 4,086 by 1860. By 1910, the state's Black population was only 22,000. The African-American population increased significantly following World War II when more people moved into the area.

The state's black residents fought courageously for equality in several courtroom cases. In 1866, Mary E. Pleasant, a former slave, sued a streetcar company in San Francisco that refused to give her a seat. She won in the trial. Another legal case, Ward v. Floor, fought against California's segregation practices in education. In 1872, the California Supreme Court ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional and violated the U.S. Constitution's 14th and 15th amendments.

In 2010, California experienced a net loss of its African-American population for the first time in 30 years. Several prominent individuals have made contributions to the nation including writers Octavia Butler (winner of the MacArthur Genius Grant), Walter Mosley, and landscape architect Paul Williams (who helped design Los Angeles' International Airport).

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders

California has the highest population of Asian-Americans in the United States. According to the U.S. Census data, Asian-American residents make up 13.6 percent of the area's population. The Golden State also has the second-highest proportion of Asian-American residents after Hawaii. The federal agency estimates the state's Pacific Islander population at 0.5 percent.

Almost 100,000 Chinese-Americans lived in California by 1870. Later, the state had the highest number of Japanese-American residents in the nation. Seventy thousand individuals of Japanese-American ancestry lived in the area by 1910. Koreans began migrating to the Golden State by the 1880s.

Currently, 21 percent of San Francisco's population is Chinese American. The cities of San Francisco and San Jose have sizable Vietnamese populations, and many Cambodian-Americans reside in Long Beach.

Asian Indians in California

The U.S. Census Bureau uses the designation "Asian Indian" for people who migrated from the country of India. According to the Migration Policy Institute, there are almost 14.2 million Indian migrants worldwide.

Most emigrated to the United Arab Emirates, which was the top destination for Asian Indians (2,852,000), followed by the U.S. at number two, (2,061,000).

According to the institute, three Californian cities accounted for the highest concentrations of people from India. They include the following cities:

San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara California (89,000) at number three

San Francisco-Oakland (86,000) at number four

Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim (80,000) at number six.

California's Diverse Culture Requires More Interpreters

California's diversity has helped its economy bloom. Unfortunately, its diverse cultures have spurred a new problem. Its court systems, businesses, and schools require more interpreters. The state's residents speak a combined 220 languages. Seven million Californians cannot speak English fluently. Almost 44 percent of the state's resident speak languages other than English at home.

The top languages spoken in California are Spanish, Vietnamese, Korean, Farsi, Cantonese, Russian, Tagalog, Arabic, and Punjabi. Others include Cambodian, Japanese, Malayalam, Hmong, Lao, an Aleutian Island dialects.

California has the largest court system in the nation. In 2017, the state's court system faced an interpreter shortage. They could no longer handle the eight million cases that pass through their courts every year.

Language Network has linguists trained in legal, technical, and medical fields that can provide accurate translations for you. Our interpretation services include conference, on-site, and over-the-phone interpreting.

Find out why so many of our clients trust our interpretation services. Contact us at (949) 733-2446 to request a quote today.

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The History of California's Population Diversity

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British historian James Bryce said California was the most striking state in the whole Union. The scholar examined the state's economy and culture in his classic, two-volume study called The American Commonwealth released in 1888. The historian said the region had the characteristics of a great country capable of standing alone in the world.

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Voici un article sur l'histoire de la mission Carmel en Californie. C'est ma mission préférée (à mon avis, la plus belle)! Les missions montrent la culture espagnole en Californie, l'importance de la religion et l'effet des Espagnols sur les Amérindiens. - Quinn Hungerford

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Voici un article sur l'histoire de la mission Carmel en Californie. C'est ma mission préférée (à mon avis, la plus belle)! Les missions montrent la culture espagnole en Californie, l'importance de la religion et l'effet des Espagnols sur les Amérindiens. - Quinn Hungerford

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https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/american_latino_heritage/Carmel_Mission.html

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SOPHIE Je vous recommande de regarder le film Hidden Figures raconte l'histoire de trois femmes afro-américaines qui travaillaient comme ordinateurs pour résoudre des problèmes d'ingénieurs et d'autres à la NASA. Pendant les premières années de leur carrière, le lieu de travail a été séparé et les femmes ont été gardées à l'arrière-plan en tant qu'ordinateurs humains. C'est un bon film qui parle des rôles de genre et de la race.

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SOPHIE Je vous recommande de regarder le film Hidden Figures raconte l'histoire de trois femmes afro-américaines qui travaillaient comme ordinateurs pour résoudre des problèmes d'ingénieurs et d'autres à la NASA. Pendant les premières années de leur carrière, le lieu de travail a été séparé et les femmes ont été gardées à l'arrière-plan en tant qu'ordinateurs humains. C'est un bon film qui parle des rôles de genre et de la race.

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Hidden Figures (2016) on IMDb: Plot summary, synopsis, and more...

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MAELANNE               Voici un article sur l'histoire de la ville, Hangman/Placerville. Hangman est une ville où un justicier a pendu les criminels à un grand arbre. - Aidan Neville

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MAELANNE               Voici un article sur l'histoire de la ville, Hangman/Placerville. Hangman est une ville où un justicier a pendu les criminels à un grand arbre. - Aidan Neville

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https://www.ghosttowns.com/states/ca/placerville.html

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Voici un article que j'ai trouvé sur l'origine de Chinatown.

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Chinese Immigration to the United States Most of the early Chinese immigration to the United States can be traced to the mid-1800s. These early immigrants—some 25,000 in the 1850s alone—came seeking economic opportunity in America. The Chinese arriving in San Francisco, who came primarily from the Taishan and Zhongshan regions as well as Guangdong province […]

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Voici un article sur l'histoire et l'importance de Solvang en Californie. Une partie de ma famille est danoise, donc cette ville est importante pour mon histoire familiale. J'ai aussi visité la ville quelques fois quand j'étais petite.

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THE EXTRAORDINARY HISTORY OF SOLVANG, CALIFORNIA

See also:

Solvang, founded in 1911, began as a dream of three Danish immigrants: Reverend Benedict Nordentoft, Reverend J. M. Gregersen, and Professor P. P. Hornsyld. They planned to raise money to buy a large tract of land on the West Coast and subdivide it into plots for farms, homes, and a town for Danish immigrants. Profits from the sale of land would be used for building a Danish-style folk school. Also planned was a Lutheran church.

Solvang founders: Pictured (left to right) are Mads Frese (land agent), P. P. Hornsyld, Benedict Nordentoft, and J. M. Gregerson.

In January, 1911 the Danish-American Colony corporation bought almost 10,000 acres of prime land in the Santa Ynez Valley, California. The new colony was named "Solvang" (meaning sunny field) and glowing advertisements were placed in Danish-language newspapers. Early buyers, almost all Danish, came from California, the Midwest, and Denmark.

"Rock" Sorensen and his roadster, 1918.

Settlers soon arrived and began establishing necessary businesses. The Solvang Hotel opened in July, 1911. A general merchandise store soon followed, as did a creamery, a bakery, a bank, and a butcher shop, among others. The little town was growing.

Most of the early settlers were farmers. They quickly built barns for their livestock and farming equipment, then houses for their families. Irrigation systems were started in 1912, and a variety of crops were grown year round. Dairy farming, a tradition in Denmark, flourished. Some of the men worked on nearby ranches.

Horses provided the power for many farm tasks in early Solvang.

True to the founders' plan, Solvang built a folk school, which opened November 15, 1911. Designed for young adults as a "school for life," it offered a broad range of courses, from Danish arts and crafts, singing, folk dancing, and gymnastics, to bookkeeping, history, English and Danish language classes, and more. Out-of-town students lived at the school.

Atterdag College students.

In 1914, the folk school moved to its new home, an imposing white structure on a hill overlooking the town, and took a new name, Atterdag College. For years Atterdag was the heart and soul of Solvang. It was used as a folk school, a community meeting hall, a performing arts venue, a gymnastics center, a summer school, and a boarding house (see the 18-minute video about Atterdag College that Elverhøy Museum helped produce).

Atterdag College also provided church facilities. (Although the Bethania Congregation was formed in January 1912, a church was not built until 1928.) When the college finally closed its doors in 1952, its site and some of its facilities were used by the Solvang Lutheran Home, now called Atterdag Village of Solvang.

The Danes of Solvang rapidly became acculturated. They learned English, followed American ways, and sent their children to the local grammar school. But they also kept Danish traditions. They spoke Danish amongst themselves and formed Danish fraternal organizations. They cooked Danish food and pastries. They celebrated Danish holidays and kept alive Danish folk dancing and singing.

In 1936, the 25th anniversary of Solvang's founding, the people in Solvang decided to throw a party. The three-day celebration (June 5-7) included a torch-light procession, plays, pageants, a parade, folk dancing and singing, a concert, barbecue, and a street dance - and was a huge success. In 1937 Solvang put on another celebration and the tradition of Danish Days was born.

Danish folk dancing at Atterdag College, late 1940s.

The 1940s brought great anxieties to the Danish colony, as well as great changes. Nazi Germany occupied their former home, Denmark, and their new homeland was actively fighting in World War II. Danish-Americans signed up for military service, and the home front went all out in the war effort.

In January 1947, the Saturday Evening Post magazine published a feature article about the "spotless Danish village that blooms like a rose in California's charming Santa Ynez Valley." The enticing article with its stunning photographs started a stream of visitors to Solvang, which became known as the "Danish Capital of America."

Solvang decided its look should reflect the town's Danish culture. New buildings were constructed in the Danish provincial style; older buildings were remodeled; Danish-style windmills were built. "Main Street" became "Copenhagen Drive," and other streets were given Danish names. See Danish Street Names [PDF file] for translations of Solvang street names.

On three festive occasions Solvang has welcomed Danish Royal Family members. Crown Prince Frederik and Crown Princess Ingrid of Denmark visited Solvang on April 7, 1939. Princess Margrethe visited on June 5, 1960, and then returned on May 23, 1976 as Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, this time accompanied by her husband Prince Henrik.

Princess Margrethe on her Solvang visit in 1960.

Solvang has forged strong cultural ties with Denmark. Danes are familiar with and intrigued by the Danish community in California. Many Danish Americans consider Solvang their cultural home and visit regularly. Denmark's ambassador to the United States recently visited and cultural exchanges are on-going.

On September 22-24, 1961, Solvang celebrated its Golden Jubilee with a banquet, torchlight parade, dance and song fest, bleskiver breakfasts, folk dancing, gymnastic performances, a barbecue, art exhibit, a street dance, and a colorful historical pageant parade. In 2011 Solvang will celebrate its Centennial with a year-long series of activities and events. For more information, visit solvang100.com or solvangusa.com.

As Solvang grew, it added more amenities: a continuing care retirement home (now Atterdag Village of Solvang); enlarged public schools; a hospital (now Santa Ynez Valley Cottage Hospital); the outdoor Festival Theater; Hans Christian Andersen Park; and the Elverhøj Museum of History and Art. New home developments, new businesses, more civic organizations, and more volunteer programs also added to Solvang's vitality.

Ever since its founding, Solvang had been governed by Santa Barbara County, but its citizens wanted more local control. In 1951 the Solvang Municipal Improvement District (SMID) was formed, which had some of a city's basic authority. In 1985 Solvang incorporated as a general law city, with the entire SMID Board elected as Solvang's first city council.

Today Solvang is a charming town of approximately 5,400 residents. Despite tourism, it has kept its small town atmosphere. Although only 10% of the residents now claim Danish ancestry, the Danish heritage is part of the texture of everyday life that gives Solvang its unique look and atmosphere.

See also The History of Solvang's Danish Look.

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THE EXTRAORDINARY HISTORY OF SOLVANG, CALIFORNIA See also: Solvang, founded in 1911, began as a dream of three Danish immigrants: Reverend Benedict Nordentoft, Reverend J. M. Gregersen, and Professor P. P. Hornsyld. They planned to raise money to buy a large tract of land on the West Coast and subdivide it into plots for farms, homes, and a town for Danish immigrants.

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British historian James Bryce said California was the most striking state in the whole Union. The scholar examined the state's economy and culture in his classic, two-volume study called The American Commonwealth released in 1888. The historian said the region had the characteristics of a great country capable of standing alone in the world.

Bryce's statement is even truer in the modern era. California has one of the highest, most diverse populations within the nation. Almost 40.2 million residents live within the state. A 2018 U.S. federal study reported the area's bustling economy has surpassed the United Kingdom's to become the world's fifth largest.

WalletHub, a financial website, awarded California the number one spot on its Most & Least Diverse States in America list. The company said the area was the nation's most culturally diverse. This year, the publication ranked California cities as the most diverse in the nation. They include:

Los Angeles (4th)

Long Beach (6th)

San Jose (8th)

San Diego (9th).

Other Californian cities dominated in the top 20 rankings. These include:

Anaheim (12)

Fresno (13)

Sacramento (14)

and Oakland (15).

How did California become one of the nation's most diverse states? In today's article, you'll learn about the rich cultural diversity that has helped transform the region's historical legacy.

California's Native American Tribes

According to the University of Washington professor James N. Gregory, the state became the most populous in the nation because many people migrated to the area from other states and nations. The first inhabitants of coastal California were Native Americans. They occupied the land for thousands of years. Almost 300,000 Native Americans in the Pacific coast region before European settlers arrived. Archaeologists found that the area already had a variety of languages and cultures. These tribes spoke a combined 135 different languages. Many Native Americans contributed to the name of the state's most popular towns including Malibu, Tahoe, and Simi Valley.

Today, there are still living descendants from the Golden State's first inhabitants. California has 115 Native American tribes. According to the U.S. Census 2010, Native Americans make up 1.6 percent of the area's population.

Spanish Explorers and Californian Settlements

Europeans began their migration to the Americas in 1492. According to the National Park Service's Early History of the California Coast, Spanish explorers were the first ones to visit the Pacific area in the 1500s. The most famous explorer was Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. He and his crew entered San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542. Cabrillo named the region"Alta California." They developed cattle ranching in the area. The word, "ranch," comes from the Spanish word "rancho."

Spanish migrants established the first permanent settlement, Presidio at San Diego, in 1769. Franciscan Friar Junipero Serra had a significant impact on the colonization of the state. He sent more than 21 Spanish missions throughout California. Missions were churches with farms and work areas.

The missionaries wanted to convert Native Americans their Roman Catholicism. They also taught native inhabitants skills to help manage their farms. During the fall, one of Serra's expeditions explored San Francisco Bay.

Eventually, the Spaniards divided the Californian region into four military districts called presidio that protected the missions and their land. These missions also ensured Spanish control over native inhabitants. The country established presidios at San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San Francisco.

Modern-day California still maintains the rich inheritance its ancestral beginnings. Its metropolitan cities have retained their Spanish names including Los Angeles, Sacramento, and San Jose. Today, almost 39.1 percent of Californians have Hispanic ancestry. These include persons of Mexican, Latin American, and Spanish descent.

Mexican Independence and California's Bear Revolt

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. During this time, Alta California was no longer a Spanish colony; it was a Mexican province. The state remained a part of the country for more than 27 years.

In the mid-1800s, California began a new, prosperous era. Large ranches flourished throughout the territory, and American trappers traveled to the coastal area to hunt game and wildlife.

The Mexican government secularized missions in 1834 and later abandoned them. American settlers migrated to the area, and in 1846, they revolted against Mexico. They occupied Sonoma Plaza and proclaimed this area, the Republic of California. Historians call this insurrection, the Bear Flag Revolt. This June 1846 rebellion, along with other battles, resulted in California's separation from Mexico.

The California Gold Rush, Californios, and the European Migration

President James K. Polk believed the U.S. borders should expand to the Pacific Coast. The leader said this was America's manifest destiny. Polk argued that the United States should annex Texas, New Mexico, and California.

An international conflict helped Polk's vision become a reality. On April 25, 1846, Mexico's cavalry attacked and killed a dozen U.S. troops led by General Zachary Taylor. Congress declared war against Mexico on May 13, 1846.

American soldiers invaded the country and fought Mexican troops for two years. In September 1847, their battalion laid siege against Mexico City. Eventually, they won the war. Mexico and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848. Under the agreement, Mexico recognized America's annexation of Texas. The nation agreed to sell California and the land north of the Rio Grande for $15 million.

After the war ended, California's Gold Rush began. Miners discovered gold in the state's Sutter's Mill. This event ignited gold fever, dramatically changing the course of the area's history. Congress granted California statehood on September 9, 1850.

Mass migrations, along with abundant natural resources, fueled the state's population growth. Americans of European descent migrated in the thousands to search for gold in California. Foreigners from other nations also joined the rush. Immigrants traveled from Mexico, China, Australia, Ireland, Russia, Italy, and England. Californios, were Mexicans born in the U.S. prior to 1848. These residents owned acres of fertile farmland.

According to the U.S. Census, 74 percent of California's population is white. This includes Hispanic and non-Hispanic individuals.

African Americans in California

According to the latest U.S. Census, African-Americans make up 6.5 percent of California's total population. Black people began migrating to California from Mexico during the 1840s. Most were former slaves. Among them was William Leidesdorff, an African-American businessman that built San Francisco's first hotel in 1846.

The state's Black population grew slowly compared with other minorities within the state. Census records show that 962 African-Americans lived in the state in 1850, and 4,086 by 1860. By 1910, the state's Black population was only 22,000. The African-American population increased significantly following World War II when more people moved into the area.

The state's black residents fought courageously for equality in several courtroom cases. In 1866, Mary E. Pleasant, a former slave, sued a streetcar company in San Francisco that refused to give her a seat. She won in the trial. Another legal case, Ward v. Floor, fought against California's segregation practices in education. In 1872, the California Supreme Court ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional and violated the U.S. Constitution's 14th and 15th amendments.

In 2010, California experienced a net loss of its African-American population for the first time in 30 years. Several prominent individuals have made contributions to the nation including writers Octavia Butler (winner of the MacArthur Genius Grant), Walter Mosley, and landscape architect Paul Williams (who helped design Los Angeles' International Airport).

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders

California has the highest population of Asian-Americans in the United States. According to the U.S. Census data, Asian-American residents make up 13.6 percent of the area's population. The Golden State also has the second-highest proportion of Asian-American residents after Hawaii. The federal agency estimates the state's Pacific Islander population at 0.5 percent.

Almost 100,000 Chinese-Americans lived in California by 1870. Later, the state had the highest number of Japanese-American residents in the nation. Seventy thousand individuals of Japanese-American ancestry lived in the area by 1910. Koreans began migrating to the Golden State by the 1880s.

Currently, 21 percent of San Francisco's population is Chinese American. The cities of San Francisco and San Jose have sizable Vietnamese populations, and many Cambodian-Americans reside in Long Beach.

Asian Indians in California

The U.S. Census Bureau uses the designation "Asian Indian" for people who migrated from the country of India. According to the Migration Policy Institute, there are almost 14.2 million Indian migrants worldwide.

Most emigrated to the United Arab Emirates, which was the top destination for Asian Indians (2,852,000), followed by the U.S. at number two, (2,061,000).

According to the institute, three Californian cities accounted for the highest concentrations of people from India. They include the following cities:

San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara California (89,000) at number three

San Francisco-Oakland (86,000) at number four

Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim (80,000) at number six.

California's Diverse Culture Requires More Interpreters

California's diversity has helped its economy bloom. Unfortunately, its diverse cultures have spurred a new problem. Its court systems, businesses, and schools require more interpreters. The state's residents speak a combined 220 languages. Seven million Californians cannot speak English fluently. Almost 44 percent of the state's resident speak languages other than English at home.

The top languages spoken in California are Spanish, Vietnamese, Korean, Farsi, Cantonese, Russian, Tagalog, Arabic, and Punjabi. Others include Cambodian, Japanese, Malayalam, Hmong, Lao, an Aleutian Island dialects.

California has the largest court system in the nation. In 2017, the state's court system faced an interpreter shortage. They could no longer handle the eight million cases that pass through their courts every year.

Language Network has linguists trained in legal, technical, and medical fields that can provide accurate translations for you. Our interpretation services include conference, on-site, and over-the-phone interpreting.

Find out why so many of our clients trust our interpretation services. Contact us at (949) 733-2446 to request a quote today.

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The History of California's Population Diversity

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British historian James Bryce said California was the most striking state in the whole Union. The scholar examined the state's economy and culture in his classic, two-volume study called The American Commonwealth released in 1888. The historian said the region had the characteristics of a great country capable of standing alone in the world.

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Le mont Shasta est une montagne du nord de la Californie. C'est un endroit magnifique avec de nombreux paysages différents. J'adore voyager ici en été.

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Voici, un moment biz
Avatar of Gavin Iribarren
Gavin Iribarren
1m

Voici, un moment bizarre dans l'histoire de la Californie. La Californie s'est déclarée un pays indépendant pendent environ trois semaines. J'habite à minutes de la seule ville contrôlée par ce gouvernement.


When California (Briefly) Became Its Own Nation
When California (Briefly) Became Its Own Nation
At dawn on June 14, 1846, a ragtag group of about 30 gun-toting Americans entered Sonoma, a small town in the Mexican territory of Alta California. Prepared to take the town by force, they instead sat for brandy with Col. Mariano Vallejo of the Mexican army and accepted his surrender.
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Voici un article sur l'histoire et la design du Transamerica Pyramid, un un bâtiment symbolique à San Francisco

https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/california/articles/the-san-francisco-factor-a-brief-history-of-the-transamerica-building/

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Big cities across the world are recognizable due to their unique architecture and distinguishable skylines - San Francisco is no exception. Though tourists can easily pick out the Transamerica Pyramid from photographs of San Francisco, it's more than just another building.

The Transamerica Pyramid is located in San Francisco's financial district and just a stone's throw away from San Francisco's historic Chinatown. The looming landmark features a white quartz exterior and more than 3,000 windows. It is also built to withstand tremors and sustained no damage or injuries during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. At 853 feet, The Transamerica Pyramid is the tallest point in San Francisco, California.

The site of the Transamerica Pyramid was originally known as Montgomery Block, a historic building that housed lawyers, financiers, writers, actors and artists from 1853 to 1959. After being torn down in the 1930's, the block became a parking lot for most of the 50's and 60's, prior to construction beginning in 1969.

Constructed in 1972, the Transamerica Building was originally met by public outcry and residents claiming that San Francisco was no place for an ' obelisk-shaped skyscraper. ' Its unique shape was actually built for environmental practicality in order to let natural light and airflow reach the already crowded streets of San Francisco.

Before cement streets and skyscrapers sprung up, San Francisco's natural waterfront was located mere feet from Montgomery Street, where ships docked at wooden boardwalks. The remains of sunken ships had to be dug up in preparation to lay the foundation for the Transamerica Pyramid. Today, the building stands as a symbol of pride for the city and an undeniably characteristic part of San Francisco.

Originally built for the Transamerica Corporation, the building was bought out in 1999 by Aegon, a Dutch insurance company, and currently serves as office space for financial and insurance services. At the top of the 48 floors of office space and conference rooms rests the 212-foot tall spire, which is topped off by the 'crown jewel', a beacon of light that can be seen through San Francisco on special occasions.

Though the spire of the building and the panoramic-view conference room are not available to the general public, a small park at the base of the building offers a picturesque view of the building and a quiet space for pedestrians to visit.

During the summertime, the Transamerica Redwood Park hosts a number of musicians and concerts on Thursdays from 12-1 p.m. Tourists and businessmen find their way through the park, seeking solace under the boughs of the looming redwoods trees to escape from the concrete jungle of San Francisco.

Despite original protests against the building's construction, it has become not only one of the most photographed buildings in the world, but also an undeniably important part of San Francisco's history and culture. San Francisco would not be the same without the majestic presence of the Transamerica Pyramid.

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A Brief History Of The Transamerica Building In San Francisco

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Big cities across the world are recognizable due to their unique architecture and distinguishable skylines - San Francisco is no exception. Though tourists can easily pick out the Transamerica Pyramid from photographs of San Francisco, it's more than just another building.

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Voici un article sur un incendie en Californie. C'était le plus gros incendie en Californie

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' a rare designation for a blaze that burns at least a million acres - cnn

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California fire is now a 'gigafire,' a rare designation for a blaze that burns at least a million acres

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The August Complex is now the largest fire in California's history.

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The Angel Island immigration station was slated for demolition in the early 1980s, threatening to erase the history on its walls where hundreds of thousands of immigrants shared their stories. Since preserved and restored, the station and its inscriptions attracted Chinese Professor Charles Egan. He spent 15 years researching his new book "Voices of Angel Island: Inscriptions and Immigrant Poetry, 1910 - 1945" (Bloomsbury Press).

Angel Island, now a California state park, is the largest natural island in the San Francisco Bay. It was known as "The Ellis Island of the West" for the U.S. Immigration Station, but was more of a detention center for hundreds of thousands of immigrants - the majority from China. During World War II, Japanese and German prisoners of war were detained at the station.

Learn the truths behind the writings on the Angel Island walls, in a video interview with Egan. The video features archival photographs from the book, giving a glimpse into the lives of those who passed through Angel Island.

- Story and video by Ying Wencie Hoang

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Professor's New Book Explores 'Voices of Angel Island' through Historic Inscriptions

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The Angel Island immigration station was slated for demolition in the early 1980s, threatening to erase the history on its walls where hundreds of thousands of immigrants shared their stories. Since preserved and restored, the station and its inscriptions attracted Chinese Professor Charles Egan.

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Voici un article sur l' histoire d’Angel Island. J’ai visité Angel Island et je pense qu' il a une histoire importante.

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EMMANUEL                La République de Californie 

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EMMANUEL                La République de Californie 

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Voici, un moment bizarre dans l'histoire de la Californie. La Californie s'est déclarée un pays indépendant pendent environ trois semaines. J'habite à minutes de la seule ville contrôlée par ce gouvernement.

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At dawn on June 14, 1846, a ragtag group of about 30 gun-toting Americans entered Sonoma, a small town in the Mexican territory of Alta California. Prepared to take the town by force, they instead sat for brandy with Col. Mariano Vallejo of the Mexican army and accepted his surrender. For the next 25 days, California was an independent nation: the California Republic.

Known as the Bear Flag Revolt, a reference to the short-lived republic's flag, this event was something between an American invasion and a miniature war of independence. Though the fighting was limited and the country it established lasted less than a month, the Bear Flag Revolt led directly to the American acquisition of what is now its most populous state.

Rebellion Begins Brewing in Texas

In the mid-19th century, Mexico still controlled vast swaths of the what is now the Southwest United States. In 1835, a revolt began in the Mexican province of Texas. Although the United States was officially neutral, Americans like Stephen F. Austin and Sam Houston led a rebellion against Mexican rule, and hundreds of Americans, including members of the U.S. Army, joined the fight. The result was the Republic of Texas, an independent nation ruled by American settlers, which was then absorbed into the United States in 1846-triggering the Mexican-American War.

According to Dr. Linda Heidenreich, whose book This Land Was Mexican Once examines the Latinx experience of the Bear Flag Revolt and similar insurrections, the annexation of Texas made it clear to the Californios-Mexican residents of the province of Alta California-that their government was too poor, too unstable and too weak to stop American settlers from overrunning California. Some argued in favor of independence. Others considered inviting the United States to take over.

"If you read the reports of these meetings [of Californios], these people saw it coming," Heidenriech says. "They were scattering for a plan, and it just wasn't there."

The U.S. Sets Its Sights on California

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Enter Charles Frémont, a captain in the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers. Newly elected President James K. Polk, whose annexation of Texas was about to set off the Mexican-American War, sent Frémont on an expedition to survey the area of the Great Basin and the Great Salt Lake. Polk secretly instructed Frémont to invade California if war with Mexico broke out-in fact many historians believe that he actually ordered Frémont to start the war himself. Polk made no secret of his desire to annex California and, as Heidenreich points out, the so-called surveying expedition "went to California with a howitzer."

Frémont's expedition entered Mexican territory in December of 1845 and quietly informed some of the roughly 800 American settlers of their willingness to assist a rebellion. They nearly came to blows with the Mexican authorities after planting an American flag atop Gavilán Peak (now Frémont Peak, near Salinas, California), but retreated into the Oregon Territory. They also skirmished with local indigenous peoples and carried out at least two massacres, including the murder of several hundred Wintu people in early April. Now known as the Sacramento River Massacre, the scene was described by member of the expedition as "a scene of slaughter which is unequalled in the West."

Aware that skirmishes had broken out along the Rio Grande in April, and that Mexican forces were preparing to defend California, Frémont decided to return to Mexican territory in mid-May. On May 13, with Mexico enraged by the American annexation of Texas, the United States declared war on its neighbor to the South. It remains unclear when Frémont learned that war had formally broken out, but his instincts proved correct and allowed him to take some of the first actions of the Mexican-American War.
READ MORE: California's Little-Known Genocide
The Bear Flaggers Strike

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Frémont re-entered California in late May and met with a group of American settlers in the Sonoma Valley on June 8. Having refused a Mexican order to leave, the settlers were primed to launch the "spontaneous" revolt Frémont hoped to incite. On June 10, settlers and members of Frémont's expedition attacked a Mexican lieutenant and made off with his herd of horses. The fighting had begun.

Three days later, a party set out for Sonoma. Riding into the city at dawn, they arrived at the Casa Grande, where Col. Vallejo invited them in to discuss his surrender. Californios had divided opinions about American annexation-many were fiercely resistant-but some felt American rule was preferable to the threat of Russian invasion. Also, a growing number of Californios, Vallejo included, had come to realize that Mexico was simply not willing to put up a fight over Alta California.

After accepting Vallejo's official surrender, the Americans elected William B. Ide as their leader, declared the foundation of a new republic and hoisted a hastily assembled flag featuring a California grizzly bear over the Sonoma barracks. Though technically named the California Republic, the new nation came to be known as the Bear Flag Republic, and its founders were colloquially known as Bear Flaggers, Bears or Osos ("bears" in Spanish).
READ MORE: 9 Things You May Not Know About California
25 Days of Independence

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For the rest of June, the Bears and Frémont's men engaged in skirmishes with Mexican forces, seized key points around what is now San Francisco, and rallied more white settlers to their cause.

At the beginning of July, Commodore John Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy's Pacific fleet, arrived at Monterey Bay. Like Frémont, he had been ordered to attack as soon as war was declared, but acted upon instinct instead of waiting to hear of an official declaration. The navy seized Monterey on July 7, declaring California a part of the United States. Two days later, the Bear Flag Revolt officially ended as California was absorbed into the union. The Californios formally ceded Alta California in 1847 with the Treaty of Cahuenga. California officially became the 31st state on September 9, 1850.

The American takeover of California replaced the complex racial hierarchies of Mexico with a new hierarchy dominated by white Americans. "In both [California and Texas], you have a new racial system," Heidenreich says. "People who thought of themselves as Español, or white, are now, many of them, considered Brown-or 'greasers,' a term used increasingly in the California papers."

Suddenly, Californios became second-class citizens in their own country, while the new government tacitly encouraged its white citizens to purge the area of indigenous peoples.

In 1848, just before California's formal annexation, gold was discovered in Coloma, near Sacramento. The ensuing gold rush transformed California from a region sparsely populated with Hispanics and Native Americans to a bustling economic center controlled by white Americans-and with many more on the way.

A modified version of the original bear flag became California's state flag in 1911, roughly a decade before the California grizzly bear went extinct. Though it lasted a total of just 25 days, the California Republic's name and symbols now adorn perhaps the most distinctive state flag in the United States.
READ MORE: The U.S. States: 50 States and State Capitals

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When California (Briefly) Became Its Own Nation

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At dawn on June 14, 1846, a ragtag group of about 30 gun-toting Americans entered Sonoma, a small town in the Mexican territory of Alta California. Prepared to take the town by force, they instead sat for brandy with Col. Mariano Vallejo of the Mexican army and accepted his surrender.

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JULIE LB

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The lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender ( LGBT) community in San Francisco is one of the largest and most prominent LGBT communities in the world, and is one of the most important in the history of LGBT rights and activism alongside New York City. The city itself has, among its many nicknames, the nicknames "gay capital of the world" and "the gay Mecca", and has been described as "the original 'gay-friendly city'". LGBT culture is also active within companies that are based in Silicon Valley, which is located within the southern San Francisco Bay Area.

San Francisco's LGBT culture has its roots in the city's own origin as a frontier-town, what SF State University professor Alamilla Boyd characterizes as "San Francisco's history of sexual permissiveness and its function as a wide-open town - a town where anything goes". The discovery of gold saw a boom in population from 800 to 35,000 residents between 1848 and 1850. These immigrants were composed of miners and fortune seekers from a variety of nationalities and cultures, over 95% of whom were young men.

These transient and diverse populations thrust into a relatively anarchic environment were less likely to conform to social conventions. For example, with an unbalanced gender ratio, men often assumed roles conventionally assigned to women in social and domestic settings. Cross-gender dress and same-sex dancing were prevalent at city masquerade balls where some men assumed the traditional role of women going so far as to wear female attire. In her study "Arresting dress, cross-dressing in 19th-century San Francisco", Clare Sears also describes numerous cases of women who donned men's clothing in public spaces for increased social and economic freedom, safety, and gender progressive experimentation. Cross-dressing is still an important part of LGBT culture in the city today.

The late 1800s saw a shift in the demographics of the city along with new social and political attitudes. Anti-vice campaigns emerged to target prostitution along with the criminalization of perceived gender transgressions including outlawing cross-dressing in 1863. Cross-dressing laws and public decency laws continued to inform LGBT culture and its interactions with law enforcement well into the 20th century. This political shift resulted in San Francisco's queer culture remerging in bars, nightclubs, and entertainment of the Barbary Coast, removed from policing and control. Through the 1890s to 1907, the Barbary Coast, San Francisco's early red-light district located on Pacific Avenue, featured same-sex prostitution and female impersonators who served male clientele.

Through WWII - in the shadows

Michael Stabile of stated that the first "notorious" gay bar in San Francisco was The Dash, which opened in 1908. During World War I, the U.S. Navy began the "blue discharge" practice, which discharged known homosexuals in port cities, helping to create a gay community in San Francisco. The San Francisco LGBT community first fully formed in the 1920s and 1930s. The most prominent LGBT area then was North Beach. Mona's, San Francisco's first lesbian bar, opened on Union Street in 1934, and featured cross-dressing waitresses as well as entertainer Gladys Bentley. Nightclubs with drag shows drew both gay and straight audiences.

During World War II, gay night life in San Francisco went through several waves of crackdown and reorganization. From 1942 to 1943, the San Francisco Moral Drive-consisting of military patrols-carried out a series of raids targeting the gay bars in San Francisco, with the stated aim of protecting servicemen from homosexuals. Chinatown, as one of places where gay visitors gathered, had also been searched several times. For example, In 1943, the police raided the gay bar, Rickshaw in Chinatown, and arrested 24 patrons and two dozen customers, including a couple of lesbians who tried to fight back and triggered a small riot.

Todd J. Ormsbee, an American studies professor at San Jose State University who wrote The Meaning of Gay: Interaction, Publicity, and Community among Homosexual Men in 1960s San Francisco, stated that a "somewhat more open gay male culture" appeared in San Francisco due to the city's "relative safety" compared to other American cities and due to a "permissiveness" in the city's culture.

Beat culture erupted in San Francisco in the 1950s with a rebellion against middle class values and thus became aligned with homosexuality and other lifestyles not part of mainstream culture. The beat poets who relocated to San Francisco from New York flourished in San Francisco's permissive atmosphere, and some like Allen Ginsberg were openly gay. In these conditions the first homosexual groups were founded, such as the Daughters of Bilitis (founded in San Francisco, it was the first lesbian civil and political rights organization in the United States), and the Mattachine Society, which started in Los Angeles but was headquartered in San Francisco beginning around 1956. Police raids on The Black Cat bar, which had a bohemian and LGBT clientele and featured entertainer and activist José Sarria, sparked an important legal fight for homosexual protections in the 1950s.

In 1961 in San Francisco, José Sarria became the first openly gay candidate in the United States to run for public office, running for a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. Sarria almost won by default. On the last day for candidates to file petitions, city officials realized that there were fewer than five candidates running for the five open seats, which would have assured Sarria a seat. By the end of the day, 34 candidates had filed. Sarria garnered some 6,000 votes, shocking political pundits and setting in motion the idea that a gay voting bloc could wield real power in city politics. As Sarria put it, "From that day on, nobody ran for anything in San Francisco without knocking on the door of the gay community."

The Tavern Guild, the first gay business association in the United States, was created by gay bar owners in 1962 as a response to continued police harassment and closing of gay bars (including the Tay-Bush Inn raid), and continued until 1995.

The June 1964 Paul Welch article entitled "Homosexuality In America" marked the first time a national publication reported on gay issues. Life 's photographer was referred to a gay leather bar in San Francisco called the Tool Box by Hal Call, who had long worked to dispel the myth that all homosexual men were effeminate. The article opened with a two-page spread of the mural of life size leathermen in the bar, which had been painted by Chuck Arnett in 1962. The article described San Francisco as "The Gay Capital of America" and inspired many gay leathermen to move there.

The Society for Individual Rights (SIR), founded in San Francisco in 1964, published the magazine Vector and became within two years the largest homophile organization in the United States. SIR focused on community building, public identity and legal and social services.

On the eve of January 1, 1965, several homophile organizations in San Francisco, California - including SIR, the Daughters of Bilitis, the Council on Religion and the Homosexual, and the Mattachine Society - held a fund-raising ball for their mutual benefit at the California Hall. San Francisco police had agreed not to interfere; however, on the evening of the ball, the police showed up in force and surrounded the California Hall and focused numerous kleig lights on the entrance to the hall. As each of the 600 plus persons entering the ball approached the entrance, the police took their photographs. A number of police vans were parked in plain view near the entrance to the ball. Evander Smith, a lawyer for the groups organizing the ball, and Herb Donaldson tried to stop the police from conducting the fourth "inspection" of the evening; both were arrested, along with two heterosexual lawyers - Elliott Leighton and Nancy May - who were supporting the rights of the participants to gather at the ball. But twenty-five of the most prominent lawyers in San Francisco joined the defense team for the four lawyers, and the judge directed the jury to find the four not-guilty before the defense had even had a chance to begin their argumentation when the case came to court. This event has been called "San Francisco's Stonewall" by some historians; the participation of such prominent litigators in the defense of Smith, Donaldson and the other two lawyers marked a turning point in gay rights on the West Coast of the United States.

Vanguard, an organization of LGBT youth in the low-income Tenderloin district, was created in 1965. It is considered the first Gay Liberation organization in the U.S.

In 1966 SIR opened America's first gay and lesbian community center.

In 1966, one of the first recorded transgender riots in US history took place. The Compton's Cafeteria Riot occurred in the Tenderloin district of San Francisco. The night after the riot, more transgender people, hustlers, Tenderloin street people, and other members of the LGBT community joined in a picket of the cafeteria, which would not allow transgender people back in. The demonstration ended with the newly installed plate-glass windows being smashed again. According to the online encyclopedia glbtq.com, "In the aftermath of the riot at Compton's, a network of transgender social, psychological, and medical support services was established, which culminated in 1968 with the creation of the National Transsexual Counseling Unit [NTCU], the first such peer-run support and advocacy organization in the world".

One of the earliest organizations for bisexuals, the Sexual Freedom League in San Francisco, was facilitated by Margo Rila and Frank Esposito beginning in 1967. Two years later, during a staff meeting at a San Francisco mental health facility serving LGBT people, nurse Maggi Rubenstein came out as bisexual. Due to this, bisexuals began to be included in the facility's programs for the first time.

The number of San Francisco gay bars increased in the 1960s.

In the wake of the Stonewall riots in New York in June 1969, groups in New York, San Francisco and elsewhere became active in 1970 promoting rights for gays. Newspapers were established, and parades were organized in major cities commemorating the anniversary of the riots. These disparate efforts became known collectively as the Gay liberation movement in the United States, and primarily involved gay men and lesbians.

In 1970 gay activist groups on the West Coast of the United States held a march and 'Gay-in' in San Francisco. By 1972 this evolved into the Gay Liberation Day Parade, renamed several times since then to San Francisco Pride.

The identification of The Castro as a gay neighborhood identity began in the 1960s and 1970s as LGBT people began moving to the community. The first gay bar to have clear windows in San Francisco was Twin Peaks Tavern, which removed its blacked-out windows in 1972. The term " Castro clone" originated in this neighborhood when some gay men began to adopt a masculine clothing style which included denim jeans and a plaid shirt.

Lesbian bars and women's organizations began to proliferate in the 1970s, including bars like Maud's, Peg's Place, Amelia's, Wild Side West, and A Little More, as well as women's coffeehouses, a bookstore and a bathhouse. Many women's businesses and organizations were concentrated in the Valencia Street area of the Mission District.

The world's first gay softball league was formed in San Francisco in 1974 as the Community Softball League, which eventually included both women's and men's teams. The teams, usually sponsored by gay bars, competed against each other and against the San Francisco Police softball team. San Franciscans also created a gay university, Lavender U, and hosted the world's first gay film festival in 1977.

The Cockettes, a psychedelic gay theater collective started by Hibiscus, were popular entertainers of the early 1970s. One of their members, Sylvester, went on to achieve international acclaim during the Disco Era.

In 1976 Maggi Rubenstein and Harriet Levi founded The San Francisco Bisexual Center. It was the longest surviving bisexual community center, offering counseling and support services to Bay Area bisexuals, as well as publishing a newsletter, The Bi Monthly, from 1976 to 1984.

Peter Adair, Nancy Adair and other members of the Mariposa Film Group premiered the groundbreaking documentary on coming out, Word Is Out: Stories of Some of Our Lives, at the Castro Theater in 1977. The film was the first feature-length documentary on gay identity by gay and lesbian filmmakers.

In November 1977 Harvey Milk was elected as the first openly gay politician in the city of San Francisco; he became a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. The Harvey Milk LGBT Democratic Club was founded as the San Francisco Gay Democratic Club in 1976 and received its current name in 1978 in honor of Harvey Milk after he was assassinated that year. This club was a more progressive offshoot of the Alice B. Toklas Democratic Club, founded in San Francisco in 1971, which was the first gay Democratic club of the United States. Harry Britt was president of the club when Milk was assassinated and was appointed by the Mayor Feinstein to succeed Milk as supervisor. Britt went on to be the second openly gay elected official in San Francisco, as well as the first openly gay official to become the President of the Board of Supervisors, writing and passing domestic partnership legislation. He successfully passed rent control ordinances, was the highest elected gay official in the city during the onset of the AIDS epidemic, and later became a Vice Chair of Democratic Socialists of America.

Anne Kronenberg was Milk's campaign manager during his San Francisco Board of Supervisors campaign, and later worked as his aide while he held that office. (While Kronenberg identified as a lesbian at that time, she later fell in love with and married a man she met in Washington, D.C. in the 1980s.) In 1978, lesbian Sally Miller Gearhart fought alongside Milk to defeat Proposition 6 (also known as the " Briggs Initiative" because it was sponsored by John Briggs), which would have banned gays and lesbians from teaching in public schools in California. Milk was murdered on November 27, 1978 in the Moscone-Milk assassinations. Riots broke out after the perpetrator, Dan White, received a manslaughter conviction, and was sentenced to seven years in prison.

Gilbert Baker raised the first LGBT Pride flag at San Francisco Pride on June 25, 1978.

San Francisco lesbian bar Peg's Place was the site of an assault in 1979 by off-duty members of the San Francisco vice squad, an event which drew national attention to other incidents of anti-gay violence and police harassment of the LGBT community and helped propel a (unsuccessful) citywide proposition to ban the city's vice squad altogether. Historians have written about the incident when describing the tension that existed between the police and the LGBT community during the late 1970s.

The Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence started in the Castro District in 1979, and eventually became nationwide.

The San Francisco gay community was devastated by the AIDS epidemic following the discovery of the HIV virus in 1981.

In the early 1980s, AIDS began affecting the male LGBT population of San Francisco, with the disease continuing to have a fatal effect through the 1990s. 15,548 people in San Francisco had died due to AIDS prior to the introduction of drugs that treated AIDS, and a total of almost 20,000 people died within 15 years of the start of the AIDS crisis. The victims had obituaries in San Francisco-area LGBT newspapers. Randy Shilts, who himself later died of AIDS, was one of the foremost reporters of the AIDS epidemic. He was hired as a national correspondent by the San Francisco Chronicle in 1981, becoming the first openly gay reporter with a gay "beat" in the American mainstream press. In 1984, bisexual activist David Lourea finally persuaded the San Francisco Department of Public Health to recognize bisexual men in their official AIDS statistics (the weekly "New AIDS cases and mortality statistics" report), after two years of campaigning. Health departments throughout the United States began to recognize bisexual men because of this, whereas before they had mostly only recognized gay men. The 2011 documentary We Were Here covers the 1980s-1990s AIDS crisis in San Francisco. Made by David Weissman, the film opened in Los Angeles and received a screening at the Castro Theatre.

The term LGB referring to Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual first began to be used in the mid-to-late 1980s to more clearly indicate the inclusion of bisexuals.

The Gay Games were held in San Francisco in 1982 and 1986.

In 1984, the magazine On Our Backs began publication in San Francisco, featuring lesbian erotica by lesbians.

Bear culture began to be popularized among gay men with the publication of Bear Magazine in San Francisco in 1987.

BiNet USA, the oldest national bisexuality organization in the United States, was founded in 1990 under the name North American Multicultural Bisexual Network (NAMBN), and had its first meeting in San Francisco, at the first National Bisexual Conference in America. This first conference was held in 1990 and sponsored by BiPOL. Over 450 people attended from 20 states and 5 countries, and the mayor of San Francisco sent a proclamation "commending the bisexual rights community for its leadership in the cause of social justice," and declaring June 23, 1990 Bisexual Pride Day.

The first Eagle Creek Saloon, that opened on the 1800 block of Market Street in San Francisco in 1990 and closed in 1993, was the first black-owned gay bar in the city.

The first decade of the new century saw a new awareness of transgender identity in San Francisco, with the establishment of the first Trans pride march in 2004 and heralded several important legal events in the movement towards Same-sex marriage in California, sparked by San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom's move in 2004 to permit city hall to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples.

Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon became the first same-sex couple to be legally married in the United States in 2004, However, all same-sex marriages done in 2004 in California were annulled in 2008 by California Prop 8 overturning a California Supreme Court decision in May 2008 that granted same-sex couples in California the right to marry. Same-sex marriages were halted until 2013 when the U.S. Supreme Court made them legal again in Hollingsworth v. Perry.

In 2004 the San Francisco Trans March was first held. It has been held annually since; it is San Francisco's largest transgender Pride event and one of the largest trans events in the entire world.

In 2007 Theresa Sparks was elected president of the San Francisco Police Commission by a single vote, making her the first openly transgender person ever to be elected president of any San Francisco commission, as well as San Francisco's highest ranking openly transgender official.

In 2011, San Francisco's Human Rights Commission released a report on bisexual visibility, titled " Bisexual Invisibility: Impacts and Regulations"; this was the first time any governmental body released such a report.

In 2013 San Francisco Board of Supervisors member David Campos started a campaign to have San Francisco International Airport renamed for Harvey Milk.

Pete Kane of the stated in 2014 that assimilation into mainstream society, "displacement due to the explosive cost of living, and atomization in the face of handheld sex" are all trends that have the potential to diminish the "LGBT community" and that these trends are "felt most acutely" in San Francisco.

In 2016, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors passed a law, authored by Scott Wiener, barring the city from doing business with companies that have a home base in states such as North Carolina, Tennessee, and Mississippi, that forbid civil rights protections for LGBT people

In 2017, the Compton's Transgender Cultural District in the Tenderloin became the first legally recognized transgender district in the country.

In 2019, Jeanine Nicholson, who is gay, became San Francisco's first openly LGBT fire chief.

The Daughters of Bilitis (DOB) was founded in San Francisco in 1955 by four lesbian couples (including Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon) and was the first national lesbian political and social organization in the United States.

The Mattachine Society moved its headquarters from Los Angeles to San Francisco in the 1950s.

In 1975, the Gay Latino Alliance (GALA) was founded in San Francisco, spurred by an interest in creating a Latino float for the San Francisco Gay Pride Parade. It was one of the first gay Latino organizations to exist in the United States and was situated in the Mission District of San Francisco. The group was created in response to the lack of focus on intersectionality in the San Francisco gay community. The alliance raised funds through dances and other events and donated the money to political grassroots campaigns. One of its founders, Diane Felix, also co-founded various different queer organizations including Community United in Response to AIDS/SIDA (CURAS) in 1981 and Proyecto ContraSIDA por Vida in 1993.

Proyecto ContraSIDA por Vida is a community based, grass roots HIV prevention organization in the Mission district. Notable participants and employees within the organization includes Adela Vazquez, Proyecto's first trans Latina outreach coordinator.

In 1983, BiPOL, the first and oldest bisexual political organization, was founded in San Francisco by bisexual activists Autumn Courtney, Lani Ka'ahumanu, Arlene Krantz, David Lourea, Bill Mack, Alan Rockway, and Maggi Rubenstein. In 1984, BiPOL sponsored the first bisexual rights rally, outside the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. The rally featured nine speakers from civil rights groups allied with the bisexual movement.

In 1987, the Bay Area Bisexual Network, the oldest and largest bisexual group in the San Francisco Bay Area, was founded by Lani Ka'ahumanu, Ann Justi and Maggi Rubenstein.

The oldest national bisexuality organization in the United States, BiNet USA, was founded in 1990. It was originally called the North American Multicultural Bisexual Network (NAMBN), and had its first meeting at the first National Bisexual Conference in America. This first conference was held in San Francisco in 1990, and sponsored by BiPOL. Over 450 people attended from 20 states and 5 countries, and the mayor of San Francisco sent a proclamation "commending the bisexual rights community for its leadership in the cause of social justice," and declaring June 23, 1990 Bisexual Pride Day.

The GLBT Historical Society, founded in 1985, maintains one of the world's largest archives of LGBT-related materials. Since 2011, it also has operated the GLBT History Museum in the Castro District.

The Golden Gate Business Association is an LGBT version of a traditional chamber of commerce. The LGBT entrepreneurship organization StartOut is also based in the city. The Bay Area Career Women is a lesbian professional development group.

The San Francisco LGBT Community Center is in San Francisco. The growing LGBT population led to some publishers applying the moniker San Fagcisco to the city, while inhabitants were given the demonym San Fagciscan.

Blow Buddies is the city's largest gay bathhouse and is dedicated to fellatio.

In the 1970s, the city's gay male population rose from 30,000 at the beginning of the decade to 100,000 in a city of 660,000 at the end of it.

In 1993 Stephen O. Murray, in "Components of Gay Community in San Francisco," wrote that most LGBT residents of San Francisco had originated from other cities and had " come out" in other cities. A 2015 Gallup poll found that 6.2% of San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward inhabitants identified as LGBT, the highest of any metropolitan area in the United States. In the city of San Francisco itself, a 2006 survey found that 15.4% of its inhabitants identified as LGBT. In U.S. Congressional District 8, which consists of San Franciscans of voting age, 16.6% of adults identify as LGBT.

According to a 2013 survey, 29% of the homeless residents of San Francisco identify as LGBT.

In the 1920s and 1930s the most prominent LGBT area was North Beach. Polk Gulch was a popular gay neighborhood from the 1950s to the 1980s, hosting the original annual Halloween street fair which later moved to the Castro. Folsom Street was the home of the first leather bars, and still hosts the annual leather subculture street fair and food court event, held in September, Folsom Street Fair. In 1977 a large portion of the LGBT community was centered in the upper Market Street and Haight-Ashbury area.

The Castro area of San Francisco is most well known as a gay neighborhood. This began in the 1960s and 1970s as LGBT people began moving to the community. It was where Harvey Milk had his camera shop and did much of his organizing in the 1970s. The neighborhood now features permanent rainbow Pride flags, an LGBT History Museum, and a Walk of Fame with the names of notable LGBT people inscribed on the sidewalk. While The Castro retained its identity, in 2014 Spencer Michels of PBS Newshour stated that The Castro became "a little more heterosexual, a slightly upscale shopping street".

The Mission has long been a neighborhood with a strong queer Latino/a presence, and was home to the first Latino gay bar in San Francisco, Esta Noche, along with other gay Latino bars like La India Bonita, and El Rio. The Mission also was the home to Proyecto ContraSIDA por Vida, a Latino/a HIV Prevention organization. Lesbians, Latina and non-Latina, were particularly drawn to this neighborhood in the 1980s; it has hosted several lesbian bars, a Women's Center, coffeehouses, a bookstore, and a woman-only bathhouse.

Chinatown in San Francisco is also a place closely related to LGBT culture, where its history about sexuality began with the development of sexual industry in the middle of the 19th century. In the middle of the 20th century, as the number of nightclubs and gay bars increased in Chinatown, Chinatown became the most famous spot for sex tourism, attracting LGBT clients from all over the world. In 1994, Gay Asian Pacific Alliance and Asian Pacific Sisters initially joined the Chinese New Year Parade in Chinatown, which was first time that Chinese American society had accepted Asian American LGBT organizations publicly.

Gay bars and lesbian bars became LGBT community centers and areas where LGBT residents had public visibility. Michael Stabile of stated that the first "notorious" gay bar was The Dash, which opened in 1908. The number of San Francisco gay bars increased in the 1960s. In 1973, there were 118 gay bars listed in the San Francisco Gay Yellow Pages, in 2011, there were 33. The first gay bar to have clear windows was Twin Peaks Tavern, which removed its blacked-out windows in 1972. The first gay Latino bar was Esta Noche, in 1979. In 2014 Pete Kane stated that as same-sex rights and culture became mainstream, some gay bars in the city had closed due to gentrification or became "post-gay". More importantly, it is imperative to note the rapid loss of tens of thousands of San Francisco gay men to the HIV/AIDS epidemic heavily contributed to the loss of many gay bars in the city.

Despite being known as one of the LGBTQ "meccas" of America, San Francisco has a severe lack of designated gathering spaces for lesbians compared to gay men. Lesbian-centric establishments have always struggled to remain open. The Lexington Club, the last popular mostly-lesbian bar in San Francisco, closed in 2015.

The San Francisco South of Market Leather History Alley consists of four works of art along Ringold Alley honoring leather culture; it opened in 2017. The four works of art are: engraved standing stones that honor community leather institutions including the Folsom Street Fair and leather pride flag pavement markings through which the stones emerge, a black granite stone etched with a narrative by Gayle Rubin, an image of the "Leather David" statue by Mike Caffee, and a reproduction of Chuck Arnett 's 1962 mural that was in the Tool Box (a gay leather bar), and metal bootprints along the curb which honor 28 people who were an important part of the leather communities of San Francisco.

The National Queer Arts Festival and Frameline, the latter of which is the largest and oldest LGBT film festival, are held in San Francisco. The city is also home to the San Francisco Transgender Film Festival, the world's oldest transgender film festival.

Harvey Milk had founded the Castro Street Fair. Other events include San Francisco Pride, the Folsom Street Fair, and Pink Saturday.

The San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus and the Lesbian/Gay Chorus of San Francisco are both based in the city.

The GLBT Historical Society Museum is in the Castro District.

The growing LGBT population led to some publishers applying the moniker San Fagcisco to the city, while inhabitants were given the demonym San Fagciscan.

San Francisco has open LGBT identity participation in its political system. In 2012 William Harless of PBS Newshour stated that "the gay political scene in San Francisco [is] still an exception".

In November 1977 Harvey Milk was elected as the first openly gay politician in the city of San Francisco; he became a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. The Harvey Milk LGBT Democratic Club was founded as the San Francisco Gay Democratic Club in 1976 and received its current name in 1978 in honor of Harvey Milk after he was assassinated. This club was a more progressive offshoot of the Alice B. Toklas Democratic Club, founded in San Francisco in 1971, the first gay Democratic club of the United States. Harry Britt was president of the club when Milk was assassinated and was appointed by the Mayor Dianne Feinstein to succeed Milk as supervisor. Britt went on to be the second openly gay elected official in San Francisco, as well as the first openly gay official to become the President of the Board of Supervisors, writing and passing domestic partnership legislation. He successfully passed rent control ordinances, was the highest elected gay official in the city during the onset of the AIDS epidemic, and later became a Vice Chair of Democratic Socialists of America.

Anne Kronenberg, who was openly lesbian, was Milk's campaign manager during his San Francisco Board of Supervisors campaign, and later worked as his aide while he held that office. In 1978, lesbian Sally Miller Gearhart fought alongside Milk to defeat Proposition 6 (also known as the " Briggs Initiative" because it was sponsored by John Briggs), which would have banned gays and lesbians from teaching in public schools in California. Milk was murdered on November 27, 1978 in the Moscone-Milk assassinations. Riots broke out after the perpetrator, Dan White, received a manslaughter conviction, and was sentenced to seven years in prison.

Both the Alice B. Toklas Memorial Democratic Club and the Harvey Milk LGBT Democratic Club raise money during the Alice Pride breakfasts, held each June and attended by the Mayor of San Francisco and other area politicians. In 2012 members of the Barack Obama reelection campaign attended the breakfast. In 2014, Lynn Rapoport of the San Francisco Bay Guardian stated that in San Francisco there are "possibly even some Log Cabin Republicans."

The political participation for and against California Proposition 8, which sought to outlaw gay marriage, depended on race, age, level of education, and religious affiliation; there were high income neighborhoods that voted for the proposition and high income neighborhoods that voted against the proposition. More strongly religious persons were more likely to vote in favor of the proposition. Whites had a lower likelihood of being pro-Proposition 8 while blacks and Asians voted more strongly in favor of the proposition. People with university degrees voted mostly against the proposition while those who only had a high school diploma voted mostly for the proposition. The 18-29 age group voted strongly against Proposition 8 and the 60 and older age group voted strongly for it. Chinese American Voter Education Committee (CAVEC; Chinese: 華裔選民教育委員會; pinyin: Huáyì Xuǎnmín Jiàoyùwěiyuánhuì ) director David Lee (李志威; ) stated that immigrants who had been in San Francisco for longer than ten years largely voted against the proposition while those who had been in the city for fewer than 10 years largely voted for it.

In 2008, out of the 580 precincts in San Francisco, all but 54 voted against Proposition 8. Neighborhoods voting strongly against Proposition 8 included Laurel Heights, Marina, and Mission Bay. The Mission District precinct around the 24th Street BART Station had about a 20% vote in favor of Proposition 8. About 24% of those in Sea Cliff voted for Proposition 8, and the percentage of those in St. Francis Wood voting in favor of the proposition was 35%. In The Castro 3% of voters had voted in favor of Proposition 8.

Areas voting over 50% in favor of Proposition 8 included portions of Bayview-Hunters Point, the Excelsior, communities around Lake Merced, and Visitacion Valley. Some residents of Visitacion Valley stated that they did not want their children to learn about gay marriage in school; they mistakenly believed that the measure would ban children from learning about gay marriage at school. Other Visitacion Valley residents cited their religious beliefs. Chinatown was among the areas most heavily voting for Proposition 8; David Lee stated that Yes on 8 caused many Chinese-speaking voters to vote for the proposition by taking out advertisements in area Chinese newspapers. The areas with the highest percentages of for votes were in portions of Chinatown and Downtown, which were 65% in favor. The parts of Downtown included the condominiums of the Four Seasons Hotel, San Francisco and the St. Regis Museum Tower as well as other city blocks around Bloomingdale's. Political consultant David Latterman stated that the residents in that area had recently moved into San Francisco and were less connected to the city compared to those in other wealthy areas.

The series' Tales of the City and depict LGBT culture in San Francisco.

The novel Valencia by Michelle Tea explores the lesbian culture of the 1990s Mission District.

The novel A Horse Named Sorrow by Trebor Healey is set in San Francisco in the 1980s and 90's.

The Emma Victor series of mystery novels by Mary Wings is about a San Francisco lesbian private investigator.

In Pixar's 2015 film , LGBT culture is referenced by Anger by mentioning that he saw someone in San Francisco who resembles a bear.

Tom Ammiano, activist and politician

Harry Britt (activist and city supervisor)

David Campos (gay member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors)

Margaret Cho, (bisexual comedian and native San Franciscan.)

Lea Delaria, comedian, actress and musician whose career started in San Francisco

Cleve Jones (gay activist)

Bill Kraus (gay rights and AIDS activist)

Alec Mapa (actor)

Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon (lesbian activists)

Harvey Milk (gay former member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors)

Armistead Maupin, author of Tales of the City

Jose Sarria (entertainer and activist)

Bradford Shellhammer, (entrepreneur, co-founder Fab, Bezar and founding editor of )

Randy Shilts, (writer and reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle and The Advocate)

Theresa Sparks (transgender Executive Director of the San Francisco Human Rights Commission)

Rikki Streicher (businesswoman, activist, tavern owner, Gay softball promoter, co-founder of the Gay Games)

Sylvester, singer who began his career in San Francisco

Michelle Tea, (author of San Francisco lesbian novel Valencia)

Carol Queen (bisexual author, editor, sociologist and sexologist)

Adela Vazquez (trans Cuban activist, HIV case manager, Latino AIDS Education and Prevention Program Coordinator)

Heklina (aka Stefan Grygelko is an actor, drag queen, entrepreneur, activist, owner of The Oasis, theater and cabaret nightclub located in San Francisco's SOMA district and co-founder of Mother (formerly TrannyShack) the longest running drag show in San Francisco)

Boyd, Nan Almilla. Wide-Open Town: A History of Queer San Francisco to 1965. University of California Press, May 23, 2003. ISBN 0520938747, 9780520938748.

Lipsky, William. Gay and Lesbian San Francisco. Arcadia Publishing, 2006. ISBN 0738531383, 978-0738531380.

Murray, Stephen O. "Components of Gay Community in San Francisco" (Chapter 4). In: Herdt, Gilbert H. Gay Culture in America: Essays from the Field. Beacon Press, January 1, 1993. ISBN 0807079154, 9780807079157. Start page: 107.

Ormsbee, Todd J. The Meaning of Gay: Interaction, Publicity, and Community among Homosexual Men in 1960s San Francisco. Lexington Books, July 10, 2012. ISBN 0739144715, 9780739144718.

Sheiner, Marcy. "The Foundations of the Bisexual Community in San Francisco: An Interview with Dr. Maggi Rubenstein", in the anthology Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out, edited by Lorraine Hutchins and Lani Ka'ahumanu, Alyson Publications, 1991. ISBN 1-55583-174-5, 978-1555831745.

Fritscher, Jack. Gay San Francisco: Eyewitness Drummer : a Memoir of the Sex, Art, Salon, Pop Culture War, and Gay History of Drummer Magazine, the Titanic 1970s to 1999, Volume 1. Palm Drive Publishing, November 1, 2006. ISBN 1890834394, 9781890834395.

Graves, Donna J.; Watson, Shayne E. (2016). Citywide Historic Context Statement for LGBTQ History in San Francisco (PDF). San Francisco: San Francisco Planning Department (published March 2016). Archived from the original on 2016 - via sfplanning.org. The Citywide Historic Context Statement for LGBTQ History in San Francisco was initiated in September 2013 and adopted by the Historic Preservation Commission on November 18, 2015.

Lipsky, William. Gay and Lesbian San Francisco. Arcadia Publishing, 2006. ISBN 0738531383, 978-0738531380.

Sheiner, Marcy. "The Foundations of the Bisexual Community in San Francisco: An Interview with Dr. Maggi Rubenstein", in the anthology Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out, edited by Lorraine Hutchins and Lani Ka'ahumanu, Alyson Publications, 1991. ISBN 1-55583-174-5, 978-1555831745.

Stryker, Susan and Jim Van Buskirk. Gay by the Bay: A History of Queer Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area. Chronicle Books, March 1, 1996. ISBN 0811811875, 9780811811873.

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The lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender ( LGBT) community in San Francisco is one of the largest and most prominent LGBT communities in the world, and is one of the most important in the history of LGBT rights and activism alongside New York City.

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Voici un article sur une jetée célèbre en Californie. La jetée est très intéressante et possède toutes sortes d'attractions.

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Thirty-nine years ago today, then-Board of Supervisors President Dianne Feinstein, sporting a one-piece bathing suit, cut the ribbon and declared Pier 39 officially open.

Since then, the city's most famous waterfront tourist trap has been reviled by purists as a manufactured experience free of authentic San Francisco character. But people love it anyway, and the grumblings of the elites have not sunk the pier after nearly four decades.

Precisely how a junked-out 1905 cargo pier became a hub of waffle cones, Alcatraz T-shirts, and sea lions is a story that grows stranger as years go by. Here's a gander at some of the seaside sideshow's colorful history:

1. Warren Simmons, the same developer behind the Chevy's restaurant chain, first pitched the city on turning the derelict pier into a tourism hotspot in the early 1970s. To talk neighborhood groups into supporting him, he went around giving a slideshow presentation 28 times a week.

2. The lease the city eventually granted Simmons was good for 60 years and entitled him to most of the pier's revenue. The deal has been the subject of complaints and allegations of corruption ever since.

3. At the time, the entire development cost roughly $30 million, the equivalent of $108 million today. Which is not all that much relative to what modern developments of similar scale run today.

4. Originally the locale was to house 103 shops and 23 restaurants, but only about half had doors open by the October 4 opening date.

5. The only still-extant Pier 39 business open since day one: Swiss Louis Italian restaurant.

6. Speaking of longtime restaurant tenants, the nearly century-old Eagle Cafe's original locale was where the pier's parking garage is now. The owner moved the entire building to its present waterfront spot.

7. Future mayor of San Francisco and Sen. Dianne Feinstein cut the ribbon at Pier 39's grand opening wearing a black one-piece "Sutro Baths" bathing suit. Why? According to her comments beforehand, she bet Simmons that he wouldn't make his October 4 deadline. Because she lost she agreed to do the ribbon cutting "in a bikini," and this was as close as she got.

8. Much of the lumber for Pier 39 came from other piers.

9. One pier that definitely didn't contribute wood, however, was Pier 37, where an untimely fire destroyed the timber stores before Simmons could get his hands on them.

10. Pier 39 claims that it sees some 11 million visitors every year. For comparison, only 1.7 million visit Alcatraz, while some 10 million check out the Golden Gate Bridge.

11. However, the pier has touted that 11 million figure since at least 1998 (roughly half its lifespan), meaning that they're not calculating much by way of annual variance into it.

12. San Francisco Chronicle architecture critic Allan Temko hated every board and nail of Pier 39 when it opened, dubbing it a dumping ground of "corn, kitsch, schlock, honky-tonk, dreck, schmaltz, merde," as well as "pseudo-Victorian junk," "non-architecture," and an "ersatz San Francisco that never was." Ouch.

13. However, current San Francisco Chronicle urban design critic John King, who calls the waterfront commerce collective "lowbrow and crass," argues that its ambition and shrewd planning made it destined to succeed.

14. One of the pier's earliest attractions was a "rainmaker," who performed a magic act that concluded by spraying the entire crowd with water.

15. In another long-defunct act, tourists would dive into a 10-foot pool filled with Jell-O to retrieve personal item stranded at the bottom. It was the 1970s; let's not judge them too harshly.

16. The Jell-O pool went out in favor of a carousel in 1983.

17. Originally the carousel sat in a Pier 39 arcade dubbed the "Palace of Fun Arts."

18. But that's not the carousel seen at the pier today; a two-story affair from Italy replaced the original in 2008.

19. For the curious, the carousel bears some 1,800 LED lights. And though it's billed as having "30-plus" animals to ride, they missed out on a seemingly golden opportunity to make the menagerie 39 strong.

20. Simmons dubbed Pier 39 ferries the Blue and Gold Fleet as a tribute to UC Berkeley, where he graduated in the 1940s.

21. Incidentally, according to Simmon's 2006 obituary, he sold all of Pier 39, sweetheart lease and all, less than three three years after it opened on account of even more legal troubles.

22. Since Simmons sold his chain of Mexican restaurants to raise money for Pier 39, he next turned around and opened Chevy's in Alameda. He ended up with nearly 40 locations by the time he sold it to Pepsi in the early 1990s.

23. Incidentally, son Scooter Simmons owns three Pier 39 restaurants today.

24. Speaking of ambitious restaurants, Forbes Island-actually a barge rather than a real island, of course-made its claim to fame by floating off of the pier for almost 20 years but closed unexpectedly in August. The owner says that it will relocate to a land-bound site in the near future.

25. As the pier itself points out, nobody can conclusively figure out why sea lions like the spot quite so much, as the showboating pinnipeds just showed up one day, growing from an initial group of six in late 1989.

26. Rumor suggests the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake had something to do with their appearance, but more likely they came for the area's herring population.

27. In 1990s, restaurant owners on the pier complained about the sea lions in bitter terms, dubbing them a "horde of smelly loudmouths." Which is hard to deny, really.

28. The technical term for a spot where dozens or hundreds of sea lions just hang around like that is a "haul out," something most pinnipeds do regularly to rest, socialize, warm up, and avoid predators.

29. The oft-cited population record was 1,701 sea lions in November of 2009, requiring half a dozen new docks to accommodate them all.

30. But no sooner did their population crest than almost all of sea lions mysteriously disappeared late that same year. They came back in smaller numbers, but then pulled another disappearing act in 2014.

31. Despite fears of permanent disembarkation, the sea lions have never entirely quit the pier locale, and you can check in on them via webcam.

32. Remo Saraceni, creator of Pier 39's piano staircase, previously created the giant sidewalk piano featured in the Tom Hanks movie Big.

33. In 1979, a group of clowns sued Pier 39 for evicting their balloon-making business. No word on whether they all showed up to court in the same car.

34. To play up its Victorian veneer (yes, it's supposed to look Victorian; just go with it), Pier 39 once had a service offering horse-drawn carriage rides. Owner John Henkel had to move in 1985 after complaints about all of the manure.

35. During Tulip season in February, "Tulipmania" conducts walking tours of the pier showing off the up to 40,000 tulips that bloom in the area, an attraction as old as the pier itself.

36. Performances at the Crystal Geyser stage happen in 80-minute shifts, meaning new shows start on a very specific timetable: 12 p.m., 1:20 p.m., 2:40 p.m., 4 p.m., 5:20 p.m., 6:30 p.m., 7:40 p.m. and 8:50 p.m. Current acts include "some kind of comedian" and "elegant geek tricks."

37. A breakwater, described as "an envelope of concrete and steel in the base of the pier," protects it from the waves. Prior to the pier opening, the breakwater consisted of just old tires.

38. The pier began its anniversary celebration early, kicking it off in January so that it would culminate this week after 39 weeks.

39. But oddly, the big birthday party won't happen for another 10 days yet, with fireworks and "roving glow-in-the-dark entertainment." Which is probably less alarming than it sounds.

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39 facts about Pier 39 for its 39th birthday

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Thirty-nine years ago today, then-Board of Supervisors President Dianne Feinstein, sporting a one-piece bathing suit, cut the ribbon and declared Pier 39 officially open. Since then, the city's most famous waterfront tourist trap has been reviled by purists as a manufactured experience free of authentic San Francisco character.

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 LEA                                       Cette un article sur le "Golden State Bridge". C'est très interessante et il y a beaucoup du information sur le construction et le histoire.              

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 LEA                                       Cette un article sur le "Golden State Bridge". C'est très interessante et il y a beaucoup du information sur le construction et le histoire.              

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The Golden Gate Bridge is an iconic structure connecting the city of San Francisco to Marin County, California. It spans almost two miles across the Golden Gate, the narrow strait where San Francisco Bay opens to meet the Pacific Ocean. The dream of connecting San Francisco to its northern neighbors became a reality when construction commenced in 1933. Given a chance for steady employment amid the Great Depression, construction crews braved treacherous conditions as the roadway and towers took shape over open water. The Golden Gate Bridge, which opened to the public in 1937, has endured as a picture-perfect landmark and an engineering marvel.

Joseph Strauss

Following decades of public calls to connect the burgeoning metropolis of San Francisco to its neighbors across the mile-wide Golden Gate, city engineer Michael O'Shaughnessy in 1919 was charged with finding someone capable of constructing a bridge at a reasonable cost.

The job went to a Chicago-based engineer named Joseph Strauss, a drawbridge builder who believed he could complete the grand-scale project for a modest $25 to $30 million. After submitting his sketches for a cantilever-suspension hybrid span in June 1921, Strauss set about convincing the communities on the northern end of the strait that the bridge would be to their benefit.

The project gained momentum in May 1923 when the state legislature passed the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act of California for the purpose of planning, designing and financing construction. By August 1925, the people of Marin, Sonoma, Del Norte and parts of Napa and Mendocino counties had agreed to join the district and offer their homes and businesses as collateral for securing funds.

International Orange

Despite the economic promises touted by its supporters, the project met fierce resistance from an array of business and civic leaders.

Not only would the bridge impede the shipping industry and mar the bay's natural beauty, they argued, but it also wouldn't survive a temblor like the San Francisco Earthquake that crippled the city in 1906. Years of litigation followed as opponents sought to block the formation of the district.

Meanwhile, the bridge's famed design took shape through the efforts of Strauss's talented team. Leon S. Moisseiff submitted a plan that scrapped the original hybrid design in favor of a suspension span capable of moving more than two feet laterally to withstand strong winds.

Irving F. Morrow conceptualized the art deco towers, and later decided on a paint color he dubbed "International Orange." Charles Ellis worked out the complex engineering equations as the primary structural designer, though he was fired before construction began and didn't receive proper credit until many years later.

Amadeo Giannini

In November 1930, a measure was passed to allow the issuance of $35 million in bonds to pay for the project. However, the Bridge and Highway District struggled to find a financial backer amid the difficulties of the Great Depression, a problem exacerbated by years of expensive legal proceedings.

Desperate, Strauss personally sought help from Bank of America President Amadeo Giannini, who provided a crucial boost by agreeing to buy $6 million in bonds in 1932.

Construction commenced on January 5, 1933, excavating 3.25 million cubic feet of dirt to establish the bridge's 12-story-tall anchorages. The crew consisted of virtually anyone capable of withstanding the physical rigors of the job, as out-of-work cab drivers, farmers and clerks lined up for the chance to earn steady wages as ironworkers and cement mixers.

The attempt to build what would be the first bridge support in the open ocean proved an immense challenge. As a 1,100-foot trestle extended off the San Francisco side, divers plunged to depths of 90 feet through strong currents to blast away rock and remove detonation debris.

The trestle was damaged when it was struck by a ship in August 1933 and again amid a powerful storm late in the year, setting construction back five months.

John A. Roebling's Sons

When the towers were completed in June 1935, the New Jersey-based John A. Roebling's Sons Company was tapped to handle the on-site construction of the suspension cables.

The Roebling engineers, who had also worked on the Brooklyn Bridge, had mastered a technique in which individual steel wires were banded together in spools and carried across the length of the bridge on spinning wheels.

Given a year to complete the task, they instead finished in just over six months, having spun more than 25,000 individual wires into each 7,650-foot cable.

Halfway to Hell Club

Despite the ongoing hazardous conditions faced by the crew, the construction produced just one casualty over four years. A supporting net had saved 19 workers from plunging into the strait, the survivors said to be members of the "Halfway to Hell Club."

However, the near-spotless safety record was blemished when a scaffold fell and tore through the net in February 1937, resulting in the deaths of 10 workers.

The roadway was completed on April 19, 1937, and the bridge officially opened to pedestrians on May 27 of that year. As part of the festivities, Strauss dedicated a poem titled "A Mighty Task Is Done."

The following day, President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced that the bridge was open to cars and the rest of the world via White House telegraph.

How Long Is the Golden Gate Bridge?

A marvel of modern engineering, the Golden Gate Bridge is 1.7 miles long and 90 feet wide. Its 4,200-foot main span between the two towers was the longest for a suspension bridge until 1964, while its 746-foot towers made it the tallest bridge of any type until 1993.

The Golden Gate Bridge withstood the destructive Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 and was closed to traffic only three times in its first 75 years due to weather conditions.

Believed to be the most photographed bridge in the world, this landmark was named one of the seven civil engineering wonders of the United States by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1994.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Golden Gate Bridge - Length, Facts & Height

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The Golden Gate Bridge, opened in 1937, is an iconic suspension bridge connecting the city of San Francisco to Marin County, California. It spans almost two miles across the Golden Gate, the narrow strait where San Francisco Bay opens to meet the Pacific Ocean.

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JULIE B       Voici un article sur la culture de San Francisco. Il y a des faits intéressants sur les gens qui habite à San Francisco.   

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JULIE B       Voici un article sur la culture de San Francisco. Il y a des faits intéressants sur les gens qui habite à San Francisco.   

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https://www.businessinsider.com/san-francisco-bay-area-misconceptions-silicon-valley-what-its-like-2019-9#the-regions-high-level-of-education-means-you-are-surrounded-by-some-truly-brilliant-and-ambitious-people-8

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ERELL LG                 Voici un article sur l'histoire de la Japantown à San Francisco. Il dit qu'il a construit après le tremblement de terre de 1906. L' article explique comment les Japonais sont venus à San Francisco aussi. 

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ERELL LG                 Voici un article sur l'histoire de la Japantown à San Francisco. Il dit qu'il a construit après le tremblement de terre de 1906. L' article explique comment les Japonais sont venus à San Francisco aussi. 

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- Sadie Hicks

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At the blurred edges of San Francisco's Western Addition, Fillmore, and Japantown districts sits the Nihonmachi Peace Plaza. The plaza famously features a towering Peace Pagoda that watches over visitors as they rest after shopping or dining at the Japan Center.

Prior to 1900, most Japanese immigrants came to the US via San Francisco, many settling in the SoMa and Chinatown neighborhoods. After the 1906 earthquake, as the city rebuilt, Japantown was formed. What is known as Japantown today is approximately the space bordered by California and O'Farrell Streets to the north and south, and Fillmore and Laguna to the west and east.

The neighborhood grew until World War II. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were forced into internment camps, whether or not they were US citizens, even including some second and third generation Japanese Americans. Even after the internment ended, many Japanese Americans chose not to return to their San Francisco homes. Japantown's population depleted as many moved instead to the east and midwest, or to Los Angeles's Little Tokyo, the most populous Japanese settlement in California today.

Today, San Francisco's Japantown is marked by its iconic Peace Plaza. The plaza is an outdoor court resting between the Miyako and Kintetsu Malls that was created during the 1960s to complement the Japan Center Mall. It's a serene spot to rest your feet after shopping or dining at the mall, and is also host to Japantown celebrations like the Obon Festival, Aki Matsuri, Children's Day, and the Cherry Blossom Festival. According to California Japantowns, originally, the plaza's design featured a 17th Century eternal flame, a granite reflecting pool, and a large drum-tower. Today, it features benches to relax on and plants to enjoy, as well as its famous Peace Pagoda.

The SF Peace Pagoda was built in the 1960s and dedicated on March 28th, 1968. It sits in the northeastern corner of the Peace Plaza, between the Japan Center Mall and the Nihonmachi Mall. A Peace Pagoda is a Buddhist structure intended to inspire peace among all types of people. Many were built after the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, and by 2000 there were 80 Peace Pagodas around the world. The San Francisco Peace Pagoda is one of only a few Peace Pagodas built since World War II that was not supervised by Nichidatsu Fujii, founder of the Nipponzan-Myōhōji Buddhist Order. It was designed by Yoshiro Taniguchi, the Japanese modernist architect who also designed Tokyo's National Museum of Modern Art, Imperial Theater and Okura Hotel. The Peace Pagoda was presented to San Francisco by the people of Osaka, Japan, San Francisco's sister city since 1957.

You can access the Peace Plaza as a pedestrian via Webster Bridge, a bridge crossing over the busy Geary Boulevard, providing a safe pedestrian walkway complete with spectacular views of the whole Japantown district and Western Addition. According to the SF Parks Alliance, the bridge's design reflected that of traditional Japanese pedestrian walkways.

Stop by the plaza while shopping or on your way to catch a movie at the popular Kabuki Theater. Other nearby sights to enjoy include a twin origami-style fountain and a Japanese garden at the Miyako Hotel. Make a day of it by exploring more of what Japantown has to offer, like restaurants, great brunches, picturesque views, and more.

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A Brief History Of San Francisco's Japantown Peace Plaza

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At the blurred edges of San Francisco's Western Addition, Fillmore, and Japantown districts sits the Nihonmachi Peace Plaza. The plaza famously features a towering Peace Pagoda that watches over visitors as they rest after shopping or dining at the Japan Center.

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MAELINE  Voici un article sur le tremblement de terre de 1906 à San Francisco. C'était un gros tremblement de terre qui a causé beaucoup de dégâts et a été considéré comme l'un des événements les plus importants de la Californie.

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MAELINE  Voici un article sur le tremblement de terre de 1906 à San Francisco. C'était un gros tremblement de terre qui a causé beaucoup de dégâts et a été considéré comme l'un des événements les plus importants de la Californie.

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5:12 AM - April 18, 1906

The California earthquake of April 18, 1906 ranks as one of the most significant earthquakes of all time. Today, its importance comes more from the wealth of scientific knowledge derived from it than from its sheer size. Rupturing the northernmost 296 miles (477 kilometers) of the San Andreas fault from northwest of San Juan Bautista to the triple junction at Cape Mendocino, the earthquake confounded contemporary geologists with its large, horizontal displacements and great rupture length. Indeed, the significance of the fault and recognition of its large cumulative offset would not be fully appreciated until the advent of plate tectonics more than half a century later. Analysis of the 1906 displacements and strain in the surrounding crust led Reid (1910) to formulate his elastic-rebound theory of the earthquake source, which remains today the principal model of the earthquake cycle.

At almost precisely 5:12 a.m., local time, a foreshock occurred with sufficient force to be felt widely throughout the San Francisco Bay area. The great earthquake broke loose some 20 to 25 seconds later, with an epicenter near San Francisco. Violent shocks punctuated the strong shaking which lasted some 45 to 60 seconds. The earthquake was felt from southern Oregon to south of Los Angeles and inland as far as central Nevada. The highest Modified Mercalli Intensities (MMI's) of VII to IX paralleled the length of the rupture, extending as far as 80 kilometers inland from the fault trace. One important characteristic of the shaking intensity noted in Lawson's (1908) report was the clear correlation of intensity with underlying geologic conditions. Areas situated in sediment-filled valleys sustained stronger shaking than nearby bedrock sites, and the strongest shaking occurred in areas where ground reclaimed from San Francisco Bay failed in the earthquake. Modern seismic-zonation practice accounts for the differences in seismic hazard posed by varying geologic conditions.

As a basic reference about the earthquake and the damage it caused, geologic observations of the fault rupture and shaking effects, and other consequences of the earthquake, the Lawson (1908) report remains the authoritative work, as well as arguably the most important study of a single earthquake. In the public's mind, this earthquake is perhaps remembered most for the fire it spawned in San Francisco, giving it the somewhat misleading appellation of the "San Francisco earthquake". Shaking damage, however, was equally severe in many other places along the fault rupture. The frequently quoted value of 700 deaths caused by the earthquake and fire is now believed to underestimate the total loss of life by a factor of 3 or 4. Most of the fatalities occurred in San Francisco, and 189 were reported elsewhere.

Excerpted from Ellsworth, 1990.

Aerial view of the city taken from a series of kites five weeks after the earthquake and fire (154K).

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The California earthquake of April 18, 1906 ranks as one of the most significant earthquakes of all time. Today, its importance comes more from the wealth of scientific knowledge derived from it than from its sheer size.

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Voici un article sur la célèbre Alcatraz Island à San Francisco. Il n'est plus utilisé, mais quand c'était la cas, c'était une prison.

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Alcatraz Island (U.S. National Park Service)

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Alcatraz reveals stories of American incarceration, justice, and our common humanity. This small island was once a fort, a military prison, and a maximum security federal penitentiary. In 1969, the Indians of All Tribes occupied Alcatraz for 19 months in the name of freedom and Native American civil…

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APOLLINE               Voici un article que j'ai trouvé sur l'histoire de Koreatown à Los Angeles. C'est très intéressant et instructif.      

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APOLLINE               Voici un article que j'ai trouvé sur l'histoire de Koreatown à Los Angeles. C'est très intéressant et instructif.      

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The 2.7 square miles known as Koreatown is a happy mix of flashing neon lights, nondescriptoffice buildings that house innovative restaurants and dark nightclubs, and eclectic shops in old Art Deco buildings papered with signs written in hangul.The densely packed neighborhood is home to more than 120,000 residents, around 20 percent of Korean heritage. And even though the majority of its population is Latino, Koreatown-the first and most famous Koreatown in the U.S.-retains a distinctly Korean air. As Helen Lee, daughter of Koreatown's late founder Hi Duk Lee, says: "It's the best Koreatown outside of Korea."

The story of Koreans in America starts in the late 19th century. A slow trickle of exiled social reformers had arrived in San Francisco in the 1880s. According to Los Angeles's Koreatown, in 1902, philosopher, activist and political dissident Chang Ho Ahn and his wife, Hye Ryeon (Helen), became the first married Korean couple to come to America.In January 1903, the SS Gaelic arrived in Hawaii, bringing around 100 Korean immigrants fleeing famine and political turmoil. After the Japanese formally annexed Korea in 1910, more Koreans, including students, picture brides, and political refugees, immigrated to America, settling in San Francisco, before migrating down to Southern California to work in farming communities such as Riverside and Claremont.

Chang Ho Ahn, now the leader of the Korean independence movement and founder of the Korean National Association, eventually settled with his young family in a large, rambling Victorian house at 106 North Figueroa Avenue on Bunker Hill in Downtown LA. According to Katherine Yungmee Kim, historian and author of Los Angeles's Koreatown and senior communication editor at the Koreatown Youth and Community Center, a small Korean enclave of around 300 people grew up around the house.

"The first community was in Bunker Hill," Kim says. "That's where the Methodist Mission was, and that's where Chang Ho Ahn's family house was. That family house was hugely important. It was sort of a rooming house, a consulate, job training-everything all in one place for the community."

According to Kim, in the 1930s, Korean-Americans began to move to West Adams, especially around Jefferson Boulevard. "They moved there, because, as people of color, they weren't allowed to live in other areas," Kim says. "There were racially restrictive covenants in place until 1948. So, they were able to live in that area among African-Americans and Latinx and the Japanese-American community."

In 1938, the Korean Presbyterian Church moved to 1374 Jefferson Boulevard. The Korean National Association, hub for the independence movement and community activities, opened that same year at 1386 Jefferson Boulevard (both are still there today). "With the two of those buildings side by side there, and then a bunch of different families moving into the area, it really cemented that area as a Korean community," Kim says.

During the 1940s and 1950s, a few thousand new Korean immigrants moved to America, including GI Brides, international students, and Korean War orphans. But it was the passage of the Hart-Celler Act of 1965 that greatly increased the number of immigrants allowed in the country. "That's what set everything in motion for changing the landscape from a fairly white demographic to the multi-ethnic demographic that we see now in LA," Kim says. Thousands of Koreans moved to Southern California and joined friends and family who had come in the first and second waves.

"By 1970 there was like a 4,000 percent increase in Koreans in the U.S.," Kim says. One of these immigrants was a man named Hi Duk Lee, whose enterprising vision would transform a neighborhood into a bustling Korean-led mini city in the heart of Los Angeles.

Lee came to Los Angeles by way of Germany in the late 1960s. Lee, who had a degree in chemical engineering, had worked in factories and other labor-intensive jobs in Germany and the U.S., but wanted something more. He set his sights on a declining stretch of Wilshire Boulevard; the depressed area was home to once glittering and glamorous landmarks including the Ambassador Hotel, the Gaylord, Chapman Market, and Bullocks Wilshire department store.

"One person described him once as a prickly pear," his youngest daughter Helen Lee says of her father, who died in March. "He's definitely someone that what you see is what you get. He doesn't care what people think. But he is the real deal. He's very genuine... He never wants to say no to anyone... if they ask for help, he always wants to say yes. He always wants to help."

A workaholic with a passion for Korean history, Lee had not been in Los Angeles long before he identified the lack of Korean-centric stores in Los Angeles. "He saw that there was a lack of Korean restaurants and places for Koreans to buy groceries," Helen Lee says. In 1971, Lee opened the Olympic Market at 3122 West Olympic and stocked it with favorite brands from back home.

Olympic Market was soon a destination for the roughly 10,000 Koreans living in the LA area. "It became a place where they could find their own ethnic foods," Helen Lee says. "I think it's really about an owner looking for what they would be seeking themselves and keeping in mind the Korean clientele when they're merchandising the store." Korean-American John H. Lee remembers the importance of the market in Blue Dreams; Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots:

We lived in San Diego, but periodically, religiously, my mother took my brother and me on a two-hour drive to visit relatives and shop at a little market... For years, Olympic Market was the best, if not only place to buy Korean. My mother knew it, as did thousands of other Korean-Americans.

Buoyed by Olympic Market's success, Lee bought five blocks around Normandie Avenue and Olympic. There he built the VIP Restaurant (now the Oaxacan restaurant, Guelaguetza) and VIP Plaza, a shopping center that featured Korean-owned businesses including a bookstore, photo shop, and barber. All the buildings were designed in the traditional Korean-style with patriotic details throughout. "The blue tiles that you see at La Guelaguetza and VIP Plaza-those are the same tiles that are on the Blue House in Korea-which is like the White House-they just call it the Blue House," Kim says.

Lee now had a greater dream, to bring his people a neighborhood they could proudly call their own. "They [Koreans in Los Angeles] didn't have any good restaurants for entertainment or a meeting place," he recalled to theLos Angeles Timesin 2001. "I planned to make Koreatown. Chinese people have Chinatowns everywhere: New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Montebello. But there's no Koreatown."

More and more small Korean-owned businesses began to open near the VIP Plaza. Bigger Korean corporations began to open branches of banks and other financial institutions in the neighborhood, and wealthy South Koreans invested in the area. Relators and developers, like Sonia Suk, helped recent immigrants navigate Los Angeles real estate.

"After the Watts riots, after the freeway expansion, there was a lot of white flight in LA," Kim says. "And so, these immigrant communities that were coming to Los Angeles were able to find affordable rents in that area. And that's why there's these enclaves [like Koreatown] that build up."

Overseeing this new Koreatown was its unofficial mayor, the humble and gruff Hi Duk Lee. True to his mission to make Koreatown more than just a business district, he sponsored many community events. "I remember him hosting a lot of cultural events and fashion shows for traditional Korean clothes," Helen Lee recalls. "He hosted things like fan dancing and traditional Korean drumming. My father just loves history, and he wanted to educate and share it with people."

Echoing the early Bunker Hills days at the Ahn home, Lee also became the person Korean immigrants turned to for help. "I rememberbeing really young," Helen Lee recalls, "and having people come up to me constantly that I didn't know, strangers, telling me that my father helped them in some way, helping them settle in Los Angeles or giving them their first job."

According to Ivan Light and Edna Bonacich, authors of Immigrant Entrepreneurs: Koreans in Los Angeles 1965-1982, during the 1970s, LA's Korean economy was "the most thriving and profitable Korean economy anywhere in the United States." Thanks to the persistent encouragement of Lee, in 1980 the neighborhood of Koreatown was officially designated by Los Angeles County.

Helen Lee grew up at her father's businesses, where she and her siblings and friends found endless ways to amuse themselves. "Inside the shopping mall it was almost like a little world, a little Korean world, because they had every type of store in that little mall," she says. "I'm sure I was a terror. We would just run around, like kids run loose in a candy store, and we would just basically spend all day in these different stores annoying the shop owners."

Koreatown continued to flourish, thanks to the enterprising spirit of many third wave immigrants. "A lot of Koreans who came here were very educated, but they couldn't really get jobs in mainstream industries, because of their language barrier," Kim says. "Few and far between in terms of people of that generation who could integrate into corporate America. And so what a lot of them ended up doing was becoming entrepreneurs and opening small businesses."

Despite the success of Koreatown, the area was still plagued by poverty and violence. "My memories are really limited to the businesses my father ran, because I was so young and Koreatown at the time was not like it is now, it was pretty dangerous," Helen Lee remembers. In Blue Dreams, Jerry C. Yu of the Korean American Coalition puts it more bluntly: "As soon as the people can afford it, they move out of Koreatown... Who would want to live here? We have the highest crime rate and the worst public education."

Korean owned liquor stores would be among the hardest hit by the LA Uprising, which was sparked on April 29, 1992 with the acquittal of four policemen charged with beating Rodney King. Tensions between the black and Korean communities had been at an all-time high since March 16, 1991, when 15-year old Latasha Harlins was shot and killed by store-owner Soon Ja Du at Empire Liquor Store in Vermont Vista. Over the five days and nights of the violent unrest, thousandsof Korean-owned businesses in South Central and Koreatown were looted, vandalized, or burned to the ground.

"When the LA Riots happened, I was really affected," Helen Lee remembers. "I didn't realize at the time that I think the reason why was because I felt my father worked so hard on this community, and they were just burning it down."

Many Koreatown residents felt abandoned by the city of Los Angeles during the riots. "It was a pretty big moment of disillusionment with the American dream," Kim says. "The LAPD didn't show up. So, it was it was a bit of a slap in the face and baptism by fire for these Korean-Americans. Their thoughts were: 'We've worked so hard. We're law abiding. We pay our taxes.' They thought they would have gotten the protection and respect from government."

Instead, Korean-American business owners were forced to fend for themselves for the first couple nights of looting. Kee Whan Ha, owner of Hannam supermarkets went on the air on Radio Korea, urging folks to defend their livelihoods: "Don't go home," he pleaded. "Protect your business. Your business is your life."

After the looting, fires, and violence abated, Koreatown was in shambles. Many small businesses were never able to reopen. "They were not the people that could afford to bounce back," Helen Lee says. One of Katherine Kim's co-workers who lost her business, a one-hour photo shop, still has trouble processing what happened to her today. "There was a lot of growth that came out of this for the community and for individuals," Kim says. "But I think it's still very difficult for a lot of the people who went through it."

The post-uprising decade was one of rebuilding and reflection. "What to happened to us as children led to a political awakening in young Korean-Americans," Chang Lee, who protected his parents strip mall with a borrowed gun during the riots, told CNN in 2017. "We would help our parents as the American-born children of immigrants and not let what happened to them happen again."

Slowly, some of these younger Korean-Americans began to invest in new businesses in the area, catering not to their culture but to a group of young professionals increasingly enamored with fast city living. During the late 1990s, South Korean investors, spooked by the collapsing Asian market, also began investing in more large scale projects in Koreatown.

Over the past 10 years, Koreatown has experienced an explosion in big ticket development, with more than 50 new projects in the works now. Korean barbecue, Korean spas and Korean bars have become increasingly popular, and more and more young, hip tenants are renting relatively affordable apartments in the area. "You are seeing this big turnover of businesses right now," Kim says. "It's interesting now, because that older generation of business owner is starting to age out and their kids have now gone to Stanford or UCLA, and they don't want to run the bodega."

When younger Korean and Korean-American entrepreneurs do invest in Koreatown, it still tends to be in trendy spots like Jimmy Han's Beer Belly or Kang Ho Dong's Kang Ho-Dong Baekjeong. Although the transition has been rocky, overall there is little inter-generation strife. "Koreans are so proud of each other," Kim says of older Koreans in Koreatown. "They recognize that the second generation knows what a single origin coffee is, and that they can make a lavender latte and make that fly for seven dollars. They're like, 'Wow-they just know what they're doing there!'"

Koreatown is not, and has never been majority Korean, but it is still a mecca for Koreans from all over the country. "You can talk to any Koreans from Buena Park or Glendale or La Canada or the OC and everyone still comes to Koreatown," Kim says. "It's where people congregate, because it's an easy, centrally located area. I call it the spiritual nexus. I really feel like it is this epicenter of the Korean-American diaspora." She mentions her octogenarian father, who recently moved to Los Angeles from the East Coast. "He went to high school in Seoul," she says. "But they have high school reunions in Koreatown!"

It also remains a neighborhood where people care and take care of one another. Kim fondly recalls a women's only Korean spa she used to frequent in her younger, wilder years. "I remember one time I went in there with like the worst hangover of my life. And I was just trying to lie down in the dim room and all the older Korean women came over and brought me food, brought me water-it was like being taken care of by your Korean aunties."

For Kim, Koreatown represents so much of what is best about America. "Koreatown is a neighborhood where the Mexican, Central American, and Korean communities work together and get along," Kim says. "You'll see that in the kitchens or at the grocery store- this sort of multilingual, multi-ethnic camaraderie. All of these communities within Los Angeles are integrating and coexisting in a really beautiful and vibrant way. That's what I love about Koreatown."

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LA has 'the best Koreatown outside of Korea'

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The 2.7 square miles known as Koreatown is a happy mix of flashing neon lights, nondescriptoffice buildings that house innovative restaurants and dark nightclubs, and eclectic shops in old Art Deco buildings papered with signs written in hangul.The densely packed neighborhood is home to more than 120,000 residents, around 20 percent of Korean heritage.

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ANOUK R              Native Americans in California 

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ANOUK R              Native Americans in California 

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Voici une vidéo sur les premiers habitants de San Diego, Californie. Leur histoire est très intéressante.

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San Diego's First People - Kumeyaay Native Americans

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SOLWEIG  Voici un article sur le quartier chinois de San Francisco. Mes grandparents et moi avons visité Chinatown chaque mois quand j'étais jeune.     

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SOLWEIG  Voici un article sur le quartier chinois de San Francisco. Mes grandparents et moi avons visité Chinatown chaque mois quand j'étais jeune.     

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Chinatown Resource Guide

The story of Chinatown is the story of a neighborhood; an American neighborhood, an old neighborhood, an immigrant neighborhood, where the old country still lives inside the new one. The past and the present are inseparably woven together in this neighborhood defined by Broadway, California, Kearny and Powell streets.

In the mid-1840's, following defeat by Britain in the first Opium War, a series of natural catastrophes occurred across China resulting in famine, peasant uprisings and rebellions. Understandably, when the news of gold and opportunity in far away Gum San, (Golden Mountain- the Chinese name for America) reached China, many Chinese seized the opportunity to seek their fortune.

The Chinese were met with ambiguous feelings by Californians. In 1850, San Francisco Mayor John W. Geary invited the "China Boys" to a ceremony to acknowledge their work ethic. However, as the American economy weakened, the Chinese labor force became a threat to mainstream society. Racial discrimination and repressive legislation drove the Chinese from the gold mines to the sanctuary of the neighborhood that became known as Chinatown. The only ethnic group in the history of the United States to have been specifically denied entrance into the country, the Chinese were prohibited by law to testify in court, to own property, to vote, to have families join them, to marry non-Chinese, and to work in institutional agencies.

The success and survival of Chinatown depended a great deal on the family and district benevolent associations which served as political and social support systems to newcomers. The members strove to meet the basic needs of the community, and represented a united voice in the fight against discriminatory legislation process.

"CHINATOWN" offers a revealing look at how a group of people bound geographically, culturally, linguistically and economically during hostile times has flourished to become a vibrant, courageous and proud community for Chinese Americans and greater San Francisco, referred to as Dai Fao (Big City) in Chinese.

Return to the Chinatown Resource Guide Table of Contents

Depression followed the completion of the railroad. In 1869 twenty thousand Chinese were suddenly out of work. Many traditional means of wage earning were inaccessible to the Chinese.

Their farm laboring skills produced superior varieties of rice, oranges, apples, cherries and peaches. The Chinese filled the need for domestic services in white homes and developed laundry businesses. They became successfully involved in the restaurant business, fishing and shrimping industries, and leather goods manufacturing. As soon as their new businesses flourished, they were targeted as unwelcome competition to the struggling economy of San Francisco.

The Burlingame Treaty of 1869 encouraged the Chinese to emigrate to the United States in greater numbers. Reacting to the America's fear of the "yellow peril," in 1877 Denis Kearney organized the Workingman's Party with the rallying cry, "The Chinese Must Go!" which led to the looting and burning of many Chinese businesses.

More than thirty anti-Chinese legislations were enacted during the l870's at both the state and local levels. (See legislation section) The result of this codified racism was to exclude Chinese from many occupations and to deprive them of full participation in a society they had helped to build. Culmination of this discriminatory legislation resulted in the Chinese Exclusion Act of May 6, l882. This act suspended the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years.

Return to the Chinatown Resource Guide Table of Contents

The American flag was raised in Portsmouth Square, on July 9, 1846. The small frontier town rapidly grew into a city after the discovery of gold. Portsmouth Square, served as a cow pen, surrounded by tents and adobe huts in 1848, and by brick and stone buildings, hotels, business offices, shops, gambling places and restaurants by the late 1850's. At that time hundreds of Chinese strategically chose to locate their laundries, restaurants and shops close to the center of the city, Portsmouth Square to cater to mining related needs. They were established on or within a block of the square, and gradually branched out to Dupont (present-day Grant) and Kearny Streets. The area referred to as "Little Canton," had thirty-three retail stores, fifteen pharmacies/Chinese herbalists and five restaurants. In 1853 the neighborhood was given the name "Chinatown" by the press. The first Chinese hand laundry was started on the corner of Washington Dupont Streets in 1851. By 1870 some 2,000 Chinese laundries were in the trade growing to 7,500 in 1880. Merchants and peddlers provided fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers. As San Francisco became a recreation center, the Chinese seized opportunities to provide festive activities. In addition an entire theater building was imported from China and erected in Chinatown to house the Chinese theatrical troupe.

Chinatown's twelve blocks of crowded wooden and brick houses, businesses, temples, family associations, rooming houses for the bachelor majority, (in 1880 the ratio of men to women was 20 to 1) opium dens, gambling halls was home to 22,000 people. The atmosphere of early Chinatown was bustling and noisy with brightly colored lanterns, three-cornered yellow silk pennants denoting restaurants, calligraphy on sign boards, flowing costumes, hair in queues and the sound of Cantonese dialects. In this familiar neighborhood the immigrants found the security and solidarity to survive the racial and economic oppression of greater San Francisco.

Return to the Chinatown Resource Guide Table of Contents

On April 18, 1906, San Francisco was devastated by a huge earthquake. As fires raged, Chinatown was leveled. It seemed that what the city and country wanted for fifty years, nature had accomplished in forty-five seconds. Ironically, because the immigration records and vital statistics at City Hall had been destroyed, many Chinese were able to claim citizenship, then send for their children and families in China. Legally, all children of U.S. citizens were automatically citizens, regardless of their place of birth. Thus began the influx of"paper sons and paper daughters" - instant citizens - which helped balance the demographics of Chinatown's "bachelor society." Finally, Chinatown had what it had been missing for so long - children.

The city fathers had no intention of allowing Chinatown to be rebuilt in its own neighborhood, on valuable land next to the Financial District. While they were deciding where to relocate the Chinese, a wealthy businessman named Look Tin Eli developed a plan to rebuild Chinatown to its original location. He obtained a loan from Hong Kong and designed the new Chinatown to be more emphatically "Oriental" to draw tourists. The old Italianate buildings were replaced by Edwardian architecture embellished with theatrical chinoiserie. Chinatown, like the phoenix, rose from the ashes with a new facade, dreamed up by an American-born Chinese man, built by white architects, looking like a stage-set China that does not exist.

Return to the Chinatown Resource Guide Table of Contents

ANGEL ISLAND:
PORT OF ENTRY

Angel Island, the immigration station on San Francisco Bay, opened in 1910 to enforce the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, is where two hundred fifty thousand Chinese immigrants were processed. The average detention was two weeks, the longest was twenty-two months. Conditions on Angel Island were harsh, families were isolated, separated, and the interrogated. Detainees were questioned in great detail about who they were and why they were claiming the right to enter the United States. Those whose answers were unacceptable to the officers were denied admission. To prepare for the questions, immigrants often relied on coaching papers which contained details on the background of individuals who could legally claim American citizenship. Typically such papers were purchased as part of the package of tickets and information about entering the United States.

Angel Island Station was closed in 1940 after a fire destroyed many of the buildings. The Exclusion Act was repealed in 1943 and in 1962 most of Angel Island was converted to state park.

Return to the Chinatown Resource Guide Table of Contents

As with the Great Quake and fire of 1906, the catastrophic events of World War II and it's aftermath benefited the Chinese in America. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) became a vehicle of opportunity for the Chinese Americans. China became an ally in the war against Japan, and public sentiment in favor of America's Chinese allies surged. For the first time, Chinese aliens entered the mainstream of American society. Chinese Americans wore the same uniform as American soldiers, and fought side by side with them under the American flag. Labor shortages on the homefront opened jobs previously closed to them.

The most important declaration came on December 17, 1943, halfway through the war, when President Roosevelt signed the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, ending more than sixty years of legalized racism and discrimination. This did not guarantee instant acceptance by the dominant society. After the repeal of the Exclusion Act and the enactment of the War Bride Act, acculturation and assimilation began to take place. The once bachelor society began to shift toward a new American Chinese community filled with families and children. Finally Chinese immigrants were legally allowed to become citizens and to own property.

Return to the Chinatown Resource Guide Table of Contents

Today's Chinatown is a unique neighborhood defined by its people, its institutions and its history - a history of welcome, rejection and acceptance. Chinese-style buildings and the narrow bustling streets give Chinatown its character. Beyond the gilded storefronts you will find tenements crowded with elderly people and new immigrants struggling with problems left by years of exclusion and discrimination - unemployment, health problems and substandard housing. Core Chinatown itself, limited by its capacity to grow, no longer serves as the major residential area for the Chinese of San Francisco. Many have moved out of crowded Chinatown to the Richmond and Sunset districts.

In 1977, the Chinatown Resource Center and the Chinese Community Housing Corporation launched a comprehensive improvement program striving to find solutions for land use changes. Since 1895 the Chinese American Citizens Alliance has fought against disenfranchisement of citizens of Chinese ancestry and sponsored a number of community projects.

Today, San Francisco's Chinatown has developed cultural autonomy which sustains many activities: dance, music groups, a children's orchestra, artists, a Chinese Culture Center, and the Chinese Historical Society of America. A result of the community's commitment to excellence in education is its involvement in the legal debates of affirmative action vs. school desegregation for Asian-American youth.

"Viewed within the context of the City of San Francisco, Chinatown is one of many culturally distinct neighborhoods that together make up the backbone of the City. Viewed within the context of America, Chinatown is an American working class community that has been a partner in building this nation with every other American working class community. Like all other American neighborhoods, Chinatown has been developed by the will and energies of immigrants."*

* Elaine Joe, "American Communities Built on Multiculturalism," Neighborhood Bulletin, A Newsletter of the Chinatown Resource Center and Chinese Community Housing Corporation vol.17, no.4 (Fall 1995).

Take me back to the Chinatown Resource Guide home page

Take me back to the Chinatown home page

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Chinatown Resource Guide The story of Chinatown is the story of a neighborhood; an American neighborhood, an old neighborhood, an immigrant neighborhood, where the old country still lives inside the new one. The past and the present are inseparably woven together in this neighborhood defined by Broadway, California, Kearny and Powell streets.

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Silicon Valley est une ville avec beaucoup d'entreprise en Californie. Cet article parle de son histoire et de son effet au peuple qui y habite (c’est une ville très intimidante!!! 😨)

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What made Silicon Valley a Hub for entrepreneurs? And why has that become as much of a liability as an advantage?

Silicon Valley grew up in the area between San Jose, California, and San Francisco as a result of Frederick Terman, the legendary dean of Stanford engineering school during the 1940s and 1950s. He created the tradition of Stanford faculty starting their own companies. A number of companies we still reference came out of Stanford during those years, especially Hewlett Packard and Varian Associates.

The transistor was invented and manufactured in Silicon Valley, which gave the area a leg up in the radio and telegraph industries. And the Navy had a base in Sunnyvale. By 1957, Russia's success with Sputnik unleashed a big space competition, and the U.S. government founded NASA. At the time NASA opened at Moffett Field near San Jose, the only company able to build electronics for the space capsule was Fairchild Semiconductor.

The legend of Silicon Valley from the beginning of the transistor industry is well-known and has been written about and documented. Most of the Valley's early success came from either components like Silicon chips (from which the Valley got its name) or the hardware into which the chips were placed.

It's actually fun to learn about the Valley's history, because the lesson is that the beginning of Silicon Valley was all about men and women, engineers, who had ideas out of science fiction about what technology could enable. Many of those ideas have now come true, like the personal computer and the iPhone, both envisioned by Steve Jobs. And we now wear what was once envisioned in a comic book as the "Dick Tracy wrist radio"-the Apple Watch.

Early engineers were not after money, they were about making things possible that had never been possible before, such as space travel. As a result, they received both government grants and venture capital. Before venture capital became a "thing," it originated from the financial centers like New York. Arthur Rock, for example, was an early investor in Intel, Apple, and Scientific Data Systems. The first Bay Area venture capital firms, who located on Sand Hill Road adjacent to the Stanford campus, were Kleiner, Perkins Caulfield and Byers, and Sequoia Capital.

If you are interested in the history of Silicon Valley, you might want to watch the HBO show Silicon Valley , which tells you everything you need to know about where Silicon Valley is in the present, and also the fourth season of AMC's Halt and Catch Fire , which can take you from the 1980s to the rise of the World Wide Web.

We have now reached the point where Silicon Valley is a rich ecosystem where everyone with an idea eventually shows up because it's possible to sit in a coffee shop and form a team, raise some money, and get started. Numerous accelerators, such as Y Combinator make it easy to get a start, and the cost of starting a company has come down significantly due to Amazon Web Services (cloud-based infrastructure) and software development tools and frameworks.

However, we're also reached the point where Silicon Valley is a self-parody, with all the downsides of its own success: race, age, and gender discrimination, drug and alcohol abuse, suicide and depression. Its "win at all costs mentality" has spawned excesses of every variety.

Not to mention the fact that it is now possible to start a company anywhere, especially near a university. Let's give Silicon Valley credit for establishing a culture of entrepreneurship, which is really a culture of resilience, and then understand that for digital media, it's not Paradise.

As the founder of Stealthmode Partners, Francine Hardaway is a nineteen-year advocate and resource for entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs. She has consulted with more than 1,000 startups and blogs about technology, entrepreneurship, and health-care policy issues at Huffington Post, Medium, and http://blog.stealthmode.com . Reach her on Twitter at @hardaway.

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What made Silicon Valley a Hub for entrepreneurs? And why has that become as much of a liability as an advantage? Silicon Valley grew up in the area between San Jose, California, and San Francisco as a result of Frederick Terman, the legendary dean of Stanford engineering school during the 1940s and 1950s.

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HANNAH  Voici un article sur la multi-culture en Californie

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HANNAH  Voici un article sur la multi-culture en Californie

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-Rachel Kozak

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Overview

California Cultures documents California's rich history of diversity and multicultural contributions. The California Cultures project was specially charged with correcting the historic lack of digitized primary source materials for four major ethnic groups: African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans. More than 20,000 photographs, documents, and other materials tell their stories, struggles, and contributions.

Explore California Cultures by jumping into each of the four themes; or read the six historical essays to learn how California's diversity has evolved over time.

Read related essays (6):

Just for teachers: lesson plans (8):

About this theme:

California Cultures was created by the scholars and curators of the University of California in response to H.R. 1905, an appropriation from the US Congress through Library of Congress's American Memory program, which made funds available to digitize archival materials relating to the ethnic groups of California.

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California Cultures documents California's rich history of diversity and multicultural contributions. The California Cultures project was specially charged with correcting the historic lack of digitized primary source materials for four major ethnic groups: African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans. More than 20,000 photographs, documents, and other materials tell their stories, struggles, and contributions.

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NINA           Voici une vidéo expliquant comment la Californie est devenue un état multiculturel. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjm1v_LPtkI&t=164s 

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NINA           Voici une vidéo expliquant comment la Californie est devenue un état multiculturel. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjm1v_LPtkI&t=164s 

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-Ethan Kerrigan

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Voici un article sur Yosemite National Park et John Muir qui a fondé Yosemite. Yosemite est un  parc National en Californie. Yosemite a Half Dome, El Capitan , beaucoup de chute d´eau, et beaucoup d´arbes. C´est très beau!

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On October 1, 1890, an act of Congress creates Yosemite National Park, home of such natural wonders as Half Dome and the giant sequoia trees. Environmental trailblazer John Muir (1838-1914) and his colleagues campaigned for the congressional action, which was signed into law by President Benjamin Harrison and paved the way for generations of hikers, campers and nature lovers, along with countless "Don't Feed the Bears" signs.

Native Americans were the main residents of the Yosemite Valley, located in California's Sierra Nevada mountain range, until the 1849 gold rush brought thousands of non-Indigenous miners and settlers to the region. Tourists and damage to Yosemite Valley's ecosystem followed. In 1864, to ward off further commercial exploitation, conservationists convinced President Abraham Lincoln to declare Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias a public trust of California. This marked the first time the U.S. government protected land for public enjoyment and it laid the foundation for the establishment of the national and state park systems. Yellowstone became America's first national park in 1872.
READ MORE: 10 Facts About Yosemite National Park
In 1889, John Muir discovered that the vast meadows surrounding Yosemite Valley, which lacked government protection, were being overrun and destroyed by domestic sheep grazing. Muir and Robert Underwood Johnson, a fellow environmentalist and influential magazine editor, lobbied for national park status for the large wilderness area around Yosemite Valley. On October 1 of the following year, Congress set aside over 1,500 square miles of land (about the size of Rhode Island) for what would become Yosemite National Park, America's third national park. In 1906, the state-controlled Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove came under federal jurisdiction with the rest of the park.

Yosemite's natural beauty is immortalized in the black-and-white landscape photographs of Ansel Adams (1902-1984), who at one point lived in the park and spent years photographing it. Today, over 3 million people get back to nature annually at Yosemite and check out such stunning landmarks as the 2,425-foot-high Yosemite Falls, one of the world's tallest waterfalls; rock formations Half Dome and El Capitan, the largest granite monolith in the U.S.; and the three groves of giant sequoias, the world's biggest trees.
WATCH: How the Earth Was Made: Yosemite on HISTORY Vault

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On October 1, 1890, an act of Congress creates Yosemite National Park, home of such natural wonders as Half Dome and the giant sequoia trees. Environmental trailblazer John Muir (1838-1914) and his colleagues campaigned for the congressional action, which was signed into law by President Benjamin Harrison and paved the way for generations of hikers, campers and nature lovers, along with countless "Don't Feed the Bears" signs.

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MAELANNE          Native American History 

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MAELANNE          Native American History 

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c'est un article sur l'histoire d'originaire d'américain tribu, spécifiquement en Californie.
- Jolie Cesio

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California Indian History
OF CALIFORNIA INDIAN HISTORY REGIONAL LIFEWAYS
One manner in which we can seek to understand aboriginal California Indian cultures is to look at the tribes inhabiting similar climatic and ecological zones. What emerges from this approach is a remarkable similarity in material aspects of the many different tribes inhabiting those territories. Generally speaking technologies and materials used to manufacture tools, homes and storage containers show great similarity. Hunting, trapping and fishing technologies also are shared across tribal lines terrain, available water plants and animals affected the density of populations, settlement patterns as each tribe adjusted to its environment.
NORTHWEST
This area would include the Tolowa, Shasta, Karok, Yurok Hupa Whilikut, Chilula, Chimarike and Wiyot tribes. The distinctive northern rainforest environment encouraged these tribes to establish their villages along the many rivers, lagoons and coastal bays that dotted their landscape. While this territory was crisscrossed with thousands of trails, the most efficient form of transportation was the dugout canoe used to travel up and down rivers and cross the wider and deeper ones such as the Klamath. These tribes used the great coast Redwood trees for the manufacture of their boats and houses. Redwoods were cleverly felled by burning at the base and then split with elkhorn wedges. Redwood and sometimes cedar planks were used to construct rectangular gabled homes. Baskets in a variety of designs were manufactured in with the twined technique only. Many of these arts survived into the twentieth century and traditional skills have enjoyed a great renaissance in the past twenty years.

The elaborate ritual life of these tribes featured a World Renewal ceremony held each Fall in the largest villages. Sponsored by the wealthiest men in the communities, the ceremony's purpose was to prevent future natural catastrophes such as earthquakes, floods or failure of acorn crop or a poor salmon run. Supplication to supernatural spirits. Because such disasters directly threaten the community, great attention to detail and the utmost solemnity accompanied such ceremonies. This and other traditional rituals continue to be practiced, despite the grinding poverty that plagues many of these groups.

These tribes were governed by the most wealthy and powerful lineage leaders. The great emphasis on wealth found in these cultures is reflected in the emphasis on private ownership of food resources such as oak groves and fishing areas.
NORTHEAST
This region included the Modoc, Achumawi, and Atsugewi tribes. The western portion of this territory was rich in acorn and Salmon. Further to the East, the climate changes from mountainous to a high desert type of topography. Here food resources were grass seeds, tuber berries along with rabbit and deer.

These Indians found tule to be a useful source of both food (the rootbulb is consumed) and a convenient material when laced together to form floor mats and structure covering. Volcanic mountains in the Western portion of their territory supplied the valuable trade commodity obsidian. The Social-political organization of these peoples was independent but connected to their neighbors by marriage ties. Following contact, the Achumawi and Atsuguewi suffered a tremendous population decline due to vigilante violence and respiratory diseases. The Modocs spectacular 1872 resistance to removal to the Oregon territory was the last heroic military defense of native sovereignty in 19th century California Indian History.

Some surviving Northeast tribesmen received public land allotments around the turn of the century. The XL Rancheria was established for some of these Indians in 1938. Tragically the surviving Modocs were exiled to either Oregon or Oklahoma.
CENTRAL CALIFORNIA
This vast territory includes: Bear River, Mattale, Lassick, Nogatl, Wintun, Yana, Yahi, Maidu, Wintun, Sinkyone, Wailaki, Kato, Yuki, Pomo, Lake Miwok, Wappo, Coast Miwok, Interior Miwok, Wappo, Coast Miwok, Interior Miwok, Monache, Yokuts, Costanoan, Esselen, Salinan and Tubatulabal tribes.

Vast differences exist between the coastal peoples, nearby mountain range territories, from those living in the vast central valleys and on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Nevertheless, all of these tribes enjoyed an abundance of acorn and salmon that could be readily obtained in the waterways north of Monterey Bay. Deer, elk, antelope and rabbit were available elsewhere in vast quantities.

In this region basketry reached the height of greatest variety. Perhaps the Pomo basket makers created the most elaborate versions of this art. Both coiled and twine type baskets were produced throughout the region. Fortunately, basket making survived the years of suppression of native arts and culture to once again become one of the most important culturally defining element for Indians in this region.

Common in this area was the semi-subterranean roundhouse where elaborate Kuksu dances were held in the past and continue to this day. These rituals assure the renewal of the world's natural foods both plant and animal. Despite differences, between tribes, these rituals share similar purposes.

Like everywhere else, in California, villages were fiercely independent and governed internally. The abundant food supply allowed for the establishment of villages of up to 1000 individuals, including craft specialists who produced specific objects and goods for a living. In smaller communities, each family produced all that was necessary for survival.
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Southern California presents a varied and somewhat unique region of the state. Beginning in the north, tribes found in this area are the Chumash, Alliklik, Kitanemuk, Serrano, Gabrielino Luiseno Cahuilla, and the Kumeyaay. The landmass and climate varied considerably from the windswept offshore Channel Islands that were principally inhabited by Chumash speaking peoples. Communication with their mainland neighbors was by large and graceful planked canoes powered by double paddle ores. These vessels were called "Tomols" and manufactured by a secretive guild of craftsmen. They could carry hundreds of pounds of trade goods and up to a dozen passengers. Like their northern neighbors, the Tactic speaking peoples of San Nicholas and Santa Catalina Islands built planked canoes and actively traded rich marine resources with mainland villages and tribes. Shoreline communities enjoyed the rich animal and faunal life of ocean, bays and wetlands environments. Interior tribes like the Serrano, Luiseno, Cahuilla, and Kumeyaay shared an environment rich in Sonoran life zone featuring vast quantities of rabbit, deer and an abundance of acorn, seeds and native grasses. At the higher elevations Desert Bighorn sheep were hunted.

Villages varied in size from poor desert communities with villages of as little as 100 people to the teaming Chumash villages with over a thousand inhabitants. Conical homes of arroweed, tule or croton were common, while whale bone structures could be found on the coast and nearby Channel Islands. Interior groups manufactured clay storage vessels sometimes decorated with paint. Baskets were everywhere manufactured with unique designs. Catalina Island possessed a soapstone or steatite quarry. This unique stone was soft and could easily be carved with cutting tools and shaped into vessels, pipes and cooking slabs.

Each tribe and community had a chieftain, sometimes females, whose duty it was to organize community events and settle conflicts among their followers. This leader was usually assisted by a crier or assistant, Shaman or Indian doctors were known everywhere and greatly respected. The ritual use of the hallucinogen jimsonweed (Datura meteloides) was primarily in male puberty rituals. Like other California Indian communities, society was divided into three classes, the elite, a middle class and finally a less successful lower class. These robust peoples were among the first to encounter the strangers who would change their world forever.
HISTORY
The Spanish entrada into Alta California was the last great expansions of Spain's vastly over extended empire in North America. Massive Indian revolts among the Pueblo Indians of the Rio Grande in the late 17th century provided the Franciscan padres with an argument to establish missions relatively free from colonial settlers. Thus, California and its Spanish Colonization would be different from earlier efforts to simultaneously introduce missionaries and colonists in their world conquest schemes. Organized by the driven Franciscan administrator Junipero Serra and military authorities under Gaspar de Portola, they journeyed to San Diego in 1769 to establish the first of 21 coastal missions.

Despite romantic portraits of California missions, they were essentially coercive religious, labor camps organized primarily to benefit the colonizers. The overall plan was to first militarily intimidate the local Indians with armed Spanish soldiers who always accompanied the Franciscans in their missionary efforts. At the same time, the newcomers introduced domestic stock animals that gobbled up native foods and undermined the free or "gentile" tribe's efforts to remain economically independent. A well-established pattern of bribes, intimidation and the expected onslaught of European diseases insured experienced missionaries that eventually desperate parents of sick and dying children and many elders would prompt frightened Indian families to seek assistance from the newcomers who seemed to be immune to the horrible diseases that overwhelmed Indians. The missions were authorized by the crown to "convert" the Indians in a ten-year period. Thereafter they were supposed to surrender their control over the mission's livestock, fields, orchards and building to the Indians. But the padres never achieved this goal and the lands and wealth was stolen from the Indians.

Epidemic diseases proved to be the most significant factor in colonial efforts to overcome native resistance. Soon after the arrival of Spanish colonists, new diseases appeared among the tribes in close proximity Spanish missions. Scientific study of demographic trends during this period indicate the Indians of the America's did not possess any natural immunities to introduced European diseases. Maladies such as smallpox, syphilis, diphtheria and even children's' ailments such as chickenpox and measles caused untold suffering and death among Indians near the Spanish centers of population. Even before the outbreak of epidemics, a general population decline was recorded that can be attributed to the unhygienic environment of colonial population centers. A series of murderous epidemic diseases swept over the terrified mission Indian populations. Beginning in 1777 a voracious epidemic likely associated with a water born bacterial infection devastated Santa Clara Valley Costanoan children. Again, children were the primary victims of a second epidemic of pneumonia and diphtheria expended from Monterey to Los Angeles was recorded in 1802. By far the worst of these terrifying epidemics began in 1806 and killed thousands of Indian children and adults. It has been identified as measles and attacked Indian populations from San Francisco to the central coast settlement of Santa Barbara. Sadly, the missionary practice of forcibly separating Indian children from their parents and incarcerating children from the age of six in filthy and disease-ridden gender barracks most likely increased the suffering and death of above mentioned epidemics. Excessive manual labor demands of the missionaries and poor nutrition probably contributed to the Indians inability to resist such infections. Less easily measured damage to mission Indian tribes occurred as they vainly struggled to understand the biological tragedy that was overwhelming them. Faith in their traditional shaman suffered when native efforts were ineffective in stemming the tide of misery, suffering and death that life in the missions resulted in. With monotonous regularity, missionaries and other colonial officials reported upon the massive death and poor health of their Indian laborers. Pioneering demographer Sherburne F. Cook conducted exhaustive studies and concluded that perhaps as much as 60% of the population decline of mission Indians was due to introduced diseases.
NATIVE RESISTANCE
The unrelenting labor demands, forced separation of children from their parents and un-ending physical coercion that characterized the life of Indians under padre's authority resulted in several well documented forms of Indian resistance. Within the missions, the so-called "converts" continued to surreptitiously worship their old deities as well as conduct native dances and rituals in secret. By far the most frequent form of mission Indian resistance was fugativism. While thousands of the 81,586 baptized Indians temporarily fled their missions, more than one out of 24 successfully escaped the plantation like mission labor camps. Many Mission Indians viewed the padres as powerful witches who could only be neutralized by assassination. Consequently, several assassinations occurred. At Mission San Miguel in the year of 1801 three padres were poisoned, one of whom died as a result. Four years later another San Miguel Yokut male attempted to stone a padre to death. In 1804 a San Diego padre was poisoned by his personal cook. Costanoan Indians at Mission Santa Cruz, in 1812, killed a padre for introducing a new instrument of torture which he unwisely announced he planned to use on some luckless neophytes awaiting a beating. Few contemporaries Americans know of the widespread armed revolts precipitated by Mission Indians against colonial authorities. The Kumeyaay of San Diego launched two serious military assaults against the missionaries and their military escorts within five weeks of their arrival in 1769. Desperate to stop an ugly pattern of sexual assaults, the Kumeyaay utterly destroyed Mission San Diego and killed the local padre in 1775. Quechan and Mohave Indians along the Colorado River to the east destroyed two missions, killed four missionaries and numerous other colonists in a spectacular uprising in 1781. This last rebellion permanently denied the only overland route into Alta California from Northern New Spain (Mexico) to Spanish authorities. Military efforts to reopen the road and punish the Indians were met with utter failure. The last great mission Indian revolt occurred in 1824 when disenchanted Chumash Indians violently overthrew mission control at Santa Barbara, Santa Ynez and La Purisima. Santa Barbara was sacked and abandoned while Santa Ynez Chumash torched 3/4 of the buildings before fleeing. Defiant Chumash at La Purisima in fact seized that mission and fought a pitched battle with colonial troops while a significant number of other Chumash escaped deep into the interior of the Southern San Joaquin Valley. After 1810 a growing number of guerrilla bands evolved in the interior when fugitive mission Indians allied with interior tribes and villages. Mounted on horses and using modern weapons, they began raiding mission livestock and fighting colonial military forces.

The impact of the mission system on the many coastal tribes was devastating. Missionaries required tribes to abandon their aboriginal territories and live in filthy, disease ridden and crowded labor camps. Massive herds on introduced stock animals and new seed crops soon crowded out aboriginal game animals and native plants. Feral hogs ate tons of raw acorns, depriving even the non-missionized tribes in the interior of a significant amount of aboriginal protein. Murderous waves of epidemic diseases swept over the terrified Mission Indian tribes resulting in massive suffering and death for thousands of native men, women and children. The short life expectancy of mission Indians prompted missionaries to vigorously pursue runaways and coerce interior tribes into supplying more and more laborers for the padres. Missionary activities therefore thoroughly disrupted not only coastal tribes, but their demand for healthy laborers seriously impacted adjacent interior tribes. Finally, by 1836 the Mexican Republic forcibly stripped the padres of the power to coerce labor from the Indians and the mission rapidly collapsed. About 100,000 or nearly a third of the aboriginal population of California died as a direct consequence of the missions of California.

Despite the devastating population decline suffered by tribes in whose territories missions had been established, many managed to maintain tribal cohesion. After 1800, most mission populations were a hodgepodge of different tribes speaking a multiplicity of languages. Because many Indians refused to learn or feigned ignorance of the Spanish language, missionaries appointed labor overseers from each tribe to direct work crews. Such practical policies kept tribesmen from losing culturally distinct identity. Further evidence of cultural persistence was the practice of tribes maintaining separate housing in multi-tribal Indian villages built next to the missions. Finally, many former mission Indians continued to speak their native languages and provide researchers with detailed ethnographic and linguistic data well into the 20th century.
INDIANS AND THE MEXICAN REPUBLIC
In 1823 the Spanish Flag was replaced by that of the Mexican Republic. Little immediate change in personal or Indian policy occurred. However, the independence government was decidedly anti-clerical and the growing body of colonial leaders deeply resented the monopoly of Indian lands and the unpaid Indian labor enjoyed by the Franciscans. While no land grants to the colonists had occurred under Spanish rule, some 25 grazing permits or concessions had been issued to colonial citizens. This was the beginning of the dispossession of tribal lands by colonial authorities. The vast plantation like missions claimed about 1/6 of the present territory of the state. But legal title to these lands were assigned to the Spanish crown. The missions were only supposed to last 10 years, after which the developed estates were to be distributed to surviving mission Indians. It was assumed that the Indians would evolve into hardworking, tax paying citizens of Mexico. But the missionaries kept coming up with excuses why they should not surrender the rich pastoral and agrarian empire they had erected with the lands, resources and hard labor of mission Indians. The Mexican Republic's 1824 constitution declared Indians to be citizens with rights to both vote and hold public office. Despite this liberal declaration, Indians throughout the republic continued to be treated as slaves.
COLLAPSE OF THE MISSION SYSTEM
In actual practice, the new government gave 51 land grants to its colonial citizens between 1824 and 1834. These lands actually belonged to various tribes then incarcerated in nearby missions. These actions just increased the lust for more Indian lands by a growing body of colonial ranchers. There followed a growing chorus of demands that the missionaries surrender their monopoly on Indian labor and "free" the Indians. The sincerity those sentiments should be seriously doubted. The power of this class prevailed and between 1834-36 the government revoked the power of the Franciscans to extract labor from the Indians and inaugurated a plan to distribute mission lands. Venal public officials in charge of the distribution granted the most valuable lands to themselves and their relatives. The secularization processes, it was called, was so restrictive that few ex-mission Indians were eligible for the distributed lands. More significant still, the majority of surviving mission Indians were not native to the areas of coastal missions. Most neophytes at this time had been forced to relocate from their tribal domains and promptly returned to them following their liberation.

Many of these returned exiles were faced with difficult tasks of reconstructing their decimated communities in the wake of crippling population declines. Furthermore, their tribal lands had become transformed by the introduction of vast herds of horses, cattle, sheep, goats and hogs that destroyed the native flora, the primary source of native diet. Wild game animals were likewise driven off by these new animals. What developed from this new condition was the emergence of guerrilla Indian bands made-up of former fugitive mission Indians and interior tribesmen from villages devastated by official and unofficial Mexican paramilitary attacks and slave hunting raids. Eventually a significant number of these interior groups joined together to form new conglomerate tribes. These innovative and resilient tribes quickly converted the anti-mission activities of their members into systematic efforts to re-assert their sovereignty by widespread and highly organized campaigns against Mexican ranchers and government authority in general.

Vastly overestimating their power, Mexican authorities authorized an additional 762 land grants by 1847. In reality, the effectiveness of Indian stock raiders increased dramatically when American and Canadian fur trappers provided a lucrative market for purloined horses by the mid 1830's. Interior Mexican ranches were increasingly abandoned in the face of economic ruin by native stock raiding activities. Even Johann A. Sutter was reduced to begging the Mexican government to buy his fort following a mauling at the hands of Miwok Indians near the Calaveras in June of 1846.

Despite these successes, a series of murderous epidemics in the twilight years of the Mexican era severely reduced the interior population. For instance, in 1833 an American party of fur trappers introduced a murderous scourge of malaria into the Sacramento and San Joaquin River drainages. While traversing the epicenter of the plague, J. J. Warner reported,
"From the head of the Sacramento to the great bend and slough of the San Joaquin we did not see more than six or eight live Indians; while large numbers of their skulls and dead bodies were seen under almost every shade tree near the water, where the uninhabited and deserted villages had been converted into graveyards."
In this tragedy, more than 20,000 Central Valley Miwok, Yokuts, Wintun, and Maidu Indians perished. A new outbreak of small pox devastated Coast Miwok, Pomo, Wappo, and Wintun tribes. Approximately 2000 died in this 1837 epidemic originating from Fort Ross. By 1840 these and other murderous maladies had so thoroughly saturated the Indian population of Mexican California that diseases became endemic.

Mexican forced labor and violence at the hands of the militia and paramilitary slave hunting parties account for a significant amount of the population decline suffered by California Indians. On the eve of the American take-over the aboriginal population of approximately 310,000 had been reduced to about 150,000. This gut wrenching 50% decline had occurred in just 77 years. The implications for survivors is largely a mute tale of suffering and grieving over the loss of a stunning number of children, parents and elders. What came next was worse still.
THE AMERICAN INVASION
Alta California the poorly managed and badly neglected stepchild of Mexico was rapidly overwhelmed by a combination of aggressive Indian raids and the arrival of United States Army, Navy and Marine forces in the summer of 1846. Despite a seemingly irrational murderous attack on Sacramento River Maidu Indian villages by U.S. Army forces under the command of John C. Fremont, the majority of California Indians involved in that struggle aided the Americans as scouts, warrior-soldiers and wranglers.

When Mexican resistance collapsed in January of 1847, thereafter Indian Affairs was administered by a succession of military governors. Stock raiding Indians in the interior recommenced their depredations when they learned Indian slavers such as Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo and Johann A. Sutter had been appointed as Indian sub-agents. Military government's policy was to suppress stock raiding and furthermore imposed draconian restrictions on the free movement of Indians and required Indians to carry certificates of employment.
THE GOLD RUSH
The discovery of gold in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada at a sawmill construction site developed by Indian Agent Johann Sutter, ushered in one of the darkest episodes of dispossession widespread sexual assault and mass murder against the native people of California. Sutter immediately negotiated a treaty with the chief of the Coloma Nisenan Tribe which would have given a three-year lease to lands surrounding the gold discovery site. During those negotiations, the chief prophetically warned Sutter that the yellow metal he so eagerly sought was, "very bad medicine. It belonged to a demon who devoured all who searched for it". Eventually the military governor refused to endorse Sutter's self-serving actions.

Within a year a hoard of 100,000 adventurers from all over the world descended upon the native peoples of California with catastrophic results. The entire state was scoured by gold seekers. Thinly spread government officials were overwhelmed by this unprecedented deluge of immigrants and all effective authority collapsed. Military authorities could not prevent widespread desertion of soldiers and chaos reigned.

A virtual reign of terror enveloped tribesmen the mining districts. Wanton killings and violence against Indians resisting miners developed into a deadly pattern. An Oustemah Nisenan female named Betsy later recalled,
"A life of ease and peace was interrupted when I was a little girl by the arrival of the whitemen. Each day the population increased and the Indians feared the invaders and great consternation prevailed .... as gold excitement advanced, we were moved again and again, each time in haste. Indian children.... when taken into town would blacken their faces with dirt so the newcomers would not steal them...."
Numerous vigilante type paramilitary troops were established whose principal occupation seems to have been to kill Indians and kidnap their children. Groups such as the Humboldt Home Guard, the Eel River Minutemen and the Placer Blades among others terrorized local Indians and caused the premier 19th century historian Hubert Howe Bancroft to describe them as follows.
"The California valley cannot grace her annals with a single Indian war bordering on respectability. It can, however, boast a hundred or two of as brutal butchering, on the part of our honest miners and brave pioneers, as any area of equal extent in our republic......"
The handiwork of these well-armed death squads combined with the widespread random killing of Indians by individual miners resulted in the death of 100,000 Indians in the first two years of the gold rush. A staggering loss of two thirds of the population. Nothing in American Indian history is even remotely comparable to this massive orgy of theft and mass murder. Stunned survivors now perhaps numbering fewer than 70,000 teetered near the brink of total annihilation.

The newcomers sometimes met organized Indian resistance. In 1850 a Cupeno chief named Antonio Garra Sr. organized local Southern California Indians to resist an illegal tax imposed upon San Diego Indians by the county sheriff. Sporadic attacks upon both Americans and some Mexicans by Garra's followers resulted in a massive crackdown on Indian communities. Soon a rival Cahuilla chief captured Garra and turned him over to the authorities who promptly hung him and several of his followers. In 1851 several mountain Miwok tribes offered armed resistance to the hoard of miners overrunning their territory. When one tribe destroyed a trading-post owned by an American who kept at least 12 Indian "wives" a paramilitary militia was formed and aggressively attacked Indians throughout the southern mines area. Eventually this group calling itself the "Mariposa Battalion" breached the unknown granite fortress of the valley of Yosemite. A ruthless campaign against the Yosemite Indians resulted in the capture of their Chief Teneya and a temporary exile to the San Joaquin River "Indian Farm".

In reality, these Indian campaigns were motivated by rapacious greed of the miners to gain Indian lands and provide political capital for ambitious office seekers. Sadly, both the state and federal government eventually reimbursed the vast majority of these paramilitary forays for expenses incurred. This is indeed a dreary story of subsidized murder on a scale unequaled in all of this country's Indian wars.
TREATY MAKING AND TREATY REJECTION
In 1849 Washington sent two special emissaries to California to report on the nature of Mexico's recognition of Indian land titles in California. Neither spoke to a single Indian and eventually produced an ambiguous and inaccurate report to the great disadvantage of the Indians. Upon this misinformation, and in an attempt to stem the unprecedented chaos and mass murder of the gold miner's confrontation with the California Indians, Congress authorized three federal officials to make treaties with the California Indians. Their purpose was to extinguish Indian land titles and provide the Indians with territories that would be protected from encroachment by non-Indians. They were given just $25,000 to accomplish this monumental task. Soon after their arrival in San Francisco in January of 1851, the enormous size of territory prompted the commissioners to split up and negotiate treaties on their own. The reports and correspondence of the treaty commissioners clearly demonstrate that the suspicious and reluctant Indians who could be persuaded to attend the treaty meetings were only vaguely aware of its purpose. This can be attributed to the frequent problems of translators who often had to translate several Indian dialects into Spanish and again into English. Few if any of the Indians could understand English. The random manner in which the commissioners organized the meetings resulted in the majority of tribes not participating. Despite these crippling drawbacks, the treaty process proceeded until January 5th of 1852. In all, eighteen treaties were negotiated. The treaties agreed to set aside certain tracts of land for the signatory tribes. They additionally promised the assistance of farmers, school teachers, blacksmiths, stock animals, seeds and agricultural equipment, cloth and much more. In return, the signatory tribes promised to forever quitclaim to the United States their lands. Just what specific lands being surrendered were not specified. Anthropologists in the 20th century could only identify 67 tribes, 45 village names and 14 alternative spellings of tribal names. Eighteen groups were unidentifiable. Despite the obvious fact that not all California Indian tribes had been consulted or contacted they too would be bound by the negotiations. Nevertheless, the federal government promised to reserve 7,466,000 acres of land to the dispossessed Indians,

An immediate outcry from an enraged public followed the completion of the commissioner's task. It was revealed that the commissioners had overspent their budget by a half a million dollars in the incredibly inflated economy of gold rush California. Local newspapers orchestrated an abusive campaign and local politicians echoed the fears of their compassionate electorate that the treaty reserves might contain something valuable, like gold. Most Americans simply wanted the Indians removed to some other territory or state. California's newly elected state senators provided the final blow. On July 8, 1852, the Senate in executive session refused to ratify the treaties. They were filed with an injunction of secrecy that was finally removed in 1905!

Meanwhile, Congress had created a commission to validate land tittles in California. The commission was required by law to both inform the Indians that it would be necessary to file claims for their lands and report upon the nature of these claims. Because no one bothered to inform the Indians of these requirements, no claims were submitted. Through this neat trick, the federal government "legally" avoided the normally lengthy and duplicitous negotiations over land sessions.

The practical result was the complete dispossession of the Indians in the eyes of the government. Despite this chicanery, several tribes would violently and later legally contest these frauds to defend their territory, homes and families.

From the native viewpoint, signatories of the treaties had agreed to move to specific locations promised in the treaties. Yet such attempts often met with violent attacks by miners and others opposed to the very existence of Indians. Non-treaty groups simply endured the madness and race hatred of those waging a merciless war against them. Most tribes did their best to withdraw from all contact with the mayhem overwhelming them.
A HARSH STATE GOVERNMENT
The formation of the state government proved to be an official instrument of the oppressive mentality of the miner's militia. In Governor McDougall first address to the legislature he promised, "a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct......." Despite guarantees in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Indians were denied state citizenship, voting rights and more important still, the right to testify in court. These acts effectively removed all legal redress for native peoples and left them to the mercy of anyone who chose to sexual assault, kidnap even murder them. Despite entering the union as a free state in 1850, the California legislature rapidly enacted a series of laws legalizing Indian slavery. One of the laws sanctioned an indenture system similar to Mexican peonage in widespread practice throughout California prior to 1850. All levels of state, county and local governments participated in this ugly practice that evolved into a heartless policy of killing Indian parents and kidnapping and indenturing the victim's children. Indian youth could be enslaved by the cruel act to the age of 30 for males and 25 for females. This barbarous law was finally repealed four years after President Lincoln's emancipation proclamation in 1863.

The federal government finally decided to establish an Indian policy in California in 1854 when Edward F. Beale was appointed Superintendent of Indian Affairs for California. Beale quickly established a prototype Indian preserve within the boundaries of the Army's military reserve in the Southern San Joaquin Valley, called Fort Tejon. The site was chosen because of the continuing problem of local horse raiding by Southern California Indians. Yokut, Gabrielino and Kitanemuk tribesmen were gathered together on this barren 50,000-acre parcel call San Sebastian. Beale's instruction from Washington authorized him to establish four additional reserves with a $250,000 budget. Apparently, Beale squandered his entire allocation on less than 200 Indians at San Sebastian. This action becomes comprehensible only when it is known that within a decade, Beale wound up owning much of that short-lived reserve. His behavior in office set the standard for decades of widespread corruption and incompetence that distinguishes the Bureau of Indian Affairs in California and elsewhere. Following Beale's removal from office in 1856, Col. T.J. Henely established Indian Reserves on the Klamath River, Nome Lackee near Colusa, Nome Cult (Round Valley) and the Mendocino Reserve at the mouth of the Noyo River on the coast. The latter two were both located in Mendocino County.

These hastily organized communities provided little in the way of support or even minimal refuge for native peoples cajoled to move there. These unsurveyed reserves lacked game, suitable agricultural lands and water. They soon became overrun with white squatters who systematically corrupted the Indians and introduced an epidemic of venereal diseases. More unsatisfactory still, were Indian Farms located on lands rented from newcomers now holding legal title to said lands. The Fresno and Kings River Indian Farms were established in the south-eastern San Joaquin Valley along the rivers of the same name. Federal records clearly show these farms provided only a handful of Indians homes, the majority completely lacked cultivation, but they did provide paychecks for the superintendent's friends and political cronies. The majority of these early reserves and Indian Farms were abandoned in the 1860's due to the state's Indian slavery codes that allowed all able-bodied males, females and even children to be indentured to white citizens. A great many reservation residents could not participate in the agricultural and ranching programs because their labor "belonged" to private state citizens. Frequently, federal and Indian agents themselves indentured his wards for personal enrichment. Government records for this period show that fewer than 3000 of the less than 70,000 surviving California Indians received recognition let alone provisions for reservations. South of the Tehachapi Mountains California Indians remained totally ignored by Washington. So what were the vast majority of Indians doing during this period?
LATE 19TH CENTURY ADAPTATION AND RESISTANCE
The vast majority of California Indians struggled to survive without government aid or recognition. Many on the verge of actual starvation dispersed throughout their territories and sought to support themselves through agriculture and ranch labor for the new "owners" of California. This was a traditional pattern of behavior when drought and other natural catastrophes struck. Deprived of land and their life sustaining resources, they were left with no other options. With a few notable exceptions, the mass murder of the Gold Rush era diminished, as Indian victims became scarce and survivors learned to avoid Americans whenever possible. The great hardships of this adaptation were made bearable with the development of a messianic cult movement called the Ghost Dance of 1870. In part triggered by the introduction of Christian missionary activities, this new religious movement was pan-tribal in nature and obviously a response to the massive population decline. The movement promised the return of dead relatives and the disappearance of the oppressors. It was most desperately embraced by those tribes who had most recently suffered great population declines. Despite lasting only a few years, it was fundamental in revitalizing intra-tribal religious integration. In short, it provided hope for the nearly hopeless situation Indian found themselves confronted with.

The last organized violent reaction to dispossession and federal Indian policy erupted between 1860-1872. The first was a series of Indian wars in Northwestern California. Here Yurok, Karok, Hupa and other tribes fought the increasingly paranoid and aggressive Americans who routinely murdered them, stole their children and burned their villages. Jack Norton, a Hupa historian characterized the situation as a "deranged frontier". Attempts to disarm Indians and continued kidnapping for sexual slavery quickly led to violent resistance. In 1858, the militia established a fort in the Hupa Valley to make war on the Wilkut and Chilula tribes. Many members of those tribes had been captured and deported to the Mendocino Reservation. Frustrated by the stiff resistance of interior groups, the militia found it easier to murder nearby inoffensive peaceful and non-hostile Indians. The notorious Indian Island massacre in Humboldt Bay was the bitter fruit of that race hatred. Eventually some Hupa Indians agreed to assist the soldiers in hunting their hostile neighbors. Despite this defection, several bands of Hupa joined the hostiles and effectively resisted until 1864 when they surrendered. This led to the establishment of the Hupa Valley Reservation in August of 1864.

Because both state and federal authorities seriously underestimated the number of surviving California Indians, plans to remove all Indians to the handful of reservations already established, proved impractical. Several attempts to place multiple tribes on single reservations frequently resulted in violence, mass murder and war. The Modoc war of 1872 was caused by such a policy that insisted the Modocs be deported out of California to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon. Driven twice from that reserve, a third attempt to deport the Modocs back to Klamath resulted in a stunning war in 1872. The Indian service removed the Konkow Indians of Chico and the Atsugewi of Shasta County to the Round Valley Reservation in 1862. Squatters overrunning the Reservation descended upon these unfortunate tribesmen and murdered 45 of them. The mob justified its actions by claiming the Indians might steal food from the squatters. Survivors fled in terror back to Chico, only to be again removed to Round Valley sometime afterwards. The BIA showed little interest in assisting such tribes. Those lucky enough to have reservations established in the aboriginal territories were understandably reluctant to share the scant advantages they enjoyed with newly arrived emigre tribes. Also true was the fact that no tribes desired to be relocated outside of their aboriginal territories. After all, each tribe's creation story emphasized the sacred nature of its own particular landscape. Tradition emphasized territorially and to stray from it required one to steal food resources from neighboring tribes. Non-Indians could not fathom the intensity and depth of the Indians spiritual attachment to their territories.

A steady population decline accompanied by widespread reports of destitution and hunger haunted those tribes without reserved lands. Despite hardship encountered, survival demanded innovation and adaptation. Being driven to the edge of extinction, Indians demonstrated again and again a strong will to survive. That determination notwithstanding, the widespread kidnapping, slavery and violence took a frightful toll on tribesmen and their cultures. Leadership lineages became scattered and displaced. Many ceremonies could no longer be held because access to sacred places was now denied. Cultural mandates to feed ceremonial guests could no longer be achieved by those who otherwise were able to hold public rituals. Finally, Christian missionaries gained control at many reservations under President Grant's Peace Policy of 1869. These folks were determined to destroy Indian culture and aboriginal belief systems that undergirded it.

The California superintendency attracted a succession of special investigators caused by constant reports of corruption that reached Washington. Special reports conducted in 1858, 1867 and 1883 clearly and thoroughly document the corruption and inefficiency plaguing government programs for Indians. President Grant's Peace Policy of 1869 inaugurated an era of acculturation under duress. Policy makers in the government declared the only path of salvation for surviving Indians would be Christianization, along with the adaptation of private ownership of' property. Once these twin goals were realized, Indians would be rewarded with citizenship and take their place among the lower classes with other non-whites in American society. Reservation agents insisted their residents join churches and cease practicing the old ways. The General Allotment Act of 1887 forcibly divided reservation tribal lands, doling out small parcels to individual Indians and their families. If the allotee built a house, engaged in farming or ranching, sent his children to government Indian schools and renounced his tribal allegiance and otherwise pleased the agent, he would (after 25 years) receive title to his land and citizenship. Unlike tribal lands, these parcels would become taxable. The program was inaugurated in California in 1893. By 1930 approximately 2,300 allotments had been carved out of the tiny communal tribal reservation lands. Traditional Indians opposed the detribalizing goals of allotment. The uneven and unequal distribution of allotments was used by Indian agents to keep tribal populations divided and politically impotent. Nevertheless, considerable tribal resistance and pan-tribal organizing developed in opposition to allotment. The program ground to a halt in 1930 due to Indian opposition and failure of BIA to complete the necessary paperwork. The law was repealed in 1934. Thousands of acres of California Indian lands and millions of acres nationally were lost to this destructive and ill-conceived policy.
PAN-INDIAN GROUPS, LANDLESS INDIANS AND RANCHERIAS
Several hundred individual land allotments were distributed to California Indians from public lands found principally in northern California. Often times these were isolated havens from hostile neighbors. Many were assigned to clusters of individuals who were related by kinship and are likely core tribal members who otherwise hand no lands. The tribal communities often held traditional ceremonies and participated in those of their more fortunate reservation Indians.

Southern California Indians were finally provided with recognition when several parcels of their former tribal domains were set aside by executive order beginning in 1873 with the establishment of the Tule River Indian Reservation. Fourteen Southern California Indian Reservations were set aside by executive orders beginning in 1891 and amended in 1898. Unfortunately, Indians in both Orange and Los Angeles counties were excluded from land distributions due in part to the value of coastal real estate. Nevertheless, small tribes from this area participated in pan-Indian organizations.

Reduced to severe destitution the majority of Indians struggled to support their families as landless laborers. Only 6,536 Indians were recognized and living on reservations about the turn of the century. Every Indian who survived to see the dawn of the 20th century had witnessed great suffering and the irreplaceable loss of numerous grandparents, mothers, fathers and children. Some lineages disappeared altogether. The nadir had been reached. Demographer S.F, Cook determined the California Indian population declined to fewer than 16,000 individuals in 1900. This figure represents a gut wrenching descent from over 300,000 into a vortex of massive death in just 131 years of colonization! These staggering losses prompted non-Indians of good will to assist Indian tribes in efforts to secure lands for the still numerous landless Indians.

Several Indian reform groups blossomed before and after the turn of the century. One of their earliest successes was a long legal effort to prevent the Cupa Indians from being dispossessed of their ancestral village of Warner's Hot Springs. While losing the legal case Cupa Indians and their allies managed to secure lands on the nearby Pala Indian Reservation in San Diego County. More important for the majority of landless Indians were the efforts of the Northern California Indian Association that goaded the BIA into enumerating landless Indians in 1905. The result of the survey and political pressure from Indians and their friends resulted in federal actions creating 36 new reservations and Rancherias in 16 Northern California counties. Rancherias were very small parcels of land aimed at provided homesites only for small bands of landless Indians. They are all located in Northern California. Unfortunately, the BIA's investigator failed to visit 12 other counties, thus ignoring the luckless Indians in those areas. Between 1933 and 1941 Congress authorized the enlargement of several Southern California reservations by 6492 acres. No rancherias or homesites were made available for landless Southern California Indians.

Important developments occurred as a result of political activism on the part of both tribes and pan-Indian organizations from 1921 to the present. Beginning with the early efforts of the Indian Board of Cooperation, numerous California Indians self-help organizations and tribes pushed for a lawsuit over the failure of the United States to compensate the Indians of California for the loss of their aboriginal lands. Congress relented and passed the Jurisdictional Act of 1928. This legislation allowed the Indians to sue the federal government and use the state Attorney general's office to represent them. Lacking control of their legal representative a controversial settlement was finally achieved in 1944. $17,053,941.98 was offered for the failure of the government to deliver the 18 reservations promised in treaty negotiations of 1851-2. Incredibly, the government decided to deduct all of its "costs" of providing reservations, supplies and even the salaries of corrupt and do-nothing Indians agents native peoples had endured for nearly a century. After an-other long battle, little more than 5 million dollars were finally distributed on a per-capita basis to 36,095 California Indians in 1951. A paltry $150. was distributed to surviving Indians. This parsimonious and unfair settlement prompted California Indians to seek further legal redress.

The efforts of California Indians to sue the federal government under the Jurisdictional Act of 1928 resulted in the creation of the federal Indian Claims Commission in 1946. This federal body allowed Indian groups to press for compensation to tribes over the theft of their lands in the 19th century. By August of 1951, twenty-three separate petitions had been filed by attorneys on behalf of tribes in California. After 20 years of tortuous maneuvering all separate claims were consolidated into a single case. A compromise settlement of $29,100,000 was offered for 64,425,000 acres of acres of tribal territory. After deduction of attorney's fees ($12,609,000) and the addition of interest and about half a million left over from the first settlement the payment worked out to an offer of 47 cents per acre! The purchase of public domain lands in California in 1850 was never less than $1.50 per acre. This outrageous offer offended many Indians who had pinned their hopes on a settlement that would provide seed money for desperately needed economic development. Despite bitter opposition by many of the original claimants, the federal government prepared a census of eligible Indians in preparation for an anticipated judgment. The BIA organized a series of meetings to convince the litigants to accept the settlement. Eventually a majority of the groups agreed, except the Pit River tribe. They offered strong, vociferous and persistent opposition. However, through questionable balloting, the government declared they had accepted the offer in 1964. Nearly 65,000 California Indians were deemed eligible to share in the settlement. Payments of little more than $600 per person was distributed in 1968. What is of great significance here is the fact that the entire claims activities were conducted outside of normal court proceedings protected by the constitution. Thus, Indians are the only class of citizens in the United States who are denied constitutional protection of their lands by extra-constitutional means.
TERMINATION
During the divisive and controversial land claims battle the BIA began to submit plans to end all services to California Indians and transfer all authority over federal Indian reservations to the State. This new policy, called Termination, was put into motion in 1951. Special agents were sent to prepare for the end of federal jurisdiction over tribal lands. At first the state was enthusiastic over the prospect of increasing its tax base with the anticipation of the privatization of federal trust properties. Termination became law in California under authority of the Rancheria Act of 1958. This statute allowed tribes to vote on a plan to divide communal tribal property into parcels to be distributed to its members. Distributees would receive title to their lands and be free to sell it and be obliged to pay property tax from that time forward. The BIA targeted the smallest, least organized and most isolated tribes to persuade them to accept this plan for cultural and tribal suicide. Government personnel promised acceptance would result in freedom and economic independence. They further made elaborate promises to upgrade squalid housing, pave roads, build bridges, construct water projects and even provide college scholarships in return for a vote to terminate. Between 1958 and 1970 twenty-three rancherias and reservations were terminated. Chronically high unemployment rates, low educational achievement and sometimes emergency medical needs soon forced many to make loans on, or sell their lands. Worse still, many BIA services like health, education were abruptly ended for all Indians in the state. Like the earlier allotment policy, the implementation of termination set in motion a series of events that ultimately divested small tribes of 10,037 acres of land, disrupted tribal institutions and traditions and ultimately left these tribes more desperate, and impoverished than ever. Termination failed miserably to improve the socioeconomic or political power of the California Indians.

The occupation of Alcatraz Island in the San Francisco Bay, by nearly 100 American Indian College students in the fall of 1969 ushered in a new era of Indian affairs. A new generation of young, energetic and highly educated California Indians emerged during this period. Highly skeptical of the government they were committed to protecting tribal sovereignty. More important still, they found great value in tribal traditions. They encouraged traditional ceremonies, language retention and sought to remove impediments to the exercise of tribal religious practices. These developments paralleled a new generation of tribal leaders who would dynamically defend tribal rights. These activities made three things apparent; many California Indians were still landless, terminated tribes had been swindled, and some tribes had never been recognized by the federal government. However, reservation, landless and unrecognized tribesmen all shared lives of desperate poverty and little hope for employment or economic development.

In recognition of the growing sophistication of California Indians, the state legislature created the, Native American Heritage Commission in 1978. This all Indian commission works as a liaison between state, federal and tribal governments. It has been successful in protecting Indian burials, sacred places and providing access to government lands to harvest native plants for ceremonial practices and basketmaking.

To date 17 rancherias and reservations have reversed the disastrous termination process. Other tribes are currently pursuing legal avenues to reverse their termination status. Unrecognized tribes have vigorously pursued acknowledgment processes whose requirements are so impossibly demanding that many large tribes in Arizona and New Mexico could not today meet such standards of cultural continuity. Nevertheless, the Acagchemem of San Juan Capistrano the Muwekma of the San Francisco Bay area, and the Coast Miwok of Marin County are close to federal recognition and acquiring a trust land base.

Government developed economic development plans have a history of nearly a century of total failure. Currently more than thirty reservations and rancherias have established gaming businesses on their lands. Some are highly successful while other are not. Some public opposition to these activities seems to center around the fear that Indians may be cheated by their business partners. Such fears smack of paternalism and ignore the reality that few if any valuable resources can be found on Indian lands. Few private investors have come forward to work with Indian tribes outside of the gaming industry. With few choices, wise reservation leadership view gaming as an interim step toward greater economic independence. The Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians are the best example of how that dream can be achieved.

The amazing adaptive capabilities of California Indians has demonstrated the resiliency and genius of these much misunderstood and hardworking tribes can achieve under the most unfavorable of circumstances. We know, and our friends and counter parts in local and national governmental agencies must understand that only through the exercise of our tribal sovereignty can we successfully take our rightful place in our prosperous and free nation. We enter the next century filled with optimism.

Professor Edward D. Castillo
Cahuilia-Luiseno

(Permission to reproduce without written consent of the author is forbidden)

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OF CALIFORNIA INDIAN HISTORY REGIONAL LIFEWAYS One manner in which we can seek to understand aboriginal California Indian cultures is to look at the tribes inhabiting similar climatic and ecological zones. What emerges from this approach is a remarkable similarity in material aspects of the many different tribes inhabiting those territories.

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voici un article sur l'été de l'amour et le mouvement hippie à San Francisco

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The ‘Summer of Love’ refers to 1967 - not so much because that year saw a revolutionary new movement, but because that was when the media came to identify and focus on the hippy phenomenon.

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Voici un article sur le tremblement du terre qui s'appelle le Loma Prieta earthquake.

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On October 17, 1989, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake hit the San Francisco Bay Area, killing 67 people and causing more than $5 billion in damages. Despite the fact that the disaster was one of the most powerful and destructive quakes ever to hit a populated area of the United States, the death toll was relatively small. The disaster is known as both as the San Francisco-Oakland earthquake and the Loma Prieta earthquake because it was centered near Loma Prieta Peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains.

On October 17, the Bay Area was buzzing about baseball. The Oakland Athletics and San Francisco Giants, both local teams, had reached the World Series. The third game of the series was scheduled to begin at 5:30 p.m. at San Francisco's Candlestick Park. Just prior to the game, at 5:04 p.m., with live cameras on the field, a magnitude 6.9 quake rocked the San Francisco Bay region. The quake was centered near Loma Prieta Peak (approximately 60 miles south of San Francisco) in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Though the stadium withstood the shaking, other parts of the Bay Area were not as fortunate. Sixty-seven people perished as a result of the quake, which lasted around 15 seconds, while more than 3,000 others were injured.

Did you know? The San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge opened to traffic in November 1936, six months before the Golden Gate Bridge.

San Francisco's Marina district suffered extensive damage. Built on an area where there was no underlying bedrock, the liquefaction of the ground resulted in the collapse of a number of structures. Additionally, gas mains and pipes burst, sparking fires. A 1.25-mile segment of the two-level Cypress Street Viaduct along the Nimitz Freeway (Interstate 880), just south of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, collapsed during the quake, resulting in 42 fatalities when the upper level of the road crashed onto the cars on the lower level. One person was killed when a portion of the upper deck of the Bay Bridge-which had been scheduled for a retrofitting the following week-collapsed onto the lower level.

Another hard-hit area was Watsonville, located several miles from the quake's epicenter. More than 30 percent of Watsonville's downtown and 1 in 8 houses were destroyed.Total damages from the earthquake were estimated at more than $5 billion. In the quake's aftermath, San Francisco and other communities enacted strict regulations requiring unreinforced masonry buildings to be retrofitted.

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On October 17, 1989, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake hit the San Francisco Bay Area, killing 67 people and causing more than $5 billion in damages.

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MAELYS                   Voici un article sur la diversité culturelle en Californie. Cet article est sur l'histoire de Californie et comme Californie est devenue un endroit avec beaucoup de cultures. Cet article est très intéressant parce qu’il explique une importante pièce de ce qui rend la Californie unique.

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MAELYS                   Voici un article sur la diversité culturelle en Californie. Cet article est sur l'histoire de Californie et comme Californie est devenue un endroit avec beaucoup de cultures. Cet article est très intéressant parce qu’il explique une importante pièce de ce qui rend la Californie unique.

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https://abc7.com/california-dream-solutions-culture/10327371/

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Silicon Valley est une ville avec beaucoup d'entreprise en Californie. Cet article parle de son histoire et de son effet au peuple qui y habite (c’est une ville très intimidante!!! 😨)

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ORLANE Voici un article sur la diversité et des ethnies dans la culture Californie. C'est trés interessant parce que le démographique  a changé l'histoire de Californie

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ORLANE Voici un article sur la diversité et des ethnies dans la culture Californie. C'est trés interessant parce que le démographique  a changé l'histoire de Californie

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The Diverse Languages and Nationalities in California

Expert Telecommunication Translation Services

When diversity is mentioned, we like to think in terms of race, but the professionals want to go deeper and categorize this into cultural diversity, religious diversity, socio-economic diversity, economic diversity, household diversity and at last racial diversity. In a recently released analysis, California ranked first in an overall diversity measure with West Virginia ranking least of all states. But how did they arrive at this?

According to the new Census reports, California has the highest population in the country as well as being home to the largest populations of four significant ethnic groups. The state has more Asians, Latinos, American Indians, African Americans and whites than any other state with is combined non- white population garnering a stunning 39 million Californians which translates into 61.5 percent of the entire state population. Only Hawaii comes close to those statistics. Besides being the most populous state in the United States, California stretches wide geographically making it the third largest state. Its vast extension coupled with conducive environment makes California an excellent pick for immigrants to settle when looking for places that are easy to adapt to life.

With the statistics as mentioned earlier about how racially diverse, California is, it is linked with the cultural diversity. All these ethnic groups have cultural values and practices that may be hard to let go. California boasts of nurturing various culinary styles ranging from Mexican restaurants, Italian restaurants, Indian restaurants, and Filipino restaurants among others. California's accommodating climate has played an essential role in nurturing the diverse culinary style. Its environment has made it possible for the local farmers to grow many types of food that are required for various cuisines. And with the diverse ethnic groups, the traditional cuisine is passed on for generations with each appreciating other styles. For example, tacos, originally from Mexico have grown to be a favorite food for Californians other than the Latinos.

Forty-two percent of Californians speak one or more languages other than English in their homes. Other than English, Spanish comes second as the most spoken language in California. This is driven from the history of California. Other languages commonly used are Vietnamese, Chinese and Korean. Anyone born, raised and living in popular cities such as Los Angeles or San Francisco will tell you that it is uncommon to hear Russian, Arabic, and Armenian in the streets. This shows that the locals come from various countries meeting in California for various reasons.

Another reason why California has been a magnet, attracting diversity is being a tech leader in the United States for ages. This aspect has attracted millions of tech-driven and ambitious people in their search for fulfilling their dreams. California has its employment index ranking high considerably beyond other states. Its attractiveness is based on protecting the human resource and housing millions of hardworking people from all corners of the globe. California is home to one of the world's notable universities, Stanford University. There are other decent universities offering scholarships that attract thousands of scholars from all parts of the world.

Apart from having a rich educational diversity, California is the center of the American film industry, Hollywood which is undeniably the best in the world. It has attracted thousands of film talent from around the globe in search of stardom and breakthrough. The Hollywood studios have made many immigrants jet in and settle in California while straightening their careers in the film industry. California is a coastal state with existing beach culture. It has nurtured a surfing culture that makes it a great spot for all famed surf companies. The state has nurtured all opportunities into greater heights making surfing an important sport that has been recognized globally.

Above everything is California's huge economic diversity. The state has various economy drivers ranging from oil, gas, entertainment, agriculture tech, education, healthcare, technology, and forestry. This makes the state attract people from all sorts of backgrounds and skills. The kind of existing diversity that keeps California on its feet keeps its diversity moving to positive heights.

California's diversity has made it comfortable to anyone from any part of the world to settle in the United States and get their lives moving with whichever kind of career without feeling inferior or feeling of discrimination.

The telecommunications industry is in a constant state of flux.

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▷ The Diverse Languages and Nationalities in California

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The Diverse Languages and Nationalities in California Expert Telecommunication Translation Services When diversity is mentioned, we like to think in terms of race, but the professionals want to go deeper and categorize this into cultural diversity, religious diversity, socio-economic diversity, economic diversity, household diversity and at last racial diversity.

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Voici un article sur Japan Town. Il se trouve a San Fancisco et possede une architecture magnifique, des restaurants japonois, et de petits musees sur les camps d'internement japonois.

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Japantown San Francisco | Explore, Shop, and Dine

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Settled in the early 1860s, San Francisco's historic Japantown is packed with the arts and culture of Japan with dining, shopping, and events for all to enjoy.

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Voici un article sur l'histoire de la Californie et comment elle est devenue si diversifiée. Il parle des tribus amérindiennes, des explorateurs et des colonies espagnoles, de la ruée vers l'or, de l'exploration européenne et bien plus encore.

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British historian James Bryce said California was the most striking state in the whole Union. The scholar examined the state's economy and culture in his classic, two-volume study called The American Commonwealth released in 1888. The historian said the region had the characteristics of a great country capable of standing alone in the world.

Bryce's statement is even truer in the modern era. California has one of the highest, most diverse populations within the nation. Almost 40.2 million residents live within the state. A 2018 U.S. federal study reported the area's bustling economy has surpassed the United Kingdom's to become the world's fifth largest.

WalletHub, a financial website, awarded California the number one spot on its Most & Least Diverse States in America list. The company said the area was the nation's most culturally diverse. This year, the publication ranked California cities as the most diverse in the nation. They include:

Los Angeles (4th)

Long Beach (6th)

San Jose (8th)

San Diego (9th).

Other Californian cities dominated in the top 20 rankings. These include:

Anaheim (12)

Fresno (13)

Sacramento (14)

and Oakland (15).

How did California become one of the nation's most diverse states? In today's article, you'll learn about the rich cultural diversity that has helped transform the region's historical legacy.

California's Native American Tribes

According to the University of Washington professor James N. Gregory, the state became the most populous in the nation because many people migrated to the area from other states and nations. The first inhabitants of coastal California were Native Americans. They occupied the land for thousands of years. Almost 300,000 Native Americans in the Pacific coast region before European settlers arrived. Archaeologists found that the area already had a variety of languages and cultures. These tribes spoke a combined 135 different languages. Many Native Americans contributed to the name of the state's most popular towns including Malibu, Tahoe, and Simi Valley.

Today, there are still living descendants from the Golden State's first inhabitants. California has 115 Native American tribes. According to the U.S. Census 2010, Native Americans make up 1.6 percent of the area's population.

Spanish Explorers and Californian Settlements

Europeans began their migration to the Americas in 1492. According to the National Park Service's Early History of the California Coast, Spanish explorers were the first ones to visit the Pacific area in the 1500s. The most famous explorer was Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. He and his crew entered San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542. Cabrillo named the region"Alta California." They developed cattle ranching in the area. The word, "ranch," comes from the Spanish word "rancho."

Spanish migrants established the first permanent settlement, Presidio at San Diego, in 1769. Franciscan Friar Junipero Serra had a significant impact on the colonization of the state. He sent more than 21 Spanish missions throughout California. Missions were churches with farms and work areas.

The missionaries wanted to convert Native Americans their Roman Catholicism. They also taught native inhabitants skills to help manage their farms. During the fall, one of Serra's expeditions explored San Francisco Bay.

Eventually, the Spaniards divided the Californian region into four military districts called presidio that protected the missions and their land. These missions also ensured Spanish control over native inhabitants. The country established presidios at San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San Francisco.

Modern-day California still maintains the rich inheritance its ancestral beginnings. Its metropolitan cities have retained their Spanish names including Los Angeles, Sacramento, and San Jose. Today, almost 39.1 percent of Californians have Hispanic ancestry. These include persons of Mexican, Latin American, and Spanish descent.

Mexican Independence and California's Bear Revolt

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. During this time, Alta California was no longer a Spanish colony; it was a Mexican province. The state remained a part of the country for more than 27 years.

In the mid-1800s, California began a new, prosperous era. Large ranches flourished throughout the territory, and American trappers traveled to the coastal area to hunt game and wildlife.

The Mexican government secularized missions in 1834 and later abandoned them. American settlers migrated to the area, and in 1846, they revolted against Mexico. They occupied Sonoma Plaza and proclaimed this area, the Republic of California. Historians call this insurrection, the Bear Flag Revolt. This June 1846 rebellion, along with other battles, resulted in California's separation from Mexico.

The California Gold Rush, Californios, and the European Migration

President James K. Polk believed the U.S. borders should expand to the Pacific Coast. The leader said this was America's manifest destiny. Polk argued that the United States should annex Texas, New Mexico, and California.

An international conflict helped Polk's vision become a reality. On April 25, 1846, Mexico's cavalry attacked and killed a dozen U.S. troops led by General Zachary Taylor. Congress declared war against Mexico on May 13, 1846.

American soldiers invaded the country and fought Mexican troops for two years. In September 1847, their battalion laid siege against Mexico City. Eventually, they won the war. Mexico and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848. Under the agreement, Mexico recognized America's annexation of Texas. The nation agreed to sell California and the land north of the Rio Grande for $15 million.

After the war ended, California's Gold Rush began. Miners discovered gold in the state's Sutter's Mill. This event ignited gold fever, dramatically changing the course of the area's history. Congress granted California statehood on September 9, 1850.

Mass migrations, along with abundant natural resources, fueled the state's population growth. Americans of European descent migrated in the thousands to search for gold in California. Foreigners from other nations also joined the rush. Immigrants traveled from Mexico, China, Australia, Ireland, Russia, Italy, and England. Californios, were Mexicans born in the U.S. prior to 1848. These residents owned acres of fertile farmland.

According to the U.S. Census, 74 percent of California's population is white. This includes Hispanic and non-Hispanic individuals.

African Americans in California

According to the latest U.S. Census, African-Americans make up 6.5 percent of California's total population. Black people began migrating to California from Mexico during the 1840s. Most were former slaves. Among them was William Leidesdorff, an African-American businessman that built San Francisco's first hotel in 1846.

The state's Black population grew slowly compared with other minorities within the state. Census records show that 962 African-Americans lived in the state in 1850, and 4,086 by 1860. By 1910, the state's Black population was only 22,000. The African-American population increased significantly following World War II when more people moved into the area.

The state's black residents fought courageously for equality in several courtroom cases. In 1866, Mary E. Pleasant, a former slave, sued a streetcar company in San Francisco that refused to give her a seat. She won in the trial. Another legal case, Ward v. Floor, fought against California's segregation practices in education. In 1872, the California Supreme Court ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional and violated the U.S. Constitution's 14th and 15th amendments.

In 2010, California experienced a net loss of its African-American population for the first time in 30 years. Several prominent individuals have made contributions to the nation including writers Octavia Butler (winner of the MacArthur Genius Grant), Walter Mosley, and landscape architect Paul Williams (who helped design Los Angeles' International Airport).

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders

California has the highest population of Asian-Americans in the United States. According to the U.S. Census data, Asian-American residents make up 13.6 percent of the area's population. The Golden State also has the second-highest proportion of Asian-American residents after Hawaii. The federal agency estimates the state's Pacific Islander population at 0.5 percent.

Almost 100,000 Chinese-Americans lived in California by 1870. Later, the state had the highest number of Japanese-American residents in the nation. Seventy thousand individuals of Japanese-American ancestry lived in the area by 1910. Koreans began migrating to the Golden State by the 1880s.

Currently, 21 percent of San Francisco's population is Chinese American. The cities of San Francisco and San Jose have sizable Vietnamese populations, and many Cambodian-Americans reside in Long Beach.

Asian Indians in California

The U.S. Census Bureau uses the designation "Asian Indian" for people who migrated from the country of India. According to the Migration Policy Institute, there are almost 14.2 million Indian migrants worldwide.

Most emigrated to the United Arab Emirates, which was the top destination for Asian Indians (2,852,000), followed by the U.S. at number two, (2,061,000).

According to the institute, three Californian cities accounted for the highest concentrations of people from India. They include the following cities:

San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara California (89,000) at number three

San Francisco-Oakland (86,000) at number four

Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim (80,000) at number six.

California's Diverse Culture Requires More Interpreters

California's diversity has helped its economy bloom. Unfortunately, its diverse cultures have spurred a new problem. Its court systems, businesses, and schools require more interpreters. The state's residents speak a combined 220 languages. Seven million Californians cannot speak English fluently. Almost 44 percent of the state's resident speak languages other than English at home.

The top languages spoken in California are Spanish, Vietnamese, Korean, Farsi, Cantonese, Russian, Tagalog, Arabic, and Punjabi. Others include Cambodian, Japanese, Malayalam, Hmong, Lao, an Aleutian Island dialects.

California has the largest court system in the nation. In 2017, the state's court system faced an interpreter shortage. They could no longer handle the eight million cases that pass through their courts every year.

Language Network has linguists trained in legal, technical, and medical fields that can provide accurate translations for you. Our interpretation services include conference, on-site, and over-the-phone interpreting.

Find out why so many of our clients trust our interpretation services. Contact us at (949) 733-2446 to request a quote today.

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The History of California's Population Diversity

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British historian James Bryce said California was the most striking state in the whole Union. The scholar examined the state's economy and culture in his classic, two-volume study called The American Commonwealth released in 1888. The historian said the region had the characteristics of a great country capable of standing alone in the world.

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CHLOE                      Bear Flag Revolt 

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CHLOE                      Bear Flag Revolt 

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Voici un article sur la révolte du drapeau l'ours. Beaucoup d'Américains savent que le Texas était brièvement un pays, mais peu maintenant que la Californie l'était aussi.

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At dawn on June 14, 1846, a ragtag group of about 30 gun-toting Americans entered Sonoma, a small town in the Mexican territory of Alta California. Prepared to take the town by force, they instead sat for brandy with Col. Mariano Vallejo of the Mexican army and accepted his surrender. For the next 25 days, California was an independent nation: the California Republic.

Known as the Bear Flag Revolt, a reference to the short-lived republic's flag, this event was something between an American invasion and a miniature war of independence. Though the fighting was limited and the country it established lasted less than a month, the Bear Flag Revolt led directly to the American acquisition of what is now its most populous state.

Rebellion Begins Brewing in Texas

In the mid-19th century, Mexico still controlled vast swaths of the what is now the Southwest United States. In 1835, a revolt began in the Mexican province of Texas. Although the United States was officially neutral, Americans like Stephen F. Austin and Sam Houston led a rebellion against Mexican rule, and hundreds of Americans, including members of the U.S. Army, joined the fight. The result was the Republic of Texas, an independent nation ruled by American settlers, which was then absorbed into the United States in 1846-triggering the Mexican-American War.

According to Dr. Linda Heidenreich, whose book This Land Was Mexican Once examines the Latinx experience of the Bear Flag Revolt and similar insurrections, the annexation of Texas made it clear to the Californios-Mexican residents of the province of Alta California-that their government was too poor, too unstable and too weak to stop American settlers from overrunning California. Some argued in favor of independence. Others considered inviting the United States to take over.

"If you read the reports of these meetings [of Californios], these people saw it coming," Heidenriech says. "They were scattering for a plan, and it just wasn't there."

The U.S. Sets Its Sights on California

Stock Montage/Getty Images

Enter Charles Frémont, a captain in the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers. Newly elected President James K. Polk, whose annexation of Texas was about to set off the Mexican-American War, sent Frémont on an expedition to survey the area of the Great Basin and the Great Salt Lake. Polk secretly instructed Frémont to invade California if war with Mexico broke out-in fact many historians believe that he actually ordered Frémont to start the war himself. Polk made no secret of his desire to annex California and, as Heidenreich points out, the so-called surveying expedition "went to California with a howitzer."

Frémont's expedition entered Mexican territory in December of 1845 and quietly informed some of the roughly 800 American settlers of their willingness to assist a rebellion. They nearly came to blows with the Mexican authorities after planting an American flag atop Gavilán Peak (now Frémont Peak, near Salinas, California), but retreated into the Oregon Territory. They also skirmished with local indigenous peoples and carried out at least two massacres, including the murder of several hundred Wintu people in early April. Now known as the Sacramento River Massacre, the scene was described by member of the expedition as "a scene of slaughter which is unequalled in the West."

Aware that skirmishes had broken out along the Rio Grande in April, and that Mexican forces were preparing to defend California, Frémont decided to return to Mexican territory in mid-May. On May 13, with Mexico enraged by the American annexation of Texas, the United States declared war on its neighbor to the South. It remains unclear when Frémont learned that war had formally broken out, but his instincts proved correct and allowed him to take some of the first actions of the Mexican-American War.
READ MORE: California's Little-Known Genocide
The Bear Flaggers Strike

Stock Montage/Getty Images

Frémont re-entered California in late May and met with a group of American settlers in the Sonoma Valley on June 8. Having refused a Mexican order to leave, the settlers were primed to launch the "spontaneous" revolt Frémont hoped to incite. On June 10, settlers and members of Frémont's expedition attacked a Mexican lieutenant and made off with his herd of horses. The fighting had begun.

Three days later, a party set out for Sonoma. Riding into the city at dawn, they arrived at the Casa Grande, where Col. Vallejo invited them in to discuss his surrender. Californios had divided opinions about American annexation-many were fiercely resistant-but some felt American rule was preferable to the threat of Russian invasion. Also, a growing number of Californios, Vallejo included, had come to realize that Mexico was simply not willing to put up a fight over Alta California.

After accepting Vallejo's official surrender, the Americans elected William B. Ide as their leader, declared the foundation of a new republic and hoisted a hastily assembled flag featuring a California grizzly bear over the Sonoma barracks. Though technically named the California Republic, the new nation came to be known as the Bear Flag Republic, and its founders were colloquially known as Bear Flaggers, Bears or Osos ("bears" in Spanish).
READ MORE: 9 Things You May Not Know About California
25 Days of Independence

Photo12/Universal Images Group/Getty Images

For the rest of June, the Bears and Frémont's men engaged in skirmishes with Mexican forces, seized key points around what is now San Francisco, and rallied more white settlers to their cause.

At the beginning of July, Commodore John Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy's Pacific fleet, arrived at Monterey Bay. Like Frémont, he had been ordered to attack as soon as war was declared, but acted upon instinct instead of waiting to hear of an official declaration. The navy seized Monterey on July 7, declaring California a part of the United States. Two days later, the Bear Flag Revolt officially ended as California was absorbed into the union. The Californios formally ceded Alta California in 1847 with the Treaty of Cahuenga. California officially became the 31st state on September 9, 1850.

The American takeover of California replaced the complex racial hierarchies of Mexico with a new hierarchy dominated by white Americans. "In both [California and Texas], you have a new racial system," Heidenreich says. "People who thought of themselves as Español, or white, are now, many of them, considered Brown-or 'greasers,' a term used increasingly in the California papers."

Suddenly, Californios became second-class citizens in their own country, while the new government tacitly encouraged its white citizens to purge the area of indigenous peoples.

In 1848, just before California's formal annexation, gold was discovered in Coloma, near Sacramento. The ensuing gold rush transformed California from a region sparsely populated with Hispanics and Native Americans to a bustling economic center controlled by white Americans-and with many more on the way.

A modified version of the original bear flag became California's state flag in 1911, roughly a decade before the California grizzly bear went extinct. Though it lasted a total of just 25 days, the California Republic's name and symbols now adorn perhaps the most distinctive state flag in the United States.
READ MORE: The U.S. States: 50 States and State Capitals

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When California (Briefly) Became Its Own Nation

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At dawn on June 14, 1846, a ragtag group of about 30 gun-toting Americans entered Sonoma, a small town in the Mexican territory of Alta California. Prepared to take the town by force, they instead sat for brandy with Col. Mariano Vallejo of the Mexican army and accepted his surrender.

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MELINA             Bonjour! Je suis Taylor et j'habite à Danville en Californie. Danville est une ville qui a été fondée il y a plus de 130 ans, et a été colonisée par des gens de la ruée vers l’or. Ces gens sont devenus fermiers et la ville de Danville est née. La ville était très petite depuis de nombreuses années, mais récemment elle a plus de 40,000 habitants. Danville est une belle ville et si vous venez en Californie, s’il vous plaît visitez! 

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MELINA             Bonjour! Je suis Taylor et j'habite à Danville en Californie. Danville est une ville qui a été fondée il y a plus de 130 ans, et a été colonisée par des gens de la ruée vers l’or. Ces gens sont devenus fermiers et la ville de Danville est née. La ville était très petite depuis de nombreuses années, mais récemment elle a plus de 40,000 habitants. Danville est une belle ville et si vous venez en Californie, s’il vous plaît visitez! 

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A TOWN IS BORN

For over 130 years, Danville's history has been one of change and growth. Often referred to as the "Heart of the San Ramon Valley," Danville was first populated by Indians who lived next to the creeks and camped on Mount Diablo in the summer. Later it was part of Mission San Jose's grazing land and a Mexican land grant called Rancho San Ramon .

California Gold Rush

Danville was settled and named by Americans drawn here by the California Gold rush. Daniel and Andrew Inman bought 400 acres of Old Town Danville with their mining earnings in 1854, after living here for a summer two years earlier. By 1858, the community boasted a blacksmith, a hotel, a wheelwright and a general store and the townsfolk wanted a post office.

Naming the Community

But what should the community be called? In an article years later, Dan Inman said "quite a number (of names) were suggested." He and Andrew rejected "Inmanville," finally settling on Danville. According to the modest Dan, the name was chosen as much or more out of respect for Andrew's mother-in-law who was born and raised near Danville, Kentucky. Of course it also recognized the energetic young Dan who was later an Alameda County Assemblyman and Supervisor.

The Danville Post Office

The Danville Post Office opened in 1860 with hotel owner Henry W Harris as the first postmaster. Harris reported in 1862 that there were 20 people living in the town proper, with 200 ballots cast in the last general election. Hearing stories of the prosperity to be found in California, people from the mid-west and east began to settle in Danville and the surrounding valleys. Most new residents had been farmers and observed that the valley land was fertile and the weather benign, altogether an ideal place to settle. The 1869 census counted nearly 1800 people in the combined Danville and Lafayette areas. They squatted or purchased land from the Mexican and other owners and established ranches, farms and businesses.

Early Industry

Settlers raised cattle and sheep and grew wheat, barley and onions. Later the farms produced hay, a wide variety of fruit crops (apples, plums, pears), walnuts and almonds. In the 1800s horses and wagons hauled these products north to the docks at Pacheco and Martinez, following Road No. 2, which wound by San Ramon Creek and was almost impassable in the rainy season.

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For over 130 years, Danville's history has been one of change and growth. Often referred to as the "Heart of the San Ramon Valley," Danville was first populated by Indians who lived next to the creeks and camped on Mount Diablo in the summer.

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LEA        Voici un article sur l'histoire du Sequoia National Park en Californie. La terre et les séquoias sont magnifiques. J'ai visité le parc national quand j'étais plus jeune et j'ai adoré. Les arbres sont énormes!

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LEA        Voici un article sur l'histoire du Sequoia National Park en Californie. La terre et les séquoias sont magnifiques. J'ai visité le parc national quand j'étais plus jeune et j'ai adoré. Les arbres sont énormes!

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-Delaney Rich

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History & Culture - Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Parks (U.S. National Park Service)

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Huge mountains, rugged foothills, deep canyons, vast caverns, and the world’s largest trees exemplify the diversity of landscapes, life, and beauty here. Explore these pages to plan your visit or to learn about the plants and animals here and the threats they face. Ancient giant sequoias may seem invincible, but they, too are vulnerable.

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En 1848, l’or a été découvert dans les montagnes de Californie. Au cours des deux années suivantes, plus de 25 000 personnes sont venues trouver de l’or. Cette quantité massive de personnes différentes a rendu la Californie plus diversifiée.
The California Gold Rush (thoughtco.com)

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"I reached my hand down and picked it up; it made my heart thump, for I was certain it was gold." - James Marshall, 1848

At a time when restless Americans were already itching to go west, the discovery of gold in California in 1848 was like gasoline on a fire. Within a year of its discovery, emigrants using the California Trail were flooding into the Sierra Nevada Range by the thousands.

John Sutter was a Swiss immigrant who came to California in 1839 with a dream of building an agricultural empire. When he needed lumber in early 1848, he assigned the task to one of his men, James Marshall. Marshall decided to build a sawmill on the South Fork of the American river, about 40 miles from Sutter's home.

Marshall discovered a gold nugget on January 24, 1848, while at the sawmill. He and his men found more gold nearby. Both Marshall and Sutter tried to keep things quiet, but soon word leaked out. Gold fever quickly became an epidemic.

Many who already had arrived in California or Oregon immediately gravitated to the western Sierras. But it wasn't until December of 1848 that President James Polk confirmed the findings to Congress, which meant it was too late to start a trip for easterners. But by the spring of 1849, the largest migration (25,000 that year alone) in American history was already taking place.

Better-than-average conditions on the plains and in the desert that spring and summer helped soften the blow of the wave of emigrants. But conditions were harsh at best and many livestock were lost along the way. Grass and clean water became scarcer as the trip wore on, and diseases like cholera took their toll.

Indians in particular suffered from the "Forty-Niners" who streamed across the land. For centuries, Indians had lived in the West without outside competition for resources. But now the pioneers' lust for wealth was threatening to decimate the Indians through the consumption of foods, lands, water and space.

Many new routes were opened into California as a result of the Gold Rush. With an estimated 140,000 emigrants arriving in California via the California Trail between 1849 and 1854, routes were continually modified, tested or even abandoned.

Central cutoffs and alternate routes include:

1844 Sublette Cutoff

1846 Hastings Cutoff
1848 Salt Lake Cutoff
1849 Hudspeth Cutoff
1850 Childs Cutoff
1850 Kinney Cutoff
1850 Seminoe Cutoff
1850 Slate Creek Cutoff
1852 Baker-Davis Road
1856 Dempsey-Hockadsy Cutoff
1858 Lander Road
1859 Julesburg Cutoff

1859 Western routes include:

1844 Truckee Route

1846 Applegate Trail
1848 Carson Route
1848 Lassen Route
1851 Beckwourth Trail
1852 Nobles Road
1852 Sonora Road

More California Trail History

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The California Gold Rush - California National Historic Trail (U.S. National Park Service)

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"I reached my hand down and picked it up; it made my heart thump, for I was certain it was gold." - James Marshall, 1848 At a time when restless Americans were already itching to go west, the discovery of gold in California in 1848 was like gasoline on a fire.

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YUSUF     voici un article qui explique l'histoire intéressante des missions californiennes.

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YUSUF     voici un article qui explique l'histoire intéressante des missions californiennes.

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The California missions began in the late 18th century as an effort to convert Native Americans to Catholicism and expand European territory. There were 21 missions in all, lasting from 1769 until about 1833.

The California missions began in the late 18th century as an effort to convert Native Americans to Catholicism and expand European territory. Spain was responsible for the missions, which scholars believe were attempts to colonize the Pacific coast of North America. There were 21 missions in all, lasting from 1769 until about 1833. The mission system brought many new cultural and religious ideas to California, though critics charge the systematic oppression of Native Americans amounted to slavery.

Junipero Serra

Although Spain claimed California as its territory in 1542, Spaniards didn't try to occupy the land until the late 1700s.

Around the time of the first missions, Spain had a considerable presence in Mexico. In 1769, the Spanish king ordered land and sea expeditions to depart from Mexico to California. He also sent military troops and Franciscan missionaries to the new land.

Franciscan priest Father Junipero Serra founded the first mission in 1769. This was known as Mission San Diego de Alcalá and was located in present-day San Diego.
San Diego Mission

The native Indians who occupied the region were initially resistant to the mission. In 1775, hundreds of local Tipai-Ipai Indians attacked and burned the San Diego Mission, killing three men, including Father Luis Jayme. The missionaries rebuilt the mission as an army fort.

Junipero Serra went on to establish eight more missions before his death in 1784.

Goals of the Missions

The main goal of the California missions was to convert Native Americans into devoted Christians and Spanish citizens.

Spain used mission work to influence the natives with cultural and religious instruction.

Another motivation for the missions was to ensure that rival countries, such as Russia and Great Britain, didn't try to occupy the California region first.

California Missions List

The 21 California missions, listed in the order they were founded, are:

1. (1769) Mission San Diego de Alcalá
2. (1770) Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo
3. (1771) Mission San Antonio de Padua
4. (1771) Mission San Gabriel
5. (1772) Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa
6. (1776) Mission San Francisco de Asís (Mission Dolores)
7. (1776) Mission San Juan Capistrano
8. (1777) Mission Santa Clara de Asís
9. (1782) Mission San Buenaventura
10. (1786) Mission Santa Barbara
11. (1787) Mission La Purísima Concepción
12. (1791) Mission Santa Cruz
13. (1791) Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad
14. (1797) Mission San José
15. (1797) Mission San Juan Bautista
16. (1797) Mission San Miguel Arcángel
17. (1797) Mission San Fernando Rey de España
18. (1798) Mission San Luis Rey de Francia
19. (1804) Mission Santa Inés
20. (1817) Mission San Rafael Arcángel
21. (1823) Mission San Francisco Solano

Life in the Mission

The missions created new communities where the Native Americans received religious education and instruction. The Spanish established pueblos (towns) and presidios (forts) for protection.

The natives lived in the missions until their religious training was complete. Then, they would move to homes outside of the missions.

Once the natives converted to Christianity, the missionaries would move on to new locations, and the existing missions served as churches.

The native converts were known as "neophytes." After they were baptized, they were expected to perform labor. Typically, men worked in the fields, and women cooked. Both learned Spanish and attended church.

Farming was an especially important job in the mission community. Wheat, barley and maize were some of the staple crops that were grown. The Spanish missionaries also brought fruits from Europe, such as apples, peaches and pears.

Other jobs included carpentry, building, weaving and leather-working.

Padres, or religious leaders, oversaw the mission. They were assigned six soldiers to protect them and the mission properties.

Mission Architecture

The mission period greatly influenced architecture in California. Many of the buildings, houses and churches still exist today.

Native Americans used all-natural materials, such as stone, timber, mud brick, adobe and tile to build mission structures. Typically, buildings had large courtyards with tall adobe walls. Missions were built around patios that contained fountains and a garden.

The buildings of this period are sometimes labeled as "mission style" to describe the signature design and craftsmanship.

End of the Mission System

By 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain. For several years, there was debate about what to do with the mission system.

In 1833, the Mexican government passed a law that secularized and ended missions. California was part of Mexico during this time.

Some of the mission land and buildings were turned over to the Mexican government. While much of the property was intended to be given back to the natives, private owners ended up with the majority of land.

Later, missions were used as U.S. military bases in the 1846 war with Mexico.

After gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in 1848, Americans began to migrate by the masses to California. In 1850, California officially became a state.

Abraham Lincoln granted the Catholic Church ownership of some of the California missions in 1865.

Today, many of the missions are tourist attractions with their own museums.

Impact of the Missions

The California missions, which stretched from San Diego to Sonoma, had a significant impact on the Native Californians.

The mission era influenced culture, religion, architecture, art, language and economy in the region.

But, the missions also impacted California Indian cultures in negative ways. Europeans forced the natives to change their civilization to match the modern world. In the process, local traditions, cultures and customs were lost.

Some critics have charged that the Spanish mission system forced Native Americans into slavery and prostitution, comparing the missions to "concentration camps."

Additionally, Spanish missionaries brought diseases with them that killed untold thousands of natives.

Prior to the California missions, there were about 300,000 Native Californians. By 1834, scholars believe there were only about 20,000 remaining.

Sources

A History of California's Missions, Los Angeles Times.
The California Missions, California Missions Foundation.
California Missions: A Journey Along the El Camino Real, California Museum.
Spanish Exploration, The Spanish Missions of California.
California Missions History - 5 Facts You Need to Understand, Old Mission San Luis Rey.
Map of the California Missions, California Missions Resource Center.
Easter Sunday protest over Serra planned at Carmel Mission. Monterey Herald.

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The California missions began in the late 18th century as an effort to convert Native Americans to Catholicism and expand European territory. There were 21 missions in all, lasting from 1769 until about 1833. The California missions began in the late 18th century as an effort to convert Native Americans to Catholicism and expand European territory.

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Voici un article de la prison, Alcatraz, sur l'Île au milieu de la baie de San Francisco. Il y avait de nombreux criminels dangereux quand la prison était ouverte, comme Al Capone.

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Contents

1. Early Years as a Military Prison

2. Doing Time as a Federal Prison: 1934-63

3. Famous Inmates

4. Escape Attempts from Alcatraz

5. The Prison Closes Its Doors: 1963

The federal prison on Alcatraz Island in the chilly waters of California's San Francisco Bay housed some of America's most difficult and dangerous felons during its years of operation from 1934 to 1963. Among those who served time at the maximum-security facility were the notorious gangster Al "Scarface" Capone (1899-1947) and murderer Robert "Birdman of Alcatraz" Stroud (1890-1963). No inmate ever successfully escaped The Rock, as the prison was nicknamed, although more than a dozen known attempts were made over the years. After the prison was shut down due to high operating costs, the island was occupied for almost two years, starting in 1969, by a group of Native-American activists. Today, historic Alcatraz Island, which was also the site of a U.S. military prison from the late 1850s to 1933, is a popular tourist destination.

Early Years as a Military Prison

In 1775, Spanish explorer Juan Manuel de Ayala (1745-97) mapped and named rugged Alcatraz Island, christening it La Isla de los Alcatraces, or Island of the Pelicans, due to its large population of sea birds. Seventy-five years later, in 1850, President Millard Fillmore (1800-74) signed an order reserving the island for military use. During the 1850s, a fortress was constructed on Alcatraz and some 100 cannons were installed around the island to protect San Francisco Bay. Also during this time, Alcatraz became home to the West Coast's first operational lighthouse.

Did you know? Each year, hundreds of athletes participate in the Escape from Alcatraz Triathlon, proving that (with training and proper gear) it is possible to swim from Alcatraz and survive. First held in 1980, the event includes a 1.5-mile swim to San Francisco, plus an 18-mile bike ride and 8-mile run.

By the late 1850s, the U.S. Army had begun holding military prisoners at Alcatraz. Isolated from the mainland by the cold, strong waters of San Francisco Bay, the island was deemed an ideal location for a prison. It was assumed no Alcatraz inmate could attempt to escape by swimming and survive.

During its years as a military prison, the inmates at Alcatraz included Confederate sympathizers and citizens accused of treason during the American Civil War (1861-65). Alcatraz also housed a number of "rebellious" American Indians, including 19 Hopis from the Arizona Territory who were sent to the prison in 1895 following land disagreements with the federal government. The inmate population at Alcatraz continued to rise during the Spanish-American War (1898).

During the early 20th century, inmate labor fueled the construction of a new cellhouse (the 600-cell structure still stands today) on Alcatraz, along with a hospital, mess hall and other prison buildings. According to the National Park Service, when this new complex was finished in 1912 it was the world's largest reinforced concrete building.

Doing Time as a Federal Prison: 1934-63

In 1933, the Army relinquished Alcatraz to the U.S. Justice Department, which wanted a federal prison that could house a criminal population too difficult or dangerous to be handled by other U.S. penitentiaries. Following construction to make the existing complex at Alcatraz more secure, the maximum-security facility officially opened on July 1, 1934. The first warden, James A. Johnston (1874-1954), hired approximately one guard for every three prisoners. Each prisoner had his own cell.

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) viewed Alcatraz as "the prison system's prison," a place where the most disruptive inmates could be sent to live under sparse conditions with few privileges in order to learn how to follow rules (at which point, they could be transferred to other federal prisons to complete their sentences). According to the BOP, Alcatraz typically held some 260 to 275 prisoners, which represented less than 1 percent of the entire federal inmate population.

Famous Inmates

Among those who did time at The Rock was the notorious Prohibition-era gangster Al "Scarface" Capone, who spent four-and-a-half years there during the 1930s. His arrival on the island generated headlines across America. Capone was sent to Alcatraz because his incarceration in Atlanta, Georgia, had allowed him to remain in contact with the outside world and continue to run his criminal operation in Chicago. He was also known to corrupt prison officers. All of that ended when he was sent to Alcatraz. According to the biography "Capone" by John Kobler, Capone once told the warden, "It looks like Alcatraz has got me licked."

Other famous (or infamous) Alcatraz inmates included George "Machine Gun" Kelly (1895-1954), who spent 17 years there on a kidnapping conviction. Gangster Alvin "Creepy Karpis" Karpowicz (1907-79), listed as "Public Enemy No. 1″ by the FBI in the 1930s, spent over 25 years behind bars at Alcatraz, reportedly more time than any other prisoner. Murderer Robert Stroud, also known as the "Birdman of Alcatraz," was transferred there after three decades at the federal penitentiary in Leavenworth, Kansas. Stroud arrived on the island in 1942 and served 17 years there; however, despite his nickname, he was not permitted to keep birds at Alcatraz as he had while locked up at Leavenworth.

Escape Attempts from Alcatraz

Over the years, there were 14 known attempts to escape from Alcatraz, involving 36 inmates. The Federal Bureau of Prisons reports that of these would-be escapees, 23 were captured, six were shot and killed during their attempted getaways, two drowned and five went missing and were presumed drowned.

The most famous escape attempt resulted in a battle, from May 2 to May 4, 1946, in which six prisoners overpowered cellhouse officers and were able to gain access to weapons, but not the keys needed to leave the prison. In the ensuing battle, the prisoners killed two correctional officers and injured 18 others. The U.S. Marines were called in, and the battle ended with the deaths of three of the rogue inmates and the trial of the three others, two of whom received the death penalty for their actions.

The Prison Closes Its Doors: 1963

The federal penitentiary at Alcatraz was shut down in 1963 because its operating expenses were much higher than those of other federal facilities at the time. (The prison's island location meant all food and supplies had to be shipped in, at great expense.) Furthermore, the isolated island buildings were beginning to crumble due to exposure to the salty sea air. During nearly three decades of operation, Alcatraz housed a total of 1,576 men.

In 1969, a group of Native Americans led by Mohawk activist Richard Oakes (1942-72) arrived on Alcatraz Island and claimed the land on behalf of "Indians of All Tribes." The activists hoped to establish a university and a museum on the island. Oakes left Alcatraz following the death there of his stepdaughter in 1970, and the remaining occupiers, whose ranks had become increasingly contentious and divided, were removed by order of President Richard M. Nixon (1913-94) in 1971. The island became part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in 1972 and was opened to the public a year later. Today, some 1 million tourists visit Alcatraz each year.

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Early Years as a Military Prison Doing Time as a Federal Prison: 1934-63 Famous Inmates Escape Attempts from Alcatraz The Prison Closes Its Doors: 1963 The federal prison on Alcatraz Island in the chilly waters of California's San Francisco Bay housed some of America's most difficult and dangerous felons during its years of operation from 1934 to 1963.

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Voici un article que j'ai trouvé sur la Gold Fever en Californie. J'ai trouvé cette article très intéressant.

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By Stuart Thornton

Friday, January 21, 2011

On January 24, 1848, a thin piece of metal the size and thickness of a corn flake altered the history of California and, by extension, the history of the United States.

That day, in a remote region of the Sierra Nevada foothills, a man named James Marshall was overseeing the construction of a sawmill on the American River. He was building the mill for his boss, John Sutter. As he looked in the millrace, a fast moving stream that powered the mill wheel, Marshall spotted a glint of color. After picking up the flake and applying rudimentary tests to the metal, Marshall came to a conclusion: he had discovered gold!

San Francisco Empties Out

Four days later, Marshall informed Sutter, who urged him to keep the discovery secret so that work on the sawmill would be completed. Eventually, word of the gold spread across the region like a Western wildfire, igniting the curiosities of the citizens of the nearby city of San Francisco.

By the spring of 1848, people poured out of San Francisco hoping to strike it rich. It is said that San Francisco emptied after businessman Sam Brannan walked down the city's Montgomery Street with a bottle containing gold flakes, grains, and dust, shouting: "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!"

An historian and author of 1997's Days of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the American Nation, Malcolm J. Rohrbough says the immediate effects of the discovery of gold on San Francisco were nothing short of drastic.

"The whole town and the rancheros around the town essentially were deserted," he says. "Everyone went to the gold fields."

The summer after Marshall's unexpected find, the American military governor of California, Colonel Richard Barnes Mason, decided to travel to the area to draft a report for the U.S. government in Washington D.C. On his journey to the region, he described finding parts of California towns that were suddenly abandoned by people fleeing to the Sierra Nevada foothills.

Mason wrote in the letter that he saw "whole route mills were lying idle, fields of wheat were open to cattle and horses, houses vacant and farms going to waste."

But when Mason arrived at the gold fields, he discovered swarms of people sifting through the streams and dirt in a mad search for gold. "At the time of my visit, but little more than three months after its first discovery, it was estimated that upwards of 4,000 people were employ ed [in the gold fields]," Mason wrote in the letter.

Near the end of the report, Mason described how abundant the precious metal was and how it could be easily extracted from the land. "I have no hesitation now in saying, that there is more gold in the country drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers than will pay the cost of the present war with Mexico a hundred times over," he wrote. "No capital is required to obtain this gold, as the laboring man wants nothing but his pick and shovel and tin pan, with which to dig and wash gravel, and many frequently pick gold out of the crevices of rocks with their knives, in pieces of one to six ounces."

From Mexico to the United States

The years before Marshall's big discovery, California had been a northern frontier of Mexico. Less than two weeks after gold was found, California was given to the United States by Mexico through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War.

"Politically, California in many respects was independent or quasi-independent," Rohrbough says of pre-Gold Rush California. "Economically, it was very much connected to the hides [ pelts or animal skins] and tallow [the fatty tissue of animals] trade."

California's population and diversity would change drastically once Mason's letter arrived on the East Coast. The initial reports of gold were greeted with skepticism, according to Rohrbough. However, everything changed when President James K. Polk gave his State of the Union address to Congress on December 5, 1848. Of the gold craze in California, the President stated: "the explorations already made warrant the belief that the supply is very large and that gold is found at various places in an extensive district of country."

Following the President's confirmation of the rumor, a gold mania swept across the United States.

In mid to late December, ships filled with gold-seekers left the East Coast for California. During the spring of 1849, scores of people embarked on a journey across the continent hoping to find gold. In reference to the year of their departure, these early immigrants to California were called forty-niners.

Rohrbough cites the number of miners in California in 1848 compared to populations over the following years as proof of the amazing movement of gold-seekers to the newly acquired American territory. He says that in 1848 there were 5,000 miners in the region. There were more than 50,000 by the end of 1849. The number rose to 100,000 in 1850 before peaking at 125,000 in 1851.

While gold miners came from as far away as Europe and China, the California Gold Rush drew many young men from their homes in the American Midwest and East Coast. That flood of Americans radically changed California during the Gold Rush years.

"California was Americanized, almost literally, overnight," Rohrbough says, "and became a place that was dominated by Americans as opposed to the Mexicans who were so prominent at the time of the gold discoveries."

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By Stuart Thornton Friday, January 21, 2011 On January 24, 1848, a thin piece of metal the size and thickness of a corn flake altered the history of California and, by extension, the history of the United States.

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voici un article sur l'émission de till. Je pense qu'émettre du till était vraiment important pour l'histoire des Noirs en Amérique et c'est aussi une bonne information à apprendre sur certains des traitements des Noirs en Amérique.

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Emmett Till: Body, Death, Funeral & Face | HISTORY

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Emmett Till, a Black teenager, was brutally murdered in 1955 Mississippi. His death and funeral were catalysts for the civil rights and anti-lynching movements.

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SOLEDAD Voici un article qui explique pourquoi la Californie est si diversifiée.

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SOLEDAD Voici un article qui explique pourquoi la Californie est si diversifiée.

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It might not come as a surprise given last week's " sanctuary state " act, but California has been officially ranked as the most diverse state in America.

In an analysis released Tuesday, WalletHub compared the 50 states in terms of socio-economic diversity, cultural diversity, economic diversity, household diversity and religious diversity.

California ranked first overall. Just behind the Golden State in the diversity ranking were Texas, Hawaii, New Jersey and New York.

West Virginia was ranked the least diverse state.

WalletHub also ranked cities, listing Los Angeles eighth, Long Beach tenth, San Jose 16th and San Diego 20th in diversity.

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"U.S. diversity spans more than just racial lines," said WalletHub. "In many states, the population reflects an eclectic mix of not just races but also cultures, religions, economic statuses, educational backgrounds and other characteristics, as people of various demographic profiles are forced to come into contact with one another."

Since it's discovery by Europeans, California has witnessed successive waves of immigration: Spanish missionaries, American settlers, Chinese railroad workers, Italian farmers, European intellectuals, Mexican laborers and Central American refugees.

"Our history tells of many different peoples coming together from every walk of life to form what is today a complex tapestry of backgrounds," said WalletHub in its report.

WalletHub is a Washington-based website that provides financial information and credit tools for consumers.

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California Ranked as America's Most Diverse State - Times of San Diego

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It might not come as a surprise given last week's " sanctuary state " act, but California has been officially ranked as the most diverse state in America. In an analysis released Tuesday, WalletHub compared the 50 states in terms of socio-economic diversity, cultural diversity, economic diversity, household diversity and religious diversity.

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GABRIELLE  Voici un article sur l'histoire des immigrés italiens en Californie. Mon arrière-grand-père est venu à Californie de Italie quand il a seulement 12 ans !

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GABRIELLE  Voici un article sur l'histoire des immigrés italiens en Californie. Mon arrière-grand-père est venu à Californie de Italie quand il a seulement 12 ans !

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- Cate Peters

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Italians were some of the first European explorers and settlers of California. Religious duties and the search for new fishing grounds were initial reasons for Italians to explore what later became the thirty-first state, but their reasons for staying expanded after arriving. Though we often associate Italians in California with San Francisco, the initial Italian settlers established themselves in such diverse communities as Monterey, Stockton, and San Diego during the years of Spanish Rule.

While the majority of Italians settled in the urban centers of the east, many, especially northern Italians came out west. As late as 1890, there were more Italian immigrants on the Pacific coast than in New England. Their reasons for leaving and for choosing California varied. Overpopulation and the French capture of the wine industry in the 1880s made leaving attractive to Ligurians. The fact that California's small immigrant community was 80% northern made it more attractive to these people.

Some children of the first wave of immigrants came of age in the 1900s to the 1930s, and these achieved greater success than their parents in law, politics, business, and agriculture, especially wine. Once again, the relative lack or prejudice in California, or rather the vicious prejudice against other groups allowed Italian families to quickly integrate themselves into California's economy and politics.

The interwar years between 1919 and 1941 were not the best for Italian-Americans in general. The Sacco and Vanzetti trials brought unwanted suspicion of anarchism to those of Italian descent, and the notoriety of mobsters such as Al Capone was embellished in the fledgling film industry. Most distressing to Italian immigrants was the internment of non-citizens in the early part of World War II. While not as extreme or as long as the Japanese-American internment, this came as a shock to the Italian-American population of California, which had established itself in the state economically and politically, and had experienced a relatively small amount of prejudice in the past.

After World War II, Italian-Americans began to move out of the Little Italy sections of Fisherman's Wharf, North Beach, and Telegraph Hill. This exodus became even larger after the Korean War. This was mainly due to the growth of suburbanization in the San Francisco Bay area in general, as new families sought independent housing of their own. Today, the areas associated with Little Italy, especially North Beach, retain reminders of its ethnic roots. At the same time, the neighborhoods have become diversified, as the need to maintain an exclusive community dissipated.

This website portrays the place of Italian Americans in the history and culture of California. As you will see, their influence has been significant, sustaining, and beneficial. È la gaia pioggerella a far crescer l'erba bella!

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Italians were some of the first European explorers and settlers of California. Religious duties and the search for new fishing grounds were initial reasons for Italians to explore what later became the thirty-first state, but their reasons for staying expanded after arriving.

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LEA San Francisco est une ville très avancée et accepte de tout.

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LEA San Francisco est une ville très avancée et accepte de tout.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_culture_in_San_Francisco

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Voici un article sur Death Valley. Death Valley est un parc National en Californie. Il est le désert le plus chaud du monde.

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Death Valley: The History of the Hottest Place on Earth

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Death Valley has a rich and fascinating history of plant, animal and human life, including many ill-fated pursuits of wealth and a better way of life.

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YUSUF l'histoire de l'avocat en Californie

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YUSUF l'histoire de l'avocat en Californie

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Californie s'appelle <<l'état d'avocat>>, et voici un peu d'histoire de l'avocat!

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The California Avocado is a native American plant with a long, distinguished history. Today, the most popular variety is the Hass. The mother tree of all Hass Avocados was born in a backyard in La Habra Heights, California.

Avocado History

The avocado (Persea americana) originated in south-central Mexico, sometime between 7,000 and 5,000 B.C. But it was several millennia before this wild variety was cultivated. Archaeologists in Peru have found domesticated avocado seeds buried with Incan mummies dating back to 750 B.C. and there is evidence that avocados were cultivated in Mexico as early as 500 B.C.

From Aguacate to Avocado

Spanish conquistadores loved the fruit but couldn't pronounce it and changed the Aztec word to a more manageable aguacate, which eventually became avocado in English. The first English-language mention of avocado was by Sir Henry Sloane in 1696.

California's Cash Crop

Fast forward to 1871, when Judge R.B. Ord of Santa Barbara successfully introduced avocados to the U.S. with trees from Mexico. By the early 1900s, growers were seeing the avocado's commercial potential and ever since growers, enthusiasts and researchers have been hunting for improved varieties. A search through the industry's foremost annals, in particular the California Avocado Society Yearbook, reveals that many new selections of avocado were made in the industry's infancy and over subsequent years but few had commercial significance. By the 1950s around 25 different varieties of avocados were being commercially packed and shipped in California, with 'Fuerte' accounting for more than two-thirds of the production. Even though 'Hass' was discovered in the late 1920s and patented by Rudolph Hass in 1935, it was not until large-scale industry expansion occurred in the late 1970s that 'Hass' replaced 'Fuerte' as the leading California variety.

Today, California is the leading producer of domestic avocados and home to about 90 percent of the nation's crop. Most California Avocados are harvested on approximately 50,000 acres from Monterey through San Diego by over 3,000 growers. Ventura and San Diego top the list of avocado producing counties in California.

California Avocados are grown year-round. A single California Avocado tree can produce up to 200 pounds of fresh fruit each year, approximately 500 pieces, although most average around 60 pounds or 150 pieces of fruit.

THE HASS AVOCADO - A CALIFORNIA NATIVE

1926-2002

In 2002, the tree to which every Hass Avocado in the world can trace its lineage finally succumbed to root rot at the ripe old age of 76. Her offspring account for 95 percent of the avocados grown in California, and the fruit of her labor resulted in one of the state's most important industries. Yet, despite speculation to the contrary, nobody knows what variety of seed produced the original Hass Mother Tree.

The tree began life as lucky-find; a simple seed planted by A.R. Rideout of Whittier. Rideout, an innovator and pioneer in avocados, was always searching for new varieties and tended to plant whatever seeds he could find, often along streets or in neighbors' yards.

In the late 1920s, Mr. Rudolph Hass, a postman, purchased a seed from Rideout, and planted it in his new orchard. He planned to graft another variety on it, but when repeated grafts didn't take he planned to cut the tree down. Fortunately for avocado lovers everywhere, Hass's children talked him out of it. They preferred the taste of the tree's fruit to that of the Fuerte, the predominant variety and industry standard in those days.

Since the quality was high and the tree gave a good yield, Hass named the variety after himself and took out a patent in 1935. That same year, he signed an agreement with Harold Brokaw, a Whittier nurseryman, to grow and promote the Hass Avocados. They would split the gross income: 25 percent for Hass and 75 percent for Brokaw.

Brokaw began to propagate the rough, black Hass exclusively and promote it in favor of the standard varieties of the day. It made sense. The Hass was a far better bearer than the Fuerte and it matured at a different time of year. Because of the seasonal advantage, Brokaw was successful to the point of yearly sellouts of his nursery crops.

The patent expired in 1952, the same year Rudolph Hass died. But by then, the bumpy black avocado that bore his name was rapidly gaining in popularity on the smooth green Fuerte. Consumers preferred its richer, nuttier taste, while grocers favored it for its durability and longer shelf life. Today, the Hass accounts for about 80 percent of all avocados eaten worldwide and generates more than $1 billion a year in revenues in the United States alone.

The tree that launched an avocado revolution lived out her days in suburban La Habra Heights. Harold Brokaw's nephew Hank nursed her through more than a decade, trying to save her from root fungus. Hank lost the fight in 2002, and the tree's wood is currently in storage in a Ventura nursery awaiting the decision on a fitting commemoration of the original Hass Mother Tree.

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The History of the Avocados in California | California Avocados

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The California Avocado is a native American plant with a long, distinguished history. Today, the most popular variety is the Hass. The mother tree of all Hass Avocados was born in a backyard in La Habra Heights, California. The avocado (Persea americana) originated in south-central Mexico, sometime between 7,000 and 5,000 B.C.

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Voici un article sur la révolte du drapeau de l'ours. Beaucoup d'Américains savent que le Texas était brièvement un pays, mais peu maintenant que la Californie l'était aussi.

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Sutter's Mill

On January 24, 1848, James Wilson Marshall, a carpenter originally from New Jersey, found flakes of gold in the American River at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains near Coloma, California.

At the time, Marshall was working to build a water-powered sawmill owned by John Sutter, a German-born Swiss citizen and founder of a colony of Nueva Helvetia (New Switzerland, which would later become the city of Sacramento). As Marshall later recalled of his historic discovery: "It made my heart thump, for I was certain it was gold."

Did you know? Miners extracted more than 750,000 pounds of gold during the California Gold Rush.

Days after Marshall's discovery at Sutter's Mill, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, ending the Mexican-American War and leaving California in the hands of the United States-a remarkable twist of fate with important ramifications for an America eager for westward expansion.

At the time, the population of the territory consisted of 6,500 Californios (people of Spanish or Mexican descent); 700 foreigners (primarily Americans); and 150,000 Native Americans (barely half the number that had been there when Spanish settlers arrived in 1769).

Sutter, in fact, had enslaved hundreds of Native Americans and used them as a free source of labor and makeshift militia to defend his territory and expand his empire.

Gold Fever Strikes

Though Marshall and Sutter tried to keep news of the discovery under wraps, word got out, and by mid-March at least one newspaper was reporting that large quantities of gold were being turned up at Sutter's Mill. Though the initial reaction in San Francisco was disbelief, storekeeper Sam Brannan set off a frenzy when he paraded through town displaying a vial of gold obtained from Sutter's Creek.

By mid-June, shops and businesses stood empty, as some three-quarters of the male population of San Francisco had abandoned the city for the gold mines, and the number of miners in the area ballooned to some 4,000 by August.

As news reports-many wildly overblown-of the easy fortunes being made in California spread worldwide, some of the first migrants to arrive were those from lands accessible by boat, such as Oregon, the Sandwich Islands (now Hawaii), Mexico, Chile, Peru and China.

Polk Spreads Gold Fever

When the news reached the East Coast, press reports were initially skeptical. Gold fever kicked off nationwide in earnest, however, after December 1848, when President James K. Polk announced the positive results of a report made by Colonel Richard Mason, California's military governor, in his inaugural address.

As Polk wrote, "The accounts of abundance of gold are of such an extraordinary character as would scarcely command belief were they not corroborated by the authentic reports of officers in the public service."

The '49ers Come to California

Throughout 1849, people around the United States (mostly men) with gold fever borrowed money, mortgaged their property or spent their life savings to make the arduous journey to California. In pursuit of the kind of wealth they had never dreamed of, they left their families and hometowns. In turn, women left behind took on new responsibilities such as running farms or businesses and caring for their children alone.

Thousands of would-be gold miners, known as 49ers for the year they arrived, traveled overland across the mountains or by sea, sailing to Panama or even around Cape Horn, the southernmost point of South America.

By the end of the year, the non-native population of California was estimated at 100,000, (as compared with 20,000 at the end of 1848 and around 800 in March 1848). To accommodate the needs of the 49ers, gold mining towns had sprung up all over the region, complete with shops, saloons, brothels and other businesses seeking to make their own Gold Rush fortune.

The overcrowded chaos of the mining camps and towns grew ever more lawless, including rampant banditry, gambling, alcoholism, prostitution and violence. San Francisco, for its part, developed a bustling economy and became the central metropolis of the new frontier.

Gold Rush Politics

The Gold Rush undoubtedly sped up California's admission to the Union as the 31st state. In late 1849, California applied to enter the Union with a constitution that barred the Southern system of racial slavery, provoking a crisis in Congress between proponents of slavery and anti-slavery politicians.

According to the Compromise of 1850, proposed by Kentucky's Senator Henry Clay, California was allowed to enter as a free state, while the territories of Utah and New Mexico were left to decide the legal status of slavery for themselves.

California's Mines

After 1850, the surface gold in California largely disappeared, even as miners continued to arrive. Mining had always been difficult and dangerous labor, and striking it rich required good luck as much as skill and hard work. Moreover, the average daily take for an independent miner working with his pick and shovel had by then sharply decreased from what it had been in 1848.

As gold became more and more difficult to reach, the growing industrialization of mining drove more and more miners from independence into wage labor. The new technique of hydraulic mining, developed in 1853, brought enormous profits but destroyed much of the region's landscape.

Though gold mining continued throughout the 1850s, it had reached its peak by 1852, when some $81 million was pulled from the ground. After that year, the total take declined gradually, leveling off to around $45 million per year by 1857. Settlement in California continued, however, and by the end of the decade the state's population was 380,000.

Impact of the Gold Rush

New mining methods and the population boom in the wake of the California Gold Rush permanently altered the landscape of California. The technique of hydraulic mining brought enormous profits but destroyed much of the region's landscape.

Dams designed to supply water to mine sites in summer altered the course of rivers away from farmland, while sediment from mines clogged others. The logging industry in the area was born from the need to construct extensive canals and feed boilers at mines, further consuming natural resources.

In 1884, hydraulic mining was outlawed by court order, and soon agriculture became the dominant industry in California, and it remains so today. While a few mines and Gold Rush towns remain, much of the heritage of that era is preserved at places such as Bodie State Historic Park, a decaying ghost town, and at Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park, where Sutter's Mill once stood.

Sources

Environmental Impact of the Gold Rush. Calisphere.org.
After the Gold Rush. National Geographic.

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Gold Rush: California, Date & Sutter's Mill - HISTORY

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The Gold Rush in California started in 1848 after gold was found at Sutter's Mill. Within a year, hundreds of thousands of 49ers seeking fortune poured into the state.

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Voici un article sur l'importance historique d'Angel Island.

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The Angel Island immigration station was slated for demolition in the early 1980s, threatening to erase the history on its walls where hundreds of thousands of immigrants shared their stories. Since preserved and restored, the station and its inscriptions attracted Chinese Professor Charles Egan. He spent 15 years researching his new book "Voices of Angel Island: Inscriptions and Immigrant Poetry, 1910 - 1945" (Bloomsbury Press).

Angel Island, now a California state park, is the largest natural island in the San Francisco Bay. It was known as "The Ellis Island of the West" for the U.S. Immigration Station, but was more of a detention center for hundreds of thousands of immigrants - the majority from China. During World War II, Japanese and German prisoners of war were detained at the station.

Learn the truths behind the writings on the Angel Island walls, in a video interview with Egan. The video features archival photographs from the book, giving a glimpse into the lives of those who passed through Angel Island.

- Story and video by Ying Wencie Hoang

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Professor's New Book Explores 'Voices of Angel Island' through Historic Inscriptions

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The Angel Island immigration station was slated for demolition in the early 1980s, threatening to erase the history on its walls where hundreds of thousands of immigrants shared their stories. Since preserved and restored, the station and its inscriptions attracted Chinese Professor Charles Egan.

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voici un article sur la nourriture en Californie. La Californie a de nombreuses spécialités autres que In-N-Out!

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Golden State Grub: The Best Things to Eat in California

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Here are 30 of the Golden State's most-iconic foods - and the best places to try them.

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Les États-Unis sont connus pour leur diversité et leur immigration. Il y a de grands ports d'immigration sur chaque côte. Ellis Island est située à New York et était le principal port d'entrée pour les personnes venant d'Europe. En Californie, Angel Island était le point d'entrée des personnes venant d'Asie. Voici un article à ce sujet.

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Down in Flames

In the end, the complaints of the community and public officials regarding the safety of the Immigration Station proved true when the Administration Building burned to the ground in August 1940. All applicants were relocated to a mainland facility by November. In 1943, Congress finally repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act in consideration of its ally in the Pacific Theater, thus ending 61 years of official Exclusion. But there was a twist: while the repeal finally allowed Chinese to become naturalized citizens at last, it continued to limit immigration from China to a mere 105 people a year until 1965.*

Once closed due to fire, the Immigration Station site was used as a World War II prisoner of war processing center by the U.S. military. After the war, the site was abandoned and deteriorated. In 1963, Angel Island was established as a state park and the California Department of Parks and Recreation (State Parks) assumed stewardship of the immigration site.

*For more information about the Immigration and Nationality Act, read this article from the Migration Policy Institute.

Japanese Internment

The story of Angel Island as a center for processing U.S. immigrants did not end when the Administration Building burned down in an electrical fire in 1940. Almost 700 Japanese immigrants were sent from Hawaii to the mainland after Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941. Close to 600 of these people were first detained in the former immigration barracks on Angel Island, with the other 105 being sent to Sharp Park, near Pacifica. In addition, at least 98 mainland Japanese immigrants were arrested and brought to Angel Island. Most of them came from the Bay Area, Central and Salinas Valleys, with some from Colorado and Washington.

For some, Sharp Park was their first site for further screening - those deemed the most "dangerous" were sent to the U.S. Army camp on Angel Island (Fort McDowell) and then to Army and Department of Justice camps, while others were allowed to join their families at the War Relocation Authority camps like Poston, Arizona, Jerome, Arkansas, and Tule Lake, California. They were considered internees under the control of the U.S. government, both the U.S. Army and the Department of Justice.

Why were there wartime internees on Angel Island? . . .

Those arrested included community leaders, journalists, ministers, mostly of the Buddhist and Shinto denominations, people who worked with the Japanese consulates to help the adjustment of Japanese immigrants, shopkeepers, farmers, photographers and others who were members of kendo and other martial arts clubs or contributed to organizations seen by the U.S. government as "pro-Japan."

According to Tetsuden Kashima in Judgment without Trial, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and other government agencies had been monitoring their activities for many months before Pearl Harbor. In 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had requested the FBI to prepare, in conjunction with the army and navy intelligence units, a list of "potentially dangerous" persons to be detained in case of national conflict. This became known as the Custodial Detention List and was used to arrest specific people just hours after Pearl Harbor had been bombed.

Examining the files that are in the National Archives, some of the ministers were accused of taking orders from Japan (though they were never found to have taken any actions against the U.S. government), kendo club members were accused of associating with pro-Japan organizations because they might have been in a meeting with government officials, etc.

These immigrants were classified as "enemy aliens" although due to the Naturalization Act of 1790 which limited naturalization to "free white persons" (later modified after the Civil War to include those from Africa and in 1924 to include Native Americans), they were unable to become naturalized citizens even if they had wanted to. They were part of 17,477 people of Japanese descent who were interned or placed under the jurisdiction of the Justice Department for all or part of World War II. 13,798 Germans, Italians and a few other foreign nationals were also imprisoned as "enemy aliens." We have found the names of about 81 Germans and Italians who were interned at Angel Island for at least a short time during the war.

Many were arrested immediately after Pearl Harbor was attacked, even before a declaration of war by the U.S on December 8, 1941. As "enemy aliens," they did not have the rights of citizens. Citizenship rights proved insufficient when Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942 called for the incarceration of all people of Japanese descent on the West Coast, including both immigrants and citizens.

In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which acknowledged and apologized for the fundamental injustice of the evacuation, relocation and internment of Japanese American citizens and permanent resident aliens, provided for a public education fund to inform the public about the internment, and made restitution to those who were interned.

Where were the internees housed on Angel Island? . . .

These "enemy aliens" were housed, sometimes alongside prisoners of war, in the former Immigration Station barracks. It appears that most stayed for only a couple of weeks on Angel Island (also known as Fort McDowell), before being sent to more permanent camps. To the best of our knowledge, only men were detained on Angel Island. We have found internment records for a few women who were sent to Sharp Park near Pacifica and then on to internment camps run by the War Relocation Authority, but to the best of our knowledge, they were not sent to Angel Island.

What was life like for the Japanese detainees? . . .

There are few first-hand accounts of life on Angel Island for these Japanese immigrants, especially for those from the mainland. One is an account in Yasutaro Soga's Life Behind Barbed Wire, "Living quarters for all forty-nine of us were two rooms measuring about thirty-six feet by seventy feet on the second floor of an old building that had once been the Immigration Bureau office. Because there were about ninety internees from California already housed there, space was very tight. The beds were tri-level bunks with barely enough walking space in the aisles. There were about ten windows and one ventilator, but with 140 occupants, air circulation was poor. That night I had difficulty breathing and had a headache."

Jukichi Inouye vividly remembered that, "Angel Island was the first place [we went on the mainland]. We were there for about two weeks. We were stripped down naked for physical examinations. Then our clothes were returned to us. It was at that time my watch was missing. Boots were missing...they didn't even investigate that. We were classified as prisoners of war (Nakamura, chapter 9, page 9)."

Patsy Saiki in Ganbare! An Example of Japanese Spirit also describes Angel Island as a brief stop for women from Hawaiˋi on their way to join husbands who had been sent from Hawaiˋi to camps on the mainland. Saiki interviewed many former detainees from Hawaiˋi about their experiences to develop this optimistic composite report about the first ship to arrive at Angel Island on March 1, 1942, the U.S.S. Grant: "The men did not mind being photographed, fingerprinted and examined in the nude for 'infectious diseases.' This took from 9 p.m. to 6 a.m. and it was cold, a damp, clinging cold... Angel Island was a continuation of the fairyland that was called San Francisco. Birds welcomed them in the morning, and cherry and acacia trees bloomed in pink and white glory. Such beauty, after ten days in the confining walls of the ship's hold, made them drunk with joy."

Saiki described that the internees decided to do something about the food, volunteering to help in the mess hall and cooking rice the way Japanese liked it. "The men were allowed to walk the grounds around the dorm for half an hour three times a day. They exercised loudly and joyfully." Within five days of arrival, Group 1 was on its way to Camp McCoy in Wisconsin.

Read the profile of the Hoshida family to learn more about one family where the father, mother and children all journeyed through the island. Tamae Hoshida's ship, the S.S. Lurline, also included a number of other women traveling with children and we expect they spent a short time on Angel Island as well.

Submit Your Story
If you would like to add to our index and/or submit stories about those who were interned on the island, we would love to hear from you! Please contact us at info@aiisf.org or contribute to Immigrant Voices.

Resources . . .

Kashima, Tetsuden. Judgment without Trial. Seattle, University of Washington Press, 2003

Nakamura, Kelli. Suspected criminals, spies, and "human secret weapons": the evolution of Japanese-American representations in political and cultural discourse from Hawai'i to Japan, 1880--1950s. Doctoral thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2008. The quote above quotes Mr. Inouye's oral history interview with the University of Hawaii's Japanese Internment and Relocation: The Hawaii Experience study.

Proulx, Larisa. "Angel Island WW II Internment Camp and Prisoner of War Enclosure (1941-1946)," unpublished paper, 2013. Saiki, Patsy. Ganbare! An example of Japanese Spirit. Honolulu, Kisaku, Inc., 1982.

Soga, Yasutaro. Life Behind Barbed Wire. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2008.

In time, Angel Island began to recede into memory like fog in the bay. The traumatic experiences that Asian communities and other groups immigrating over the Pacific had faced there were rarely if ever mentioned to future generations. In 1970, shortly before the scheduled destruction of the barracks, a California State Park Ranger, Alexander Weiss, rediscovered the poetry on the walls of the abandoned barracks.

Ranger Weiss contacted Professor George Araki of San Francisco State College and photographer Mak Takahashi; together they photographed the walls of the barracks. Sparked by the discovery, Bay Area Asian Americans, spearheaded by Chris Chow, formed the Angel Island Immigration Station Historical Advisory Committee (AIISHAC). This organization studied how best to preserve the station for historical interpretation.

Restoring the Barracks

In July 1976, their hard work came to fruition as the state legislature appropriated $250,000 to restore and preserve the barracks as a state monument. In 1983, the barracks opened to the public and members of AIISHAC created the Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation (AIISF) to continue preservation and educational efforts regarding the site. AIISF is the non-profit partner of California State Parks in the work to restore the historic immigration station at Angel Island. AIISF's mission includes both the preservation of the site and education about the role of Pacific immigration in U.S. history.

In 1997, the Angel Island Immigration Station was declared a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service. In 1999, Save America's Treasures, a project of the National Trust and the White House Millennium Council, adopted Angel Island Immigration Station as one of its Official Projects, providing $500,000 for the preservation of the precious Chinese poems carved into the barracks walls. In March 2000, California voters passed a state bond measure that set aside $15 million specifically for restoration of the Angel Island Immigration Station.

In 2004, the Immigration Station was closed for a major retrofitting and renovation work. Over the next five years, many changes were made to the detention barracks: a new roof was installed, an elevator and wheelchair lift were added, new exhibits were created to highlight the significance of the Chinese poetry carved on the walls, and exhibits such as the interrogation table and other interpretive signs were placed on the grounds of the old administration building.

In February 2009, the immigration station reopened. In 2010 work began to stabilize the immigration station hospital, a two-story, and 10,000 square foot structure, directly across from the detention barracks. The hospital played an important role at the immigration station as the site of inspection, quarantine, and healing of immigrants.

The first phase of the hospital project is the stabilization of the structure, which has suffered significant water damage and structural weakening. By spring 2012, a new roof and gutters had been installed at the hospital, and the interior walls had been strengthened. The final phase of rehabilitation of the hospital began in fall 2013 and lasted until 2020. It reopened in 2022 as the Angel Island Immigration Museum (AIIM). AIIM will tell the stories of the struggles and successes faced today and in the past, and of the powerful legacy of America's immigrants- bringing voice to the West Coast immigration experience. Performance, cultural and community-building events, and symposia -- in addition to the exhibits -- will raise the profile of the West Coast immigration experience and ensure that it becomes a part of our nation's immigration history narrative.

The Angel Island Immigration Station continues to be a part of America's story. The Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation works to bring its history to light and to make its lessons part of our national dialogue about the complicated intersection of race, immigration and the American identity.

Click here to watch Road to Restoration from Felicia Lowe.

California State Parks and the Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation wish to thank the following contributors whose generosity made possible the completion of Phase One of the restoration of the U.S. Immigration Station, Angel Island

Major Funders
A Save America's Treasures federal grant, administered by the National Park Service, Department of the Interior; Save America's Treasures at the National Trust for Historic Preservation, including major support from: The Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund, Marin Community Foundation, The J. Paul Getty Trust's Preservation Planning Fund, and Ms. Yeni Wong; The National Trust for Historic Preservation through: American Express Partners in Preservation program, in partnership with the American Express Foundation, The Cynthia Woods Mitchell Fund for Historic Interiors, and The Johanna Favrot Fund for Historic Preservation; California Cultural and Historical Endowment; California Parks Bond Act of 2000, Gee Family Foundation, Wallace Alexander Gerbode Foundation, Evelyn and Walter Haas, Jr. Fund, Walter and Elise Haas Fund, and J.T. Tai & Company Foundation.

Additional Funders
Thomas & Eva Fong Family Foundation, Ken Lee Family Foundation, Lawrence Choy Lowe Memorial Fund, and Look Lowe Family Trust.

With special appreciation to the following
Angel Island Immigration Station Historical Advisory Committee, Architectural Resources Group, California State Parks Foundation, California State Senator John Burton, Donald Bybee, Chris Chow, Paul Chow, Phillip Choy, Ruth Coleman, Charles Egan, Erika Gee, Nicholas Franco, Forrest Gok, Elizabeth Goldstein, Dave Gould, Tod Hara, Daniel Iacofano, Kathy Lim Ko, Kimball Koch, Daphne Kwok, Him Mark Lai, Erika Lee, Newton Liu, Wan Liu, Felicia Lowe, David Matthews, Dale Minami, Ray Murray, Brian O'Neill, National Archives-San Francisco, Francelle Phillips, Daniel Quan Design, Danita Rodriguez, Douglas Tom, Katherine Toy, Kathy Owyang Turner, Xing Chu Wang, Connie Yung Yu, and Judy Yung.

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History of Angel Island Immigration Station | Angel Island Immigration Station - San Francisco

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In the end, the complaints of the community and public officials regarding the safety of the Immigration Station proved true when the Administration Building burned to the ground in August 1940. All applicants were relocated to a mainland facility by November.

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Voici un article sur l' histoire d’Angel Island. J’ai visité Angel Island et je pense qu' il a une histoire importante.

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The island is alive with history... three thousand years ago it served as a fishing and hunting site for Coastal Miwok Indians. It was later a haven for Spanish Explorer Juan Manuel de Ayala, a cattle ranch, and a U.S. Army post starting with the Civil War.

From 1910 to 1940, the island processed hundreds of thousands of immigrants, the majority from China. During World War II, Japanese, and German POWs were held on the island, which was also used as a jumping-off point for American soldiers returning from the Pacific. In the '50s and '60s, the island was home to a Nike missile site.
In 1946 the Quarantine Station located in Hospital Cove was declared surplus, and all functions were moved to San Francisco. In 1954 a number of citizen's groups managed to persuade the California State Park Commission to obtain 36.82 acres surrounding Hospital Cove (aka Ayala Cove) for a State Park.

In 1962 the Nike missile site on the south side of the island was deactivated, and the army left the island. In December of that year, the entire island was turned over to the State of California for park purposes - with the single exception of the Coast Guard station on Point Blunt, which continues in active operation to this day.

Recommended Reading

Angel Island Timeline
Images of America; Angel Island
Miwoks to Missiles

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The island is alive with history... three thousand years ago it served as a fishing and hunting site for Coastal Miwok Indians. It was later a haven for Spanish Explorer Juan Manuel de Ayala, a cattle ranch, and a U.S. Army post starting with the Civil War.