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Bibliography

Beazley, John D. Attic Black-Figure Vase-Painters (Oxford: 1956), pp. 231, no. 10, and 235.

Laurens, Annie-France. Hebe: Images, mythes et cultes. Ph.D. diss, Universite Paris x, Nanterre. 1958, pp. 240-41, cat. no. 77; pl. 67.

Schefold, Karl. Meisterwerke Griechischer Kunst. 2nd ed. (Basel: B. Schwabe, 1960), pp. 24-25, 156, 161, cat. no. 144.

Munzen und Medaillen, Basel. Auktion 22, May 13, 1961, lot 133; pl. 41.

Beazley, J. D. Attic Red-figure Vase-painters. 2nd ed. Oxford: 1963, pp. 122, 1627.

Metzger, Henri. Recherches sur l' imagerie athenienne. Paris: 1965, p. 18, no. 33; pl. 4, top.

May, Helmut, ed. Weltkunst aus Privatbesitz, exh. cat. (Cologne: Druckerei J. P. Bachem, 1968), cat. no. A 17; fig. 5.

Schefold, Karl. "Antiken aus Privatbesitz in Koeln," Antike Kunst 11 (1968), pp. 118-119, p. 118.

Bothmer, Dietrich von, and J. Bean. Greek Vases and Modern Drawings from the Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Walter Bareiss. Exh. checklist, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: 1969, p. 4, no. 38.

Beazley, J. D. Paralipomena. Additions to Attic Black-figure Vase-painters and to Attic Red-figure Vase-painters. 2nd ed. Oxford: 1971, p. 109.

Vacano, Otto von. Zur Entstehung und Deutung gemalter seitenansichtiger Kopfbilder auf schwarzfiguren Vasen des griechischen Festlandes. Bonn: 1973, pp. 78-79, and 234, cat. no. A170.

Berard, Claude. Anodoi: essai sur l'imagerie des passages chthoniens. Rome: 1974, p. 72, n. 5.

Boardman, John. Athenian Black Figure Vases (New York: 1974), p. 198.

Schauenburg, Konrad. "Athenabuesten des Bowdoinmalers." Archaeologischer Anzeiger (1974), pp. 149-157, p. 152, n. 21.

Riccioni, Giuliana. "Immagini di Eracle e Teseo su una kylix attica di Vulci," Melanges offerts a Jacques Heurgon: L'Italie preromaine et la Rome republicaine, 2. Rome: 1976. pp. 903-913, p. 904, n. 2.

Schauenburg, Konrad. "Zu einer Kleinmeisterschale in Privatbesitz." Archaeologischer Anzeiger (1981), pp. 333-343, p. 240, n. 29.
True, Marion, and Jiri Frel. Greek Vases: Molly and Walter Bareiss Collection (Malibu: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1983), pp. 26-27, no. 14, fig. 14; p. 75, no. 94. Brommer, Frank. "Herakles und Theseus auf Vasen in Malibu," Greek Vases in the J. Paul Getty Museum 2. Occasional Papers on Antiquities 3 (1985), pp. 183-228, pp. 189-90, 192; figs. 8a-b (S.80.AE.300).
"Acquisitions/1986." The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal 15 (1987), pp. 160-61, no. 7.

Lindner, Ruth, et al. "Hades." In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae IV (1988), pp. 367-394, p. 374, no. 33.

Jordan, J. A. "Attic Black-figured Eye-cups." Ph.D. diss. (New York University, 1988), pp. 46, cat. no. C 52; 51-52, 103.

Laurens, Annie-France. "Hebe I." In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae IV (1988), pp. 458-464, p. 461, no. 28.

Kossatz-Deissmann, Anneliese. "Hera." In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae IV (1988), pp. 659-719, p. 714, no. 470.

Beazley Addenda: Additional References to ABV, ARV2, and Paralipomena. 2nd ed. Compiled by T. Carpenter with T. Mannack and M. Mendonca. Oxford: 1989, p. 67.

Boardman, John, et al. "Herakles." In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae V (1990), pp. 1-192, p. 144, no. 3078; pl. 135.
Clark, Andrew J. Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum. The J. Paul Getty Museum 2 (USA 25). The Molly and Walter Bareiss Collection. Malibu: 1990, pp. 60-63; pls. 110-112, and 113, 2. See Clark's bibliography for additional citations.
Matheson, Susan B. "The Mission of Triptolemos and the Politics of Athens," Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 35,4 (Winter 1994), pp. 345-372, p. 366; pl. 3.

Guentner, Gudrun. "Persephone." In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae VIII (1997), pp. 956-978, p. 964, no. 134; pl. 647.

Tosto, Vincent. The Black-figure Pottery Signed NIKOSTHENES EPOIESEN. Amsterdam: 1999, cat. no. 166.

Spivey, Nigel and Squire, Michael. Panorama of the Classical World (Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2004), p. 79, fig. 121.

Bentz, Martin, Geominy, Wilfred and Mueller, Jan Marius (eds.) Tonart: Virtuosität antiker Töpfertechnik. Petersburg: Verlag, Michael Imhof, 2010, pp.51,106, figs.13,26.

Bundrick, Sheramy D. "Athenian Eye Cups in Context." AJA 119.3 (2015), 318.

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Attic Black-Figure Eye Cup (Getty Museum)

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Attic Black-Figure Eye Cup; Attributed to the Painter of the Villa Giulia 63613 (Greek, active about 530 - 510 B.C.), Signed by Nikosthenes (Greek (Attic), active Athens, Greece 540 - 510 B.C.); about 530 B.C.; Terracotta; 11.4 × 34.4 cm (4 1/2 × 13 1/2 in.); 86.AE.170; J.

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The marriage-knot or knot of Hercules, a strong knot created by two intertwined ropes, originated as a healing charm in ancient Egypt, but is best known for it's use in ancient Greece and Rome as a protective amulet, most notably as a wedding symbol, incorporated into the protective girdles worn by brides, which were ceremonially untied by the new groom. This custom is the likely origin of the phrase "tying the knot."

According to Roman lore, the knot symbolized the legendary fertility of the God Hercules; it probably relates to the legendary Girdle of Diana captured from the Amazon Queen Hippolyta. In this, the marriage-knot was probably a representation of the virginity of the bride.

The symbolism of the knot survived well beyond its religious use, and was a very common symbol in medieval and Renaissance love tokens.

Greek girdle, 3rd cent. BCE

Tagged as: knots, magical weapon

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Knot of Hercules (Love Knot, Heracles Knot)

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The marriage-knot or knot of Hercules, a strong knot created by two intertwined ropes, originated as a healing charm in ancient Egypt, but is best known for it's use in ancient Greece and Rome as a protective amulet, most notably as a wedding symbol, incorporated into the protective girdles worn by brides, which were ceremonially untied by the new groom.

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The Panathenaia, a state religious festival, honored Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. Held every four years, the festival included athletic and musical competitions. Amphorae filled with olive oil from the sacred trees of Athena were given as prizes in the Panathenaic Games. These amphorae had a special form with narrow necks and feet, and they received standard decoration, always in the black-figure technique. The front showed Athena, the goddess of war, striding forth between columns and included the inscription "from the games at Athens." The back depicted the event for which the vase was a prize.

On this example, Athena is shown in the usual fashion, wearing a helmet and her snaky-edged aegis and carrying a spear and shield. Leading vase-painters decorated these prize amphorae, which were commissioned in large quantities by the state, and their work can often be differentiated by the motif they used to decorate the shield of Athena. For example, the Kleophrades Painter always used the winged horse Pegasos, as seen here. The back of the vase depicts the four- horse-chariot race, one of the most prestigious events in the games.

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Attic Panathenaic Amphora - Kleophrades Painter - Google Arts & Culture

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The Panathenaia, a state religious festival, honored Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. Held every four years, the festival included athletic and musical competitions. Amphorae filled with olive oil from the sacred trees of Athena were given as prizes in the Panathenaic Games.

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Newsela | Art and Architecture in Ancient Greece

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Athenian Hoplite - Soldier Profile | Military History Matters

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Athenian Hoplite of the Persian Wars In pitched battle, the army formed a single phalanx of 10,000 men, a kilometre wide, eight ranks deep, protected by a wall of overlapping shields with a hedge of spear-blades projecting above. At a Glance Appearance Shield design: either individually chosen o ...

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Athenian Hoplite – Soldier Profile

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Ancient Greek life size helmet from Athens.

Athens was the richest and most famous city-state in ancient Greece. Its sea-faring trade reached from Gibraltar in the West to the Middle East. Together with Sparta and other allied Greek city-states, they defeated the much larger Persian invasion army in the 5th century BC. Athens is considered the city where Philosophy, Democracy and the Dramatic Arts were born.

The helmet is dated to 490 B.C.

The helmet is offered with an optional marble stand to create a perfect display piece.

Handmade in Greece of solid bronze, an exact museum reproduction.

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Home :: Armour & Weapons :: Full Size Helmets :: Athenian Hoplite Full Size Helmet

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Ancient Greek life size helmet from Athens Athens was the richest and most famous city-state in ancient Greece Its sea-faring trade reached from Gibraltar in the West to the Middle East Together with Sparta and other allied Greek city-states they defeated the much larger Persian invasion army in

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This type of ancient Greek kylix is termed "eye-cup" because of its characteristic decoration with enormous eyes on both sides of the vessel. The eyes refer possibly to folk beliefs about the "evil eye" and the warding off of its effect, or simply warned the user of the vase about the loss of consciousness that excessive wine-drinking caused (kylix was the standard vessel for drinking wine).The vase belongs to a particular class of pottery known as "Chalcidian". It is a homogenous group of high quality black-figure vases which appeared around the mid-6th c. BC and continued in production until the end of the century. "Chalcidian" vases have been found mainly in graves in the West (South Italy, Sicily, Etruria, Massalia [mod. Marseilles], and Emporion in Spain). Their name is due to the fact that they frequently bear inscriptions in letters of the Greek Chalcidian alphabet. There is no consensus as to their place of production, although many researchers consider them to come from a Chalcidian colony in Magna Graecia - e.g. Rhegion. So far, no "Chalcidian" vases have been found in Chalcis itself.Eye-cups are considered the chief productrs of the second generation of the "Chalcidian" workshop. This particular one is attributed to the "Phineus Painter".

Recommended

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Eye-cup (kylix) - Phineus Painter - Google Arts & Culture

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This type of ancient Greek kylix is termed "eye-cup" because of its characteristic decoration with enormous eyes on both sides of the vessel. The eyes refer possibly to folk beliefs about the "evil eye" and the warding off of its effect, or simply warned the user of the vase about the loss of consciousness that excessive wine-drinking caused (kylix was the standard vessel for drinking wine).The vase belongs to a particular class of pottery known as "Chalcidian".

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Newsela | Myths and Legends: The trials of Hercules

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Since 1950s, private collection, Hamburg, Germany; [November 14, 1986, purchased by N. Horiuchi through Münzen und Medaillen, Basel]; [purchased by K. Ishiguro from N. Horiuchi]; until 1996, collection of K. Ishiguro (and heirs), Tokyo; [1996-1999, with Ariadne Galleries, New York]; acquired in 1999, purchased from Ariadne Galleries.

Münzen und Medaillen A.G. 1986. Kunstwerke der Antike. November 14, 1986. no. 178, p. 53, pl. 29.

Gallery Mikazuki. 1996. Exhibition of Ancient Near-East, Mediterranean Art and Archaeology: 13th Fed. [sic]-8th Mar. 1996. no. 12, Tokyo: Gallery Mikazuki, Tokyo.

Picón, Carlos A., Joan R. Mertens, Elizabeth J. Milleker, Christopher S. Lightfoot, and Seán Hemingway. 2000. "Recent Acquisitions: A Selection 1999-2000: Ancient World." Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 58(2): pp. 10-11.

Picón, Carlos A. 2007. Art of the Classical World in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: Greece, Cyprus, Etruria, Rome. no. 227, pp. 192, 450, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Picón, Carlos A. 2009. "Glass and Gold of the Hellenistic and Early Roman World." Philippe de Montebello and the Metropolitan Museum of Art: 1977-2008, James R. Houghton, ed. p. 21, fig. 32, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Mertens, Joan R. 2010. How to Read Greek Vases. p. 150, fig. 52, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Picón, Carlos A. and Seán Hemingway. 2016. Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World no. 175, p. 238, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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Gold armband with Herakles knot | Greek | Hellenistic | The Met

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Since 1950s, private collection, Hamburg, Germany; [November 14, 1986, purchased by N. Horiuchi through Münzen und Medaillen, Basel]; [purchased by K. Ishiguro from N. Horiuchi]; until 1996, collection of K. Ishiguro (and heirs), Tokyo; [1996-1999, with Ariadne Galleries, New York]; acquired in 1999, purchased from Ariadne Galleries. Münzen und Medaillen A.G.

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 Sculptural Group of a Seated Poet and Sirens (2) with unjoined fragmentary curls (304)

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 Sculptural Group of a Seated Poet and Sirens (2) with unjoined fragmentary curls (304)

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Getty Museum

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Bibliography

Steingraeber, Stephan. Arpi-Apulien-Makedonien. Studien zum Unteritalischen Grabwesen in Hellenisticher Zeit. Mainz am Rhein: Phillip von Zabern, 2000, , 156.

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Frel, Jiří. Antiquities in the J. Paul Getty Museum: A Checklist; Sculpture II: Greek Portraits and Varia (Malibu: J. Paul Getty Museum, November 1979), addendum, p. 44, nos. 99-101.

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Schmidt, M., "Bemerkungen zu Orpheus in Unterwelts- und Thrakerdarstellungen." in Orphisme et Orphée, en l'honneur de Jean Rudhardt ( Recherches et Rencontres 3), edited by P. Bourgeaud. Geneva: Libraire Droz, 1991, p. 49.

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Sculptural Group of a Seated Poet and Sirens (2) with unjoined fragmentary curls (304) (Getty Museum)

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Sculptural Group of a Seated Poet and Sirens (2) with unjoined fragmentary curls (304); Unknown; 350-300 B.C.; Terracotta with white slip of calcium carbonate and polychromy (orange-gold, black, red, gold-yellow, brown, pink); 76.AD.11; J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California

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Bibliography

Michaelis, Adolf. "Ancient Marbles in Great Britain. Supplement I." Journal of Hellenic Studies 5 (1884), pp. 143-161, p. 145, no. 2.

Charbonneaux, C. "Review" of G. Richter, Catalogue of Greek Sculpture. American Journal of Archaeology 59 (1955), pp. 252-254, p. 253, mentioned.

Getty, J. Paul, and Ethel Le Vane. Collector's Choice: The Chronicle of an Artistic Odyssey through Europe (London: W. H. Allen, 1955), p. 203.

Vermeule, Cornelius C. "Notes on a New Edition of Michaelis: Ancient Marbles in Great Britain." American Journal of Archaeology 59 (1955), p. 132.

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Frel, Jiří. Antiquities in the J. Paul Getty Museum: A Checklist; Sculpture I: Greek Originals (Malibu: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1979), p. 4, no. 9.

Frel, Jiří. Antiquities in the J. Paul Getty Museum: A Checklist; Sculpture II: Greek Portraits and Varia (Malibu: J. Paul Getty Museum, November 1979), addendum, p. 43, no. 9.

Kostoglou-Despoine, Aikaterina. Provlemata tes parianes plastikes tou 500 aiona p.X. Thessalonike: 1979, p. 228 ff., n. 35.

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Statue of a Kore (The Elgin Kore) (Getty Museum)

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Statue of a Kore (The Elgin Kore); Unknown; about 475 B.C.; Gray marble; 71 × 28 × 19 cm (27 15/16 × 11 × 7 1/2 in.); 70.AA.114; Gift of J. Paul Getty; J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California

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Object Description

The Greater Panathenaia, a state religious festival, honored Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. Held every four years, the festival included athletic and musical competitions, and amphorae filled with oil from Athena's sacred olive trees were given as prizes in the Panathenaic Games.

These Panathenaic Amphorae had a distinctive form with narrow necks and feet, and received standard decoration, always in the black-figure technique. On the front, Athena in her guise as "Promachos" - in the frontline of battle - strides forth between columns. Running along one of the columns is the official inscription, "of the prizes from Athens." The back depicts the event for which the vase was a prize, in this case the four-horse-chariot race, one of the most prestigious events in the games.

Leading vase-painters decorated these prize amphorae, which were commissioned in large quantities by the state, and their work can often be differentiated by the motif they used to decorate the shield of Athena. For example, the winged horse Pegasos seen here seems to have been typical for the Kleophrades Painter.

Though the oil within was the real prize, the vessels that contained it could be highly valued, as lasting symbols of prowess and excellence. This example preserves ancient repair holes at one of the handles.

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Attic Panathenaic Amphora (Getty Museum)

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Open Content images tend to be large in file-size. To avoid potential data charges from your carrier, we recommend making sure your device is connected to a Wi-Fi network before downloading. Not on view due to temporary Getty closure Object Description The Greater Panathenaia, a state religious festival, honored Athena, the patron goddess of Athens.

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Built over 2500 years ago, the Parthenon remains one of the most visited archeological sites in the world.

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One of the most famous examples of ancient Greek sculpture, the Venus de Milo is immediately recognizable by its missing arms and popularly believed to represent Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty, who was known to the Romans as Venus. The artwork was discovered in 1820 on the Aegean island of Melos (also called Milos). An ensign in the French navy, Olivier Voutier, whose ship was anchored in the harbor at Melos, decided to kill time one day by going ashore and searching for antiquities. While digging near the ruins of an ancient theater, Voutier noticed that a local farmer, who'd been removing stones from a nearby wall for use as building materials, seemed to have found something inside the wall. Upon investigating, Voutier learned the farmer had located the top half of a statue of a woman. Recognizing the statue as potentially significant, the Frenchman, with the farmer's help, unearthed its lower half not far away. Voutier told his superiors about the discovery and the French acquired the artwork, which came to be known as the Venus de Milo, for a relatively modest sum. It arrived in France in 1821 and was presented to Louis XVIII, who donated it to the Louvre Museum, where it remains today.

The Louvre initially promoted the Venus de Milo as a masterpiece from the Greek classical era. Now, however, the Venus de Milo is thought to have been produced around 100 B.C., during a later period known as the Hellenistic age. Originally carved in two blocks of marble then fitted together, the statue stands 6 feet 7 inches from head to toe and is the creation of an artist named Alexandros of Antioch, about whom little is known.

As for the Venus de Milo's missing limbs, there long have been claims they were broken off in 1820 during a fight on the shore of Melos, as French and Turkish sailors vied for possession of the artwork. But, in fact, most scholars today believe the sculpture's arms already were missing when it was found by Voutier and the farmer. (Also missing now is the metal jewelry scholars say decorated the statue's arms, head and ears in ancient times, as well as the colored paint on its face, hair and drapery.) Speculation remains about the Venus de Milo's original pose, although evidence suggests its once held an apple in its left hand.

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What happened to the Venus de Milo's arms?

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One of the most famous examples of ancient Greek sculpture, the Venus de Milo is immediately recognizable by its missing arms and popularly believed to represent Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty, who was known to the Romans as Venus. The artwork was discovered in 1820 on the Aegean island of Melos (also called Milos).

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Newsela | Art and Architecture in Ancient Greece

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The Fallen Warrior from Temple of Aphaia (c 480-470BC)

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The Fallen Warrior from Temple of Aphaia (c 480-470BC)

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There is a tragic pathos to this mighty sculpture of a dying hero from a temple on the Greek island of Aegina. Tragedy is a Greek concept. The tragedies of Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus are still performed. This statue shows a strong man fallen, heroic to his last breath.

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Ancient Greek Helmets Explained in 5 minutes

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Delian League

The Parthenon was the center of religious life in the powerful Greek city-state of Athens, the head of the Delian League. Developed to thwart the possibility of an attack by the Persian Empire or other foes, the Delian League was a cooperative alliance of Greek city-states founded in 478 B.C. during the invasions of the Persian Wars.

The celebrated Greek statesman Pericles is credited with ordering the design and construction of the Parthenon as a temple for Athena-the goddess of wisdom, arts, literature and war-but it may not have been the first attempt to house the deity.

An earlier structure known as the Older Parthenon or Pre-Parthenon once existed on the site of the current Parthenon. Many historians believe the Older Parthenon was under construction in 480 B.C. when the Persian Empire attacked Athens and destroyed the Acropolis, although some experts dispute this theory.

When Was the Parthenon Built?

In 447 B.C., some 33 years after the Persian invasion, Pericles commenced building the Parthenon to replace the earlier temple. The massive structure was dedicated in 438 B.C.

Sculpting and decorative work at the Parthenon continued until 432 B.C. It's estimated that 13,400 stones were used to build the temple, at a total cost of around 470 silver talents (roughly $7 million U.S. dollars today).

Doric Columns

Pericles commissioned the renowned Greek architects Ictinus and Callicrates and the sculptor Phidias to design the Parthenon, which became the largest Doric-style temple of its time.

The structure has a rectangular floor plan and is built on a 23,000-square foot base, part of which was the limestone foundation of the Old Parthenon.

Low steps surrounded each side of the building, and a portico of Doric columns standing on a platform create a border around it. There are 46 outer columns and 19 inner columns.

The columns are slightly tapered to give the temple a symmetrical appearance. The corner columns are larger in diameter than the other columns. Incredibly, the Parthenon contains no straight lines and no right angles, a true feat of Greek architecture.

Amazon Warriors

Many of the Parthenon's features depict scenes from Greek mythology. Ninety-two carved metopes (square blocks placed between three-channeled triglyph blocks) adorn the exterior walls of the Parthenon. The metopes on the West side depict Amazonomachy, a mythical battle between Amazon warriors and the ancient Greeks, and were thought to be designed by the sculptor Kalamis.

The metopes on the East side show Gigantomachy, mythical battles between gods and giants. Most metopes on the South side show Centauromachy, the battle of mythical centaurs with the Lapiths, and the metopes on the North side portray the Trojan War.

Parthenon Frieze

A broad, decorated horizontal band called a frieze runs along the entire length of the walls of the Parthenon's inner chamber (the cella). The frieze was carved using the bas-relief technique, which means the sculpted figures are raised slightly from the background.

Historians believe the frieze depicted either the Panathenaic procession to the Acropolis or the sacrifice of Pandora to Athena.

There are two sculpted, triangular-shaped gables known as pediments on each end of the Parthenon. The East pediment depicted Athena's birth from the head of her father, Zeus. The West pediment showed the conflict between Athena and Poseidon to claim Attica, an ancient region of Greece which included the city of Athens.

Athena Parthenos

A shrine within the Parthenon housed an extraordinary statue of Athena, known as Athena Parthenos, which was sculpted by Phidias. The statue no longer exists but is thought to have stood about 12 meters high (39 feet).

It was carved of wood and covered in ivory and gold. Historians know what the statue looked like thanks to surviving Roman reproductions.

The Athena statue depicted a fully-armed woman wearing a goatskin shield known as an aegis. She held a six-foot tall statue of the Greek goddess Nike in her right hand and a shield in her left hand that illustrated various battle scenes. Two griffins and a sphinx stood on her helmet and a large snake behind her shield.

It's unclear if the Parthenon served solely as a home for Athena or also as a treasury. It was undoubtedly an awe-inspiring sight for anyone who gazed upon it. Ancient spectators weren't allowed inside the structure but viewed its splendor from the outside.

Parthenon Changes Hands

In the sixth century A.D., the Christian Byzantines conquered Greece. They outlawed pagan worship of the ancient Greek gods and converted the Parthenon to a Christian church. They blocked the East side entrance and, following the custom of Christianity, forced worshipers to enter the church on the West side.

The massive statue of Athena was gone before the Byzantines arrived. In her place, they put a pulpit and marble bishop's chair.

The Parthenon remained a Christian church until 1458 A.D., when the Muslim Ottoman Empire seized Athens. The Ottoman Turks converted the Parthenon into a mosque, yet kept many Christian paintings and artifacts intact.

In 1687, facing attack from the Christian Holy League (an alliance of European powers against the Ottoman Empire), the Ottomans converted the Parthenon into an ammunitions depot and shelter, but it was anything but safe. The structure was bombarded with cannonballs and its ammunition stores exploded causing hundreds of deaths and massive structural damage.

After centuries of being ruled by the Turks, the Greeks fought for independence in the 1820s. The Acropolis became a combat zone and the Turkish Army removed hundreds of marble blocks from Parthenon ruins. They also used the lead-coated iron clamps which held the blocks together to make bullets.

Elgin Marbles

After the Holy League's assault and numerous military campaigns, by the 1800s the Parthenon sat in ruins and was at the mercy of looters and the elements.

In the early 19th century, Thomas Bruce, the 7th Earl of Elgin, removed the marble friezes and several other sculptures and shipped them to London, England, where they remain on public display in the British Museum today.

It's unclear if Elgin had permission to remove the sculptures, and the Greek government has requested they be returned.

Time, weathering and cleaning has caused the Elgin Marbles and other Parthenon sculptures to look white, but they and other parts of the structure were once painted with vivid colors.

Did you know? A full-scale replica of The Parthenon was built in Centennial Park, Nashville in 1897 for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition.

Parthenon Restoration

In the 1970s, the Greek government got serious about restoring the rapidly-deteriorating Acropolis and the Parthenon, which had become one of the country's national treasures. They appointed an archaeological committee called the Acropolis Restoration Project.

With Greek architect Manolis Korres at its helm, the committee painstakingly charted every relic in the ruins and used computer technology to identify their original location.

The restoration team plans to supplement original Parthenon artifacts with modern materials that are weather-resistant, corrosion-resistant and will help support the integrity of the structure. Where needed, new marble from the quarry where the original marble was obtained will be used.

Still, the Parthenon will not be restored to its original glory. Instead, it will stay a partial ruin and will feature design elements and artifacts that reflect its rich, diverse history.

Acropolis Museum

Renovations are ongoing at the Parthenon and the entire Acropolis; however, tourists can still visit the historical site. Areas undergoing a makeover may be off-limits.

Some important artifacts and remaining Parthenon sculptures were moved to the nearby Acropolis Museum. To see many of the Parthenon's original marble sculptures and other Acropolis artifacts, visitors are encouraged to tour the museum.

Sources

Secrets of the Parthenon. PBS NOVA.
The Glorious Parthenon. PBS NOVA.
The Parthenon. Ancient-Greece.org.
The Parthenon. Oxford Bibliographies.
The Parthenon. Reed College.
The Parthenon: Religion, Art and Politics. The State University of New York.

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Parthenon: Definition, Facts, Athens & Greece - HISTORY

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The Parthenon is a marble temple built atop the Acropolis in Athens during the classical age of ancient Greece. It was the largest and most lavish temple the Greek mainland had ever seen.