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Intro to Maya Gender in Relation to Textile, Clothing, and Costume

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Intro to Maya Gender in Relation to Textile, Clothing, and Costume

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For maya men and women the way they dressed and the textile produced was a connection to their culture at large. Gender and dress were directly correlated, in that, the way they dressed and who produced the textile were assigned to different genders. We can see this in their everyday lives. In the Maya culture, women wear güipiles of brightly colored textiles, decorated with intricate geometric patterns, animal designs, and flowers. These Maya women would use this clothing as a form of expressing their identity as Maya women. Maya women were typically assigned to create clothing as a form of labor. In tombs of the elite women, archeologists have found ceramic spindle whorls, bone needles, jade and shell loom weights and many more tools used for this craft. The importance of women and weaving were not only shown in everyday life but were also an important part of their religious beliefs. Chac Chel, the other half of the creator couple, is a great example of this. Chac Chel was not only the goddess of destruction, childbirth, water, healing, and divining, but also the goddess of weaving and spinning. Royalty also dressed in gender specific ways. Maya sculptures of royalty showcase the difference between both genders. For royal maya women their form of dress was a representation of the earth's horizontal plane. The costumes were made of jade beads and woven güipiles, skirts and capes. The costume symbolized the green surface of earth which was part of the supernatural world for the Maya. The male royal Maya costume represented the central world tree, with the headdress symbolizing the Principal Bird Deity (aka the solar bird), sitting atop the tree. In the male royal costume we can see a direct correlation to the Popul Vuh, the Maya creation story. The way the Maya dressed in correlation to gender was not always so black and white. We can see this in Maya penile bloodletting ceremonies. The male ruler leading the ceremony would wear a skirt typically worn by women, serving as a symbol. Bloodletting by penis was a symbol of fertility by two liquids, semen and blood. The blood mimicking the female menstrual cycle. By dawning the “female” attire and mimicking the menstrual cycle, the ruler took on the role and political importance of both the male and the female rulers. In my exhibit we will look at some examples in 2-3d form.

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Introduction to Maya Gender Roles in Food Production

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Introduction to Maya Gender Roles in Food Production

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The ancient Maya heavily relied on successful harvests and hunts to sustain their civilization. Both genders in the Maya world played important roles in the production of food, with some tasks being relegated to just the men or just the women, while other tasks were seen as a responsibility for both men and women. Rituals were a large part of Maya culture, as they were performed before and after hunts or harvests in order to appease the gods and bring themselves more successful hunts and harvests. Maize was a staple in the diet of the Maya, and it was believed by the Maya that maize was the substance that allowed for the creation of true humans, capable of caring for the land and appeasing the gods with sacrificial offers. As White writes, “for the Maya, maize was imbued with the strongest ideological meaning of any food… most rituals were centered on the maintenance and renewal of its growth and involved food”(358). With a culture so centered around the maintenance and renewal of  maize growth, it is no surprise that each gender found an important role in the process of growing maize. Both men and women worked together in agricultural land in order to farm maize, an important step in the food production process that did not have a dominant gender overseeing the task. While there was no dominant gender involved in growing maize, women did dominate in the preparation of maize and other foods as well as drinks. Their role in the preparation of food and drink, specifically for rituals and feasts, played a significant part in the establishment of a social hierarchy, as elite community members utilized feasts to establish their superiority over other communities, therefore making the preparation of food and drinks for the feasts a vital step in the establishment of rulers. In terms of food production, men also had their own dominant dynamic in the production process, as they were the ones who did the hunting. Hunting, much like the growing of food for the Maya, was a sacred act that required sacrificial offerings and rituals in order to maintain the balance between the Maya and their gods. With such strong beliefs in their culture, and widespread dedication to appeasing the gods who created them, both genders in the Maya world found their way into roles related to food production that they believed would allow them to maintain balance with their gods while simultaneously bringing abundant food for sustaining their civilization.

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Object: Maya Feminine figurine

Where Found: Jaina Maya region

Date: Classical period

This figurine of a high ranking maya female is a great example of the importance of dress in the Maya culture. The figure stands at 216cm high and is about 100cm wide. The piece of art is a mold of a musical instrument. This molded instrument Functioned as a funerary offering but also could be used in ceremonial activities. As we can see the female figure is dressed in such a way that it suggests that the figure is female royalty. When we take a look at the figure's head we can see elaborate facial accessories and scarification. The figure is clothed in the typical female clothing. She sports a huipil from the neck draping all the way down to her feet and on the Huipil we can see traces of blue and white paint. In her hands we can see items of great importance. In her left hand we can see that she holds a frame that is lined with feathers and atop the frame is a two-headed serpent, symbolizing the rainy and dry seasons in fluctuation. In the right hand we can see spinning materials and two ribbons hanging from the hand. The spun ribbons and material is directly correlated to the goddess Ixchel. Ixchel is the lunar goddess, who the maya believed to be the inventor of weaving, a labor which is assigned to the female elite class in the classic period. With the figure dawning an elaborately painted huipil, holding on one hand, a symbol that represents celestial forces, and an item that relates to the female goddess Ixchel on the other, it suggests that the female gender holds a great significance for the Maya.

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Object: Spindle w/ Brown cotton

Where Found: Tzutujil Maya Region

Date: Unknown

The spindle was a tool used in the early phases of textile creation to spin organic material into thread, with cotton being one of the most popular materials to create textiles. Tools to create the elaborate textiles of the maya were fairly rare to find whole or untouched, even in well excavated sites. With weaving and spinning being an integral part of Maya culture archeologists presume that the materials used to create the tools, to be made of perishable material. Tools made of wood, such as the one photographed above, bone, or ceramic were the only ones to survive throughout hundreds to thousands of years for archeologists to excavate. A good majority of the tools displayed in museums, or found in archives are only mere recreations of the ancient Maya artifacts. Anthropological archeologist Julia Hendon, presumes that the labor of creating textiles was typically assigned to women, specifically of elite status. Through excavations of Maya households and tombs of high status women, Julia hendon came to this conclusion. Hendon had found numerous spindles, needles, awls and weights in Maya households but the most impressive being in the tomb of a high status elite woman at Copan. Hendon uncovered weaving tools such as bone needles, tabbed jadeite and shell rings, not to be used as items of fashion but as loom weights, and a bone spatula, used as a weaving pick. The spindle used to spin cotton, was an important tool in the creation of textile. Women who would practice this form of labor were important to the culture in that they created a medium, to be used in everyday life and in special instances to showcase identity, culture, and religion.

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Object: Lidar scan of Maya region
Where: Northwest Belize

Catalog entry: This image obtained through a lidar scan of parts of the Maya region currently covered in forests displays a vast network of farming plots and canals connecting the farming plots hidden underneath the vast forests in the region today, which can be seen in the middle and lower sections of the photograph. The vastness of the farmland shown in this picture provides insight into the scale and importance of farming for the Maya as a means of subsistence. For the Maya, farming was an incredible task to undertake, making it the responsibility of any available member of the communities, rather than one gender dominating the task, unlike other gendered roles such as men being hunters and warriors, or women being food preparers and weavers. Agricultural duties were community based, and, as Chase writes, “The inhabitants of Caracol  sustained themselves through widespread agricultural terracing interspersed between households.” Looking at the picture, it is very likely that there were households spread throughout the farmland and canals that the Lidar scan revealed. Considering the vast scale in which farming was performed in the Maya region, it is no surprise that the task was heavily undertaken by both genders, as farming was vital in the survival of the Maya. The importance of farming to the existence and expansion of the Maya allows us to understand the community approach to farming compared to the approach taken in other tasks such as hunting and textile weaving. While other tasks had gendered roles, farming was one vital aspect of Maya culture where gender was disregarded, likely due to the difficulty and importance of growing productive harvests. The role that both genders played in farming in the Maya region would be tributed through their corn deity, the Maize god.

Picture reference: https://eos.org/articles/ancient-maya-farms-revealed-by-laser-scanning

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Object: Maya Maize God
Where: Museum of Fine Arts
Date: 600-800 AD

Catalog entry: This object portrays the Maya Maize God springing out of a corn husk. Maize was a staple in the diet of the Maya, as it was grown all throughout the Maya region. Maize played such an important role in providing sustenance for the Maya that they believed during the creation of humanity that it was the people made from Maize that were true humans, capable of appeasing their Gods. The depiction of the Maize God in its various forms has been the cause of debate for scholars researching the deity, as Arden writes “Identifying the gender of this deity has been problematic throughout the history of Maya research, for the corn deity has both a male upper body and female lower body… If the corn deity also represents the ideal Maya farmer, then this ideal farmer’s image seems to have encompassed gender duality.” Considering the vastness of Maya farming areas, specifically areas where Maize was grown, it is reasonable to assume that farming for the Maya was a community task, one that both men and women took part in equally. This would explain the complications in identifying the gender of the Maize God, with the deity being depicted with both male and female body aspects, a tribute to the work of all the people of the Maya region, regardless of gender. For the Maya, maize played a  key role in the creation of human life, and the depiction of the Maize God with both male and female aspects displays their belief in their creation story, as maize made life possible for all, not just males or females.

Picture reference:  https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/maize-god-in-corn-husk-maya/UwFogDmt3o8WcA

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Object: Maya Woman Cooking
Where: Yale University Art Gallery
Date: 600-900 AD

Catalog entry: This model depicts a Maya woman in the act of cooking, with a small dog by her side. The preparation of food and the role that Maya women played in the preparation was a way for women to display their creativeness, as the preparation of food was seen as an art form and was performed in such a manner. As Dornan writes, “Often associated with this form of wealth production, the processing and production of food is also viewed as a creative act - taking raw materials and transforming them into food.” The food process for the Maya was a creative act from start to finish, from the planting, growing, and cultivation of their food to the processing and production of it, and the role that Maya women played in turning the food from raw materials into edible meals for families and community feasts was a vital step in their food production process. From daily meals to community feasts, and important rituals in which the food prepared was sacrificed, the role women held in the preparation of food and drink was of the utmost importance in Maya culture, and depictions of women in the act of preparing food or drinks displays the appreciation they had for those who participated in the preparation. Not only could well prepared food and drinks win local elites power over other communities, it was also vital in the appeasement of the gods of the Maya, allowing food preparation to be a valued skill amongst Maya women.

Picture reference: https://images.collections.yale.edu/iiif/2/yuag:9fccfce6-0327-4746-815b-24b305013362/full/!1920,1920/0/default.jpg

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Object: Ancient Maya Women Preparing food and drink

Catalog entry: This scene depicts two women sitting around a tool used for cooking, with one of them cooking and the other taking a drink out of a pot. The role in food production for Maya women often regarded the preparation of food and drink, a role much more important from a religious and economical standpoint to the Maya than how we view the acts today. Women’s roles in preparing food not only fed their families and communities, but also provided a means for throwing successful feasts, a tradition rooted in power for the Maya. As White writes, “virtually all rituals involved feasting and women were in charge of the preparation of food and drink used as offerings and for consumption… feasts and rituals were a visible and significant means used by competing Maya elites to demonstrate their status.” The preparation of food for the Maya went far beyond simply cooking it for consumption. Rituals and feasts played a heavy role in their culture, and the proper preparation of food for either occasion was incredibly important to their beliefs, as they did not want to upset their gods with inadequate offerings. Feasts in the Maya region, especially early on in their establishment of a social hierarchy, were used by community elites to portray their superiority over other communities, making the preparation of food and drink a vital part of establishing power in the Maya region, undoubtedly elevating the status and importance of women who were known for preparing the best feasts and establishing an economical order within the Maya region.

Picture reference: https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/_gw6tFfa1KIHe8sF7caqHeTpga_FiUdmVccurGvTxsZxJddqo8IiAIMkrpbOcZTyqD74Gk-24APu_1k0Ralj0Ugj6KNa7mJhJ2BlmujEm-eVZ9o1CINd3dczM9NQ9u_YYl23-Xo2f1ZbTw4Cxrslgdcs_EMR

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Object: Depiction of Maya Men Hunting

Catalog entry: This scene depicts a group of Maya hunters in the act of hunting a deer. Hunting was an important part of Maya food production, and it was a job that was done by males throughout the Maya region. Hunting, like many other aspects of life for the Maya, required proper ceremonies and rituals, as hunting rituals were performed both pre and post hunt by the Maya. As Anderson writes “along with the dance, hunters performed bloodletting rites where they pierced their ears and tongues using a manguey spine.” It is quite possible that the bloodletting that occured during hunting rituals was done as a tribute to their gods, thanking them for providing animals to hunt for sustenance, and the giving of their own blood is what was seen as an appropriate sacrificial offer. Hunting was a group effort for the Maya, as small groups of men would work together to hunt animals, often deer. Although it is not depicted in this scene, and wasn’t the case for all Maya hunters, some of them indeed utilized dogs as a part of their hunting team. The true nature of the relationship between hunters and their dogs is relatively unknown, as they may have been pets but also may have been utilized for their hunting skills alone, as there is evidence of dogs being used in sacrificial manners in certain areas of the Maya region. The role that Maya hunters played in the process of food production and the rituals that came with the work that they did shows just how important and sacred the act of hunting was to the Maya.

Picture reference: http://research.mayavase.com/kerrmaya_hires.php?vase=5857

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Anderson, Elyse M. Exploring Maya ritual fauna: caves and the proposed link with contemporary hunting ceremonialism. Diss. University of Florida, 2009.

Ardren, Traci, ed. Ancient Maya Women. Vol. 3. Rowman Altamira, 2002.

Diane Z. Chase, and Arlen F. Chase. "Caracol, Belize, and Changing Perceptions of Ancient Maya Society." Journal of Archaeological Research 25.3 (2017): 185-249. Web.

Dornan, Jennifer. "Blood from the Moon: Gender ideology and the rise of ancient Maya social complexity." Gender & History 16.2 (2004): 459-475.

White, Christine D. “Gendered Food Behaviour among the Maya: Time, Place, Status and Ritual.” Journal of Social Archaeology, vol. 5, no. 3, Oct. 2005, pp. 356–382, doi:10.1177/1469605305057572.

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This exhibit will take a look at the idea of rulers in the Maya communities. We'll start with how some individuals came to power and give some examples of their rulers responsibilities. We will also take a look at two female rulers. The beginning were hunter gatherers but soon started to settle down into small villages. This will result in small competitions within the community which will later start to escalate into city-states controlled by a small group of people. The stopped being community focused and adopted an individual based ideology which will lead to the rise of elite groups in the maya community. Most of these individuals held their power based on tributes, which would be modern day taxes. Their tribute was not on their currency, since they didn't have one, but rather on objects they saw as valuable or that they held prestige. These items were cacao, jade, and elaborated ,marine shell jewelry. Other than being used as tribute they were used for tribute within the community they were also used for trade and exchange. The more valuable items a community had, the more political power it had3. For the most part the elites were mostly men with the ruler being a male. There are some noticeable exceptions to this custom. There were some women rulers scattered throughout the Maya empire. This was possible since the Maya also believed that man and woman couldn’t live without one another and that they complemented each other. Women in Maya society were seen as equals in elite groups1. Lady OI Nal and Lady Zac Kuk of Palenque were able to rule which is a rare occurrence since most of the rulers were men. The ruler position was usually given to the next of kin, such as a father to the first born male or from brother to brother . There has been no documentation of other Maya women before or after them that has been able to rule2. Women were able to rule without restrictions or discrimination. Some of the stela and images found scattered around Maya sites depict women rulers without the expected feminine prefixes that are used for another woman. These three women that will be mentioned managed to do many remarkable things from repairing cities in need to simply wielding a lot of political power. They were able to rule alongside their children without losing any of their previously acquired political power.

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Object: Pacal the great Jade Mask
where: Palenque
Date: 683 A.D
In order to understand how individuals ruled over their own communities we have to start by looking into how the elite groups started. The rise of the elite came from friendly feasting and small competitions among individuals of the same small village. This competition slowly escalated leading to some people owing favors to others. Things will escalate slowly up to the point of having people become leaders of these small villages. It all ended up with large communities betting their political power in games. Once these rulers were established they would start trading with other cities around them. They mainly focused on trading cacao and jade both of which were known to be of extremely value. The cacao was seen as a luxury and the chocolate that they produced was an even greater one. The cacao was so commonly traded that it was used almost mainly as a coin. While jade was used to show their power and status. Many people who held a high place within the maya society were varied with jade jewelry. We know this since in many burial sites only those who were rulers orthose that held high positions of power were the only ones that had jade jewelry. The image shown demonstrates an example of such jewelry.  This jewelry was worn by pakal the great of Palenque around 683 A.D. ears-pool are also seen worn by elites. The jewelry was also believed to indicate that the member of the elite group was in contact with a holy spirit. This also elevated the status of the elites since they were in contact with their gods.

Picture reference:
https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3099/jade-death-mask-of-kinich-janaab-pacal/

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Object: Tomb II
where: Yaxuna
Date: Late Classic
Typical burials were very individual focused, the ruler would be identified by the items located around him. The bodies were wrapped, excluding the faces, in textiles. Some bodies of elites were covered in red paint that can signify blood. Layers of  textile were also used for the elites, furniture and so on.5 The  image depicts a burial site  found in Yaxuna and dates to the Classic Maya era in the image, it can be seen that the previous ruler had been decapitated. The women next to him were also buried with him but the women to the right contain more goods than even the king. We can infer this woman was the daughter and heir of the decapitated king and was killed during the uprising against her father. The importance of this act comes from the fact that women in elite groups shared the same power as men did result in them becoming equal targets for those who wanted to overthrow the current king. She was probably killed because of her young age and the possibility of birthing a new heir to the throne. This is also supported by the fact that the lineage of the ruler took priority over others. If two individuals from different families were to attempt to become rulers the individual that is the family of the current ruler will be chosen even if the individual is younger than the other. So the need to completely erase lineages to properly take control was seen as a justified measure. This burial site demonstrates how threatening a woman of high power could be towards individuals taking over. Compared to other countries where it is understood that when someone takes over a kingdom or a region the queen and offsprings can be either set free or they can remarry the new king but for maya it was better to completely erase the bloodline. Not only could the daughters produce a son that will be the rightful heir to the ruler position but if the daughter wished it to be she could instead.

Picture reference:
Ardren, Traci. Ancient Maya Women. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira, 2002. Gender and Archaeology Ser. ; v. 3. Web.

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Object: sarcophagus
where: Palenque
Date: 683 A.D
The image below is a depiction of lady OI Nal, also known as lady Kam-Ik that was found in Palenque and dates to 683 A.D. Everyone had their own appellative phrases with women usually having the common head glyph “na” which means “female” or “mother”. These precede her personal name like for it is the case for elite women. The difference is in her emblem glyphs which are the “water group” which is usually a standard for elite males. In addition, she has the main glyph sign for Palenque, “ajaw” or “ahau”   The glyphs indicate that Lady OI Nal is viewed as the ruler of Palenque. This will give insight into how the Maya saw a ruler who is a woman. They seem to view her as an equal to other rulers and do not condemn her as one. Having a glyph indicating this person as a sacred individual helps with this assumption since it was not modified or altered in any way.2 it should be noted also that in king Pacal’s sarcophagus there is a depiction of Lady Kan-Ik in which she shown as an equal to the other ruler found in the sarcophagus. The only distinction between Lady Kan-Ik and the other rulers is that she is wearing a cape over medallion to cover her breasts and her hair is long in a ponytail style which is a common female hairstyle. Some speculate that the reason for some of the female glyphs to be missing is that since king Pacal is descended from lady Kan-Ik , needed to masculinize her in order to legitimize his inheritance of kingship. Even though Lady Kan-Ik was seen as an equal to other rulers, her image had to be masculinized in order to help a descendant of hers become king through a female line, which is not usually the case. Most of the time heirs are chosen through the fathers parentage⁶. The treatment of lady Kan-Ik whenever mentioned demonstrates how even a woman ruler, which is not common, is shown the same respect as a ruler. There is not distinction between her and other rulers. The only thing that is different for her was that they trait to make her more manly in order to better help the next male ruler.

Picture reference:
Hewitt, Erika A. “WHAT'S IN A NAME: Gender, Power, and Classic Maya Women Rulers.” Ancient Mesoamerica, vol. 10, no. 2, 1999, pp. 251–262. JSTOR,

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Object: Oval Palace tablet portrait
where: Palenque
Date: 683 A.D
Lady Zac Kuk shares the emblem glyph with Lady OI Nal, the “water group”used for rulers not elite women.  She ruled Palenque in A.D 612 but only lasted 3 years but still held a lot of power until her death. Given that she celebrated “period Ending” ceremonies it is assumed that she ruled with her son as equals. The image shows Lady OI Nal giving her son the throne which is unprecedented for a Maya woman and she is also holding the crown, not the son. Another fact about her is that she wielded a lot of political influence not seen before in the Maya world. After Her death lady Zac Kuk’s son Pacal elevated her to a divine status. In her hieroglyphic inscriptions she was represented as “Lady Beastie” which is also the name of a mother goddess, the first one to be exact. The first mother goddess is the mother of other gods and was born before the current creation period. The elevation of Lady Zac Kuk was not seen before, it hadn't been done for any noble woman, mother or queen. In the image we can also see Lady Zac Kuk is seen giving the crown to her on Pacal but it can also be noted that she is using a ss.4 hairstyle⁶. This is unusual since this style was reserved to men. It can be inferred that even female rulers were able to wear and use those hairstyles and garments reserved for men. There doesn't seem to be any sign that it was taboo for women to be depicted as so, even though it is very rare to see it happen. Such as with lady Kan-Ik, lady Zac-kuk was depicted as an equal to the male rulers, both in appearance and her style of clothing.

Picture reference:
Hewitt, Erika A. “WHAT'S IN A NAME: Gender, Power, and Classic Maya Women Rulers.” Ancient Mesoamerica, vol. 10, no. 2, 1999, pp. 251–262. JSTOR,

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Object: Cast of Maya Carving of Lady Xoc

Where Found: Guatemala

Date: 700s CE

In this cast of a maya carving we see Lady Xoc conducting a bloodletting ceremony. The carving depicts a scene called the “serpent scene”. In the carved relief we see a number of things happening with context relating to gender. Lady Xoc is depicted at the bottom right facing a serpent rising out of ceremonial bloodletting paraphernalia, and out the serpent's mouth spews a warrior. When we look at the “serpent scene”, without any other information given, we have reason to assume the gender and status of the figures based on the type of costume and or dress. Looking at the figure in the bottom right corner we can see context clues as to who the figure is. The figure has a number of beaded accessories, bracelets, collars etc., assumed to be made of jade or shell. The figure is shown having feathers hanging from her tilted headdress, and is dawning a cape and skirt, typical of female royalty in Maya depictions. The skirt and cape is patterned with geometric shapes that resemble flowers. With these clues we can accurately assume she is “Lady Xoc” the female ruler. The figure at the top coming out of the serpents mouth sports a shield, spear, and chest ornaments typical of the male warrior. By putting these clues (context in the form of clothing) together we can assume that the two figures are of two different genders and of two different statuses. Often times we see figures in maya lintels, sculptures, or other depiction and can determine the sex by their dress.

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Object: Figurine of a Standing Ruler

Where Found: Guatemala

Date: 600-800ce

The dimension of this figurine of a Maya lord is 23.8cm high 9.9cm wide with a depth of 9.8cm . Although small compared to many other maya artworks, and incomplete this figurine gives us a detailed look at what Male royalty in the Maya society wore. The figurine’s outfit, traditional for Male lords, served as a representation of the central world tree. Sitting atop the tree, the headdress represents the Principal Bird Deity, also known as the Solar Bird. This costume, directly relates maya rulership to their religious creation story, the Popul Vuh. The Principal Bird deity chapter of the Popul Vuh is an integral part of the tale, and it shows its importance by being one of the main themes for the Male Rulers' costume. With the shield in the left hand, we can assume that in the other, at some point, was a spear, staff or scepter. Unlike the traditional female royal dress, male lords sported aprons. In this ruler’s depiction, we can see him sporting an apron with a symbolic marking of the Central world tree. The headdress of the ruler being the most obvious symbol of the costume, represents the Principal Bird Deity. The accessories and elements on the torso of the body serve as badges or symbols of his rank. The Maya Lord's dress marks him as a key figure head of the religious, social, and political system. The elaborate costume relating to the maya religion is a way to showcase his power and his rightful spot in the cosmos.

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Object: 2D illustration of a Maya Stela depicting Wazaklajun Ub’ah K’awil

Where Found: Copan

Date: 720AD

For the most part we can immediately tell the gender of a figure in Maya art, through the visual clues in their costumes. In the previous 3 art pieces the figures generally wore the traditional outfits assigned to their gender. But does the genderized costume always correlate to the sex of the Figure? The answer is, not always. This depiction on a Maya stela found in Copan is an example of the Maya mixing gendered dress. In the depiction of the male ruler Wazaklajun Ub’ah K’awil, titled Copan Stela H, we can see multiple articles of costume that alludes to the male and female gender. The Maya ruler is seen wearing the head dress traditionally assigned to Male lords but as we can see, he is not wearing the traditional loincloth. Instead Wazaklajun is wearing a Maya skirt that drapes below the knee. The skirt in the Maya culture is traditionally a Female article of clothing, So why is this Male ruler donning such a feminine article? Just like the headdress, the skirt serves as a symbol. Male lords, such as the one in Copan Stela H, are depicted wearing these skirts for religious ceremonies, particularly penile bloodletting ceremonies. The act of wearing the female attire during penile bloodletting, gives the penis the capability to give two life giving fluids, those being semen and blood. The skirt acts as a symbol for female fertility. Through bloodletting through the male genitalia and wearing the skirt, the male ruler mimics the female life giving fluid, the menstrual cycle. By doing so Male rulers absorb the Female ruler’s political power, leaving them as secondarily powerful in fertility.

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Ardren, Tracy. Ancient Maya Women. Rowman & Littlefield, 2002.

Chase, Arlen F, et al. “Textile and The Maya Archeological Record.” Gender; Power, and Status in Classic Period Caracol, 2008, pp. 127–142.

Joyce, Rosemary. “Images of Gender and Labor Organization in Maya Society.” 1991.

Macloed, Morna. “Development in Practice.” Mayan Dress as Text: Contested Meanings, 2004, www-jstor-org.ezproxy.csusm.edu/stable/4029896?seq=4#metadata_info_tab_contents.

Sweet, Bassie K. “Chac Chel.” Owlapps, 1999

Picture references by order:

https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/spindle-with-brown-cotton/zAGFtS3CntLIyw

https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/figurilla-femenina-unknown/7gEu0GJS6nbZJw

https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/cast-of-maya-carving-of-lady-xoc/rgEDB5cVE0Hrfg

https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/standing-ruler/HAH_Zl0Iz6FJaQ

https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/mayan-lintel/sQFMJKMTI-GeWA

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This exhibit will be exploring the relationship between gender and health within Maya communities. We will first be learning about the Maya goddess, Ixchel, who is seen as a healer and protector of women. Ixchel is the goddess of many things including, medicine, fertility, and midwifery. Many Maya women pray to Ixchel to ask for fertility and ease in childbirth, they even travel to her island in Mexico to perform these prayers. Her island, Isla de Mujeres, is a sanctuary for all women to go and feel safe. She keeps women healthy and helps them through childbirth as she is a midwife. Childbirth and pregnancy were seen as extremely dangerous during pre-colonial times, therefore we will also be taking a look at a scene that depicts childbirth with the assistance of Izamna, the god of medicine. The Ritual of the Bacabs, a Maya manuscript, was used to understand the rituals that took place in order to protect women and their expected baby from the dangers of childbirth. There is a chant that describes the scene of childbirth and highlights the importance of steam baths for pregnant women or women who have recently given birth. This scene is related to the last catalog entry discussed in this museum that discusses sweatbaths. Sweatbaths are for everyone as they are a great way to heal the body. Both men and women would use these baths to sweat out diseases. They were also used for women before, during, or after birth just as described in the Ritual of the Bacabs from the second catalog entry. It was important to perform these sweatbaths on pregnant women because if they were not purified, they could pose a potential threat to babies and plants. Aside from sweatbaths, foods were also used as remedies to heal a person's body. For example, cacao was an important part of the Maya diet. The cacao seed can make many different things that can be used as treatments for hair, skin, and the body. The chocolate made from cacao seeds was used to mask the taste of foul tasting medicine. The significance of chocolate in Maya communities also reveals some gender inequality. Maya women were not allowed to have chocolate during ritualistic settings because it was seen as intoxicating. This shows that men would have this drink more often than women and reap more of the benefits from it.  Lastly, body deformation was often done throughout members of the Maya elite. Men and women would have different procedures done for ritualistic purposes. A women would pierce her tongue while a man would pierce his genitals.

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Object 2: Childbirth scene on ceramic vase

Where is it located: not found

Date: not found

Catalog entry: Pregnancy and childbirth were one of the most dangerous experiences for Maya women dating back from the precolonial time to the first decade of the twentieth century. Many women would lose their lives before, after or during childbirth during these times. There are three pernital rites sighted in the colonial manuscript known as the Ritual of the Bacabs. The Ritual of the Bacabs is written in Yucatec Maya using a modified alphabetic script introduced by the Spanish, it contains combinations of herbal decoctions, physical manipulation of the patient’s body, and ritual chants. Although this manuscript dates back to the eighteenth century, the healing traditions date back to pre-colonial times. One rite in the manuscript is about steam bathing, it is labeled as v tħanil u siscunabal pib lae which loosely translates to “this is the word for the cooling of a pib.” During colonial times in Yucatec, a pib referred to a bath in which pregnant women or women who recently gave birth are purified. The chant describes pouring hot rocks counterclockwise in the four cardinal directions to generate steam in order to heat and purify women’s bodies during perinatal rites. It ends with a metaphorical description of childbirth where Itzamna, a Maya deity, opens its mouth to receive the woman in the bath. The scene depicted on the ceramic vase shows a classic maya childbirth. The crocodilian god, Itzamna, is wrapped around the woman’s body and an aged man is emerging from its mouth. The chant from the Ritual of the Bacabs is illustrated in this scene that has been carved into a ceramic vase.

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Object 1: Statue of  Goddess IxChel

Where found: On the Island of Isla de Mujeres in Mexico

Date: 13th to 16th century

Catalog entry: IxChel is the Goddess of the moon, medicine, midwifery and many other things. She is a triple deity, as she embodies three main aspects in Maya society as she ages. When she is pictured as a young maiden, she is seen as the goddess of fertility and youth. As a middle aged woman, she is a mother goddess that is associated with weaving and the moon. In her crone stage, she is a healer and midwife. In this aspect she is usually seen emptying a womb-like  jar of fluid and is also said to be a keeper of dead souls. Legend says that for years Ixchel craved attention from Kinich Ahau, the sun god. At times she would chase after him and cause the tides to rise and create floods. Her weaving was what finally caught his attention and soon they fell in love and had four children together. Her grandfather disapproved so he struck her with his lightning blade and killed her. After 183 days she finally awoke in the palace of the sun god but their relationship was not the same. Kinich Ahau had become jealous and abusive causing Ixchel to leave him for good. Ixchel became a fierce jaguar crone who refuses to be a victim of an abusive husband and instead stands as a healer and protector of women. This statue of Ixchel shows her wearing a serpent as a headdress which symbolizes wisdom and transformation. It is located on Isla de Mujeres which means island of women, where Ixchel is worshiped. Women from all over mesoamerica travel to Isla de Mujeres to request fertility, marriage, and ease in childbirth from Ixchel. When she answers their prayers, they return to the island to show their gratitude.

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From the objects that were just presented, we are able to get a glance at what women in positions of power were treated like. The burial depiction also showed that a woman can also pose a bigger threat more so than the king himself. From Lady Six sky, Lady Kan-Ik and Lady Zac-kuk we can see that they were treated as equal to men and previous rulers. There was not any sign of discrimination taken towards them based on the fact that they were woman. The emblems used for them were typically reserved for male rulers. some depictions of these women had them also wearing hairstyles which were also reserved for men. This hints at Maya's view towards woman and how they actually see them as an equal rather than an inferior person.

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Object: Stela 24
where: Naranjo
Date: 726 A.D
The image is stela 24 depicting  Lady Six Sky from Naranjo who ruled between 702 and 726 A.D. Unlike Lady Zac Kuk and Lady OI Nal, she was not a Naranjo native but was rather given this area to govern possible by her father who ruled over a neighboring site. In stela 24 it is noted that she has the title of bacab or “sky bearer”  but it does not have the female prefix but rather the prefix “ahau” or “ajaw” which was typical of male rulers. Stela 31 depicts her as having the royal power of the site and with the inscriptions hinting at that she was regarded as ruler like the previous Naranjo rulers. Unlike the Palenque rulers whose accession statements were written posthumous Lady Six Sky was written as she was ruling. The stela above depicts a militaristic theme with Lady Six Sky standing on the back of a prisoner which communicates their authority to others along with the absence of any female context it can be seen that she is regarded as a complete equal to other rulers. She is the only maya woman to have ever been shown in such a manner of dominance. She is also shown wearing typical woman attire such as the lattice-work outfit with the xoc fish monster and bivalve belt. Unlike in Palenque, in Naranjo they didn't have a gender specific hairstyle; most male rulers wear elaborate headdresses that cover their hair almost completely⁴. During her rule, Lady Six Sky was able to repair Naranjo from a broken state; this is a remarkable feat for any ruler to have.

Picture reference:
Hewitt, Erika A. “WHAT'S IN A NAME: Gender, Power, and Classic Maya Women Rulers.” Ancient Mesoamerica, vol. 10, no. 2, 1999, pp. 251–262. JSTOR,

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1. Ardren, Traci. Ancient Maya Women. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira, 2002. Gender and Archaeology Ser. ; v. 3. Web.

2. Hewitt, Erika A. “WHAT'S IN A NAME: Gender, Power, and Classic Maya Women Rulers.” Ancient Mesoamerica, vol. 10, no. 2, 1999, pp. 251–262. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26307991. Accessed 14 Apr. 2021.

3. Masson, Marilyn A, and David A. Freidel. Ancient Maya Political Economies. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 2002. Print.

4. Taube, Karl A. “THE SYMBOLISM OF JADE IN CLASSIC MAYA RELIGION.” Ancient Mesoamerica, vol. 16, no. 1, 2005, pp. 23–50. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26309392. Accessed 23 Apr. 2021.

5. “Front Matter.” Death and the Classic Maya Kings, by JAMES L. FITZSIMMONS, University of Texas Press, 2009, pp. i-vi. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7560/718906.1. Accessed 23 Apr. 2021.

6. Hardman, Amanda. "Classic Maya Women Rulers in Monumental Art." The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 14.1 (2006).

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Object 5: Drawing of Maya Sweatbath

Where found:

Date:

Catalog entry: The Maya people used sweatbaths as a way to keep their bodies healthy. They functioned as a place for recreation and purification. There is an emphasis on the curative and therapeutic properties of these sweatbaths as they restore heat and eliminate fevers. This seemed to be the case as well for other illnesses as they were able to be “sweated out” due to the high heat. Sweatbaths were often taken by multiple people at a time, usually of the same sex, and they would use leaves or twigs to hit one another to open up eachothers pores. The most intensive medical use of these baths were before, during, and after child birth. In some communities, birth would take place in a sweathouse and baths would take place in specific intervals while the woman's stomach is massaged and she would have special food prepared for her. These treatments were done not only to protect the childbearing women but the community as a whole. In Maya religion, pregnant women are considered dangerous entities because their gaze can cause small children and plants to get sick or even die. Before a person can enter the sweathouse, there are elaborate rituals that must be performed. For example, one must burn incense or smear black paint all over themselves. The drawing below shows a sweathouse with hole for the smoke to exit, water channels, and fire wood. There is an older woman, presumably the curer or midwife, who is building the fire. On the sweathouse there is the head of Tlazolteotl, the deity of sweatbaths.

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Object 3: Hieroglyph of Cacao

Where found: guatemala or mexico

Date: 550-700

Catalog entry: The Maya peoples believed that cacao was a gift from the gods, it was a big part of their civilization. Cacao was used for more than just eating because a cacao seed can produce cocoa powder, cocoa butter, and chocolate. These seeds were so valuable in the Maya community that they were even used as currency. There were yearly festivals held in honor of the cacao God, Ek Chua, where they performed ceremonial rituals and made offerings to him. When it came to the use of chocolate for rituals, only men, elite, and royals were allowed to drink chocolate because it was seen as intoxicating. Women and children were forbidden from having any during ritual settings. However, chocolate was not only used for ritual purposes but it was also greatly used for medical reasons. Chocolate was mainly used for healing and maintaining health. It was taken with foul-tasting medicines to mask their tastes. The Florentine Codex states that a mixture of cacao beans, maize, and tlacoxochitil could be used to alleviate a fever, shortness of breath, and the faint of heart. There are over a hundred different medical uses for cacao. The image seen in this entry is a picture of the hieroglyph used for the word cacao, or kakau in Mayan. The top of the head that has multiple lines on it stands for Ka as well as the right side with the multiple line. The bottom right corner stands for the u. All together forming the word ka-ka-u.

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Houston, Stephen D. “Symbolic Sweatbaths of the Maya: Architectural Meaning in the Cross

Group at Palenque, Mexico.” Latin American Antiquity, vol. 7, no. 2, 1996, pp. 132–151.

JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/971614. Accessed 21 Apr. 2021.

Paul, Diana. "IXCHEL: The Mayan Goddess of Midwifery." Midwifery Today, no. 118, Summer,

2016, pp. 56. ProQuest, https://ezproxy.csusm.edu/login?auth=shibboleth&url=https://www.proquest.com/magazines/ixchel-mayan-goddess-midwifery/docview/1805463214/se-2?accountid=10363.

Kellog, Ally. “The significance, meaning, and purpose of body modification among the ancient

May.” Academia.edu,  https://www.academia.edu/2974781/The_Purpose_Function_and_Significance_of_Body_Modification_Among_the_Preclassic_through_Postclassic_Maya

Knowlton. Timothy, Yam. Edber; “Perinatal Rites in the Ritual of the Bacabs, a Colonial

Maya Manuscript.” Ethnohistory 1 October 2019; 66 (4): 721–744. doi:

https://doi-org.ezproxy.csusm.edu/10.1215/00141801-7683312

St. Jean, Julie. “Medical and Ritualistic uses for Chocolate in Mesoamerica.” Heritagedaily.

2020.

https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/03/medicinal-and-ritualistic-uses-for-chocolate-in-mesoamerica-2/98809.  Accessed 23 Apr. 2021.

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Object 4: Stela 24

Where was it found: Yaxchilan

Date: Late classic period

Catalog entry: There has been physical archaeological and iconographic evidence to support the use of body modification throughout Maya communities. These body modifications are believed to be a product of self-expression and utilized to show socioeconomic status, religious power, political hierarchy, and specialized skill.  Cranial deformation was used equally between men and women. This was done through the manipulation of the skull of a baby by fastening two boards on the head, one in the front and one in the back to reach an elongated head look. Teeth were also modified by using jade to plug in holes in them. Jade was used because it was thought to have the ability to purify breath and cleanse the person who underwent the procedure. The Maya also would peirce and stretch their noses, ears, and lips. In addition, they would also pierce their genitals and tongues but these were done for ritualistic purposes. The blood of elite men was seen as the most prominent blood, so they would ascend into a temple to be pierced in their genitals by a stingray spine. They would allow their blood to drip onto the sacred surfaces and perform ritualistic dances. Many speculate that this was done to compensate for women’s menstruation, because women bled men had to as well. The tongue piercings were primarily done by the female elites. Women would have their tongue pierced by the stingray spine then a wine would be inserted. The too would let the blood drip drown as an offering to the gods. This drawing shows Lady Xoc piercing her tongue with a barbed rope in front of her husband while he holds a torch.