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Links to Useful Websites for designing activities for students with LDs

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Links to Useful Websites for designing activities for students with LDs

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https://ncse.ie/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Supporting-Physical-Education-for-students-with-SEN-during-Covid-19.pdf

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A small but growing number of students are applying to be exempted from taking the mother-tongue exam during the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE). Channel NewsAsia reported that from 2010 to 2013, about 3.5 per cent of each PSLE cohort was exempted from the mother-tongue language requirement. Dyslexia is cited as one of the top three medical conditions for such exemptions.

More and more children these days are turning to the Dyslexia Association of Singapore (DAS) for help - and in more languages. SmartParents asked Priscillia Shen, assistant head of the DAS Academy, for details on how dyslexia can differ according to language - and what can be done about this learning disability.

What are the differences between dyslexia in English and in Chinese?

As dyslexia is a language-based learning difficulty, the difference is due mainly to the nature and structure of the language.
English language adopts an atonal, alphabetic system while the Chinese language adopts a tonal [the four tones in Mandarin] logographic system where most of the characters [parts of or whole words] contain a semantic element and a phonetic element to provide clues on meaning and pronunciation, respectively.

In Chinese, a student with dyslexia could:
* Confuse words that look alike, such as 午/牛, 家/象.
* Confuse words that sound alike, such as 九/就/球.
* Confuse or mismatch characters within a word, such as 学校 vs 校学 or 合作 vs 和作.
* Unable to write strokes in proper direction and sequence.
* Write characters with poor proportions, such as "胖" as"月半", or with extra or missing strokes, such as "本" as "木", or with parts in wrong order, such as "听" as "斤口".
* Poor understanding of radical positions in a character, for example, they may be unsure if 氵should be on the left or right, top or bottom

In English, dyslexic kids may:
* Confuse letters that look alike - b/d, p/q.
* Reverse letter sequences such as "was" for "saw", "on" for "no".
* Make anagrams of words - such as "tired" for "tried", "wives" for "views".
* Mix up words that start with the same letters - "there", "that" and "the" for instance.
* Omit or add letters in words - "lip" for "limp".
* Be unable to write down a word even when the letters are dictated to them.
* Be unable to identify the appropriate letter when given a sound and vice versa.

Can techniques that are taught in English be applied to dyslexia in Chinese?

The techniques taught in Chinese help dyslexic students cope with their reading and writing difficulties based on the nature of language. However, these techniques are different from those used for English because of the difference in these two language systems. But the same set of teaching principles is adopted in supporting dyslexic students in Chinese.

Some studies have found the Orton-Gillingham approach effective in helping dyslexics cope with the English language; and given its structured flexibility, there have also been recent attempts in adopting this approach to teach non-English languages.
The key to teaching dyslexic students in Chinese is to target their weaknesses through direct and explicit teaching of phonology, syntactic and semantic components of the language.

"The Chinese language can be more complex than the English language, in terms of the transparency between speech sounds and print."

If a child is dyslexic in both languages, do they have to work twice as hard?

Dyslexia varies across languages and the manifestation of its symptoms depends on an individual's cognitive-processing capabilities and the nature of language. It can be a challenge for a bilingual dyslexic learner to learn two languages of different orthographies [such as English and Chinese spelling systems].

However, not all dyslexic students struggle with learning both languages. Although dyslexia is a language-based learning difficulty specific to the areas of reading, spelling and writing, an individual's strengths in certain cognitive processes could compensate some of the difficulties faced.

A dyslexic learner with strong visual memory may find the Chinese language easier to learn than the English language. The Chinese language can be more complex than the English language, in terms of the transparency between speech sounds and print. Hence, it requires more visual-perceptual processes to learn the characters as compared to the English language, which is relatively more transparent in its sound-print relationship.

For most dyslexic learners, they would have to work harder to cope with language learning than their normal peers.

How does dyslexia work in Bahasa Melayu and Tamil? More like English or Chinese?

As mentioned, symptoms of dyslexia can be manifested differently in each language and every individual. Singapore's linguistic environment can be very diverse with the four main languages possessing different sound-print mapping systems.
English is an alphabetic language, Chinese is a logographic language, Malay is a Roman-alphabetic language and Tamil is a syllabic, Brahmi language.

As most research on dyslexia is based on the English language, it would be interesting if more research on dyslexia can be conducted in relation to other languages and multilingualism in the future.
If you are worried about your child's reading or writing ability, contact DAS for an assessment.

Priscillia Shen is the assistant head, DAS Academy. She has been co-presenting papers on learning difficulties in Chinese language and Mathematics in relation to dyslexia at conferences since 2012.

Photos: iStock
Other stories you may like... Is junior slow at reading and writing? Is my child dyslexic? "Two of my sons have autism"

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Mother-tongue dyslexia: What you need to know

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A small but growing number of students are applying to be exempted from taking the mother-tongue exam during the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE). Channel NewsAsia reported that from 2010 to 2013, about 3.5 per cent of each PSLE cohort was exempted from the mother-tongue language requirement.

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 Vocational training for students with learning disabilities: a qualitative investigation.

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 Vocational training for students with learning disabilities: a qualitative investigation.

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https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13636829900200093

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By: National Center for Technology Innovation

In an increasingly complex world, all students need to be scientifically literate. While some students may go on to pursue advanced careers in the sciences, basic scientific literacy is critical for all students. All students need to understand what it means to think like a scientist, and how to evaluate information that is called "scientific". Many of the careers of the future will require that students have the ability to collaborate and solve problems using STEM skills. Struggling students are no exception - they will need the same types of knowledge and skills, and will often require additional supports to be successful.

Research has shown that the most meaningful learning happens when students are engaged in authentic activities that ask them to think and behave like chemists, computer programmers, mathematicians, engineers or archeologists - that is, when they are engaged in activities that mirror the real-life tasks of STEM professionals. [i] These activities might include the use of virtual environments and simulations, developing models of scientific phenomena, and using collaborative tools like email, video conferencing, and classroom wikis. These types of activities can present new challenges for struggling students and students with disabilities. In this series of science info briefs, Using Technology to Support Struggling Students in Science, we'll examine five different dimensions of science learning, the areas that may be challenging for struggling students, and how technology tools may help.

Student engagement and identity with science

Perhaps one of the most important dimensions of science education for all students is their ability to engage with science and see themselves as scientists. [ii] Do students understand the importance of science in their lives? Even if students do not plan on pursuing STEM careers, scientific literacy is still critical in enabling students to engage productively with scientific language and content in their daily lives.

Identity, and perception of oneself as a scientist, is a key element of motivation and engagement with science content. When students can see themselves as potential future scientists, they are more engaged in science learning. Students who can envision themselves as scientists or mathematicians are more likely to pursue STEM coursework beyond middle and high school. [iii]

An important element of both identity and engagement are authentic activities that encourage students' active involvement in scientific inquiry. Project- and problem-based learning (PBL) is one way to give students an opportunity to try on the role of "scientist". As students work towards solving the central problem (or addressing a driving question), they become more engaged in the learning process, take more control over their own learning, and are more likely to see themselves as scientists.

Some features of educational technology that can support students' engagement and identity in science are:

Science curricula that encourage student questioning and an inquiry process

Scenarios and immersive environments that let students practice being scientists

Distance technology that connects students with practicing scientists

Inquiry-based science curricula

Technologies that are based on scientific inquiry are more likely to contain a driving question or a project/problem-based design. These tools and curricula are becoming more common and popular as the technologies to support inquiry-based learning online are becoming more widely available.

Scenarios and immersive environments that let students practice being scientists

Scenario-based instructional technologies that provide authentic experiences, including using and manipulating data, producing scientific documents, and portraying the user as a scientist can help students engage in and envision themselves pursuing STEM careers. These can be simulations, such as a virtual laboratory, or immersive worlds that allow students to explore and learn progressively more complex tasks and topics. Simulations are perhaps the most widely available technology tools for science content at every grade level. They can range from incredibly complex virtual worlds that allow students to explore an ecosystem in depth, to more focused simulations focusing on a specific activity.

Distance technology

There are many ways to use technology to bring scientists into your classroom. For example, students can visit official web pages, email questions and participate in online discussion forums. New technology tools can also allow students to virtually participate in actual research with STEM professionals - posing questions, watching research activities, even helping with data collection in their hometowns as citizen scientists (i.e. helping to collect water samples to submit to a larger database or monitoring firefly populations). Research has shown that these types of interactions can support student learning in a variety of ways, such as engaging students, increasing participation in discussions, and encouraging the shared construction of knowledge. [iv]

Many research organizations, museums, government agencies and universities offer outreach programs to allow classes and students to engage in activities and discussions with scientists. Some programs even allow students to join scientific expeditions virtually through live streaming video and real-time chat. Using videos, data collection, virtual labs, simulations, and streaming satellite videos of scientists in the field, these types of projects enable students to participate in ongoing research, interact with STEM researchers, and engage in scientific discourse with their peers.

Implications for educators

To encourage students who have a difficult time imagining themselves as future STEM professionals, teachers can consider some of these approaches:

Look for examples of scientists on the Internet and show how many came from what seemed to be unlikely backgrounds and were successful in science.

Identify games and simulations that can provide students with opportunities to model being scientists through their virtual activity.

Identify programs of resources and technologies for aspiring scientists on the Internet that can help students see the type of support they could receive.

Search the TechMatrix for tools that support science education, are built using authentic scientific inquiry, and allow students to practice being scientists.

Consider incorporating the resources listed below into your science curriculum.

Technology resources

EEK! Environmental Education for Kids - Get a Job
Resources and information are presented for elementary and middle school students about possible careers in environmental sciences.

EngineerGirl
The EngineerGirl website is part of a National Academy of Engineering project to bring national attention to the opportunity that engineering represents to all people at any age, but particularly to women and girls. Find resources and information to encourage young girls to consider careers in engineering.

Engineer Your Life
The Engineer Your Life Web site is the centerpiece of a national campaign designed to encourage young college-bound women to consider pursuing careers in engineering. Encourage your students to see themselves in STEM careers as they learn more about what life and work are like for engineers.

We Choose the Moon
Use this interactive simulation from the JFK Library and Museum celebrating the 40 th anniversary of the Apollo lunar landing to encourage your students to learn more about the people and places involved in sending a mission to the moon, and to gain a personal perspective on the landing.

Ask a Scientist
Browse previously answered questions, or submit a question of your own in the areas of human biology, animals, medicine, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics or evolution, and encourage your students to explore different areas of science.
References
References

[i] Herrington, J., & Kervin, L. (2007). Authentic learning supported by technology: Ten suggestions and cases of integration in classrooms. Educational Media International, 44(3), 219-236.; Tan, S. C., Yeo, A. C. J., & Lim, W. Y. (2005). Changing epistemology of science learning through inquiry with computer-supported collaborative learning. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 24(4), 367-386.

[ii] Aikenhead, G. S. (2001). Students' ease in crossing cultural borders into school science. Science Education, 85, 180-188.; Lynch, S. (2000). Equity and science education reform. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.; Parker, L., Rennie, L., & Fraser, B. (Eds.). (1996). Gender science and mathematics: Shortening the shadow. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.

[iii] Tai, R. H., Liu, C. Q., Maltese, A. V., & Fan, X. (2006). Planning early for careers in science. Science, 312, 1143-1144.

[iv] Han & Hill, 2007; Wheeler, S., Yeomans, P., & Wheeler, D. (2008). The good, the bad and the wiki: Evaluating student-generated content for collaborative learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(6), 987-995.

National Center for Technology Innovation (2010)

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Using Technology to Support Struggling Students: Student Engagement and Identity with Science

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By: National Center for Technology Innovation In an increasingly complex world, all students need to be scientifically literate. While some students may go on to pursue advanced careers in the sciences, basic scientific literacy is critical for all students. All students need to understand what it means to think like a scientist, and how to evaluate information that is called "scientific".

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It's not easy to keep struggling students engaged in writing and reading.

Many have started learning the ropes in terms of strategies for reading and writing but haven't been given enough slack to practice, so they don't automatically generate purposes for their reading or revise their writing to suit their purpose.

A promising approach (which is featured as a recommendation in the new "Teaching Secondary Students to Write Effectively" practice guide, published by the Institute of Education Sciences in November 2016) is to focus on the features of effective text as a way to integrate reading and writing.

If implemented in a student-centered classroom, this approach can help students build independence-it enables them to take more control over constructing meaning; think more deeply about task, purpose, and audience; and actively identify themselves as readers and writers.

Here are a few strategies you can employ to implement this approach in your classroom:

Emphasize connections between reading and writing. Many educators teach reading and writing separately. However, the practice guide recommends explicitly highlighting the connections between the two subjects.

For example, students can take note of the sensory details they find in closely reading a narrative and apply what they learn to a piece of writing. A related activity would be to ask students to remove the sensory details from a reading and discuss how it impacts the text.

Use cognitive-strategy sentence starters to help students understand what an author is doing. Students respond to starters (such as "The most important message is ..." and "I'm getting a different picture here because ..."), and in the process, they learn to identify as both a reader and writer.

When you connect reading and writing in the classroom, take advantage of every opportunity to build your students' confidence-when they read, they should feel that understanding the text is their most important job, and when they write, they should know they are in charge of creating a connection with their readers.

It's empowering stuff.

Use mentor texts. Have your students read texts that demonstrate the qualities of effective writing (also known as exemplar texts). Let them tell you, in their own words, why they love their favorite books. Then encourage them to get specific. For example, "What in the text helped you believe this author loved the farm where he grew up more than any other place in the world?"

Along those lines, teach your students a clear and specific vocabulary to describe the traits of high-quality writing (such as "ideas," "organization," "word choice," etc.) and show them where to uncover these characteristics in different text types. Use a rubric that gives students the language they need to analyze texts of varying quality so they learn to distinguish what makes a text exemplary.

In addition, study mentor texts with your students. Have them use highlighting or color-coding to identify specific features of effective writing. In an example from the practice guide, students reading a piece of argumentative writing highlight each of the author's claims in yellow as a way to learn more about how an argument is structured. When your students get a handle on the features they are identifying, they are better able to demonstrate what they've learned in their own writing.

Remember: As you integrate reading and writing in the classroom, be sure to develop students' ability to independently select and use different strategies to make meaning. Also, don't be afraid to veer from the strategies and change the task occasionally.

Your goal is active student involvement, which gives students the confidence and capacity to tackle complex reading and writing.
Download the "Teaching Secondary Students to Write Effectively" practice guide from the Institute of Education Sciences.

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Putting Reading and Writing Together for Struggling Students

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It's not easy to keep struggling students engaged in writing and reading. Many have started learning the ropes in terms of strategies for reading and writing but haven't been given enough slack to practice, so they don't automatically generate purposes for their reading or revise their writing to suit their purpose.

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According to the 2015 National Assessment of Educational Progress, two-thirds of eighth-grade students performed at or below a basic level of proficiency in mathematics. In addition, over 90 percent of eighth-grade students with disabilities performed at or below basic levels of proficiency in mathematics. These statistics stress the importance of engaging in solid teaching practice to support students who are struggling in math and students with learning disabilities.

Based on our review of the research in this area, effective math teaching practice often incorporates strategies that include:

Systematic and explicit instruction

Visual representation of functions and relationships, such as manipulatives, pictures and graphs

Peer-assisted instruction

Ongoing, formative assessment

Our librarians recently gathered these readily available, research-based resources that provide insight to teachers on what works when teaching math to struggling learners and students with learning disabilities.

Institute of Education Sciences (IES) Practice Guide

This practice guide provides eight recommendations to help teachers, principals and school administrators to identify students who need assistance in mathematics and to address the needs of these students through focused interventions. Each recommendation has practical suggestions for implementation.

Studies Focused on Teaching Practice

Intensive intervention is an individualized, demanding and concentrated approach to instruction. This article presents the evidence-based elements of intensive intervention that teachers should consider when planning for, implementing and monitoring intensive intervention in mathematics.

This report describes in-depth practices at six schools that are making targeted efforts to improve math education for students with disabilities and other struggling learners. It examines each school's practices for improving the math learning of all students as well as specific supports for students with disabilities and other struggling learners and identifies the challenges that schools face to serve students with diverse needs.

This guide describes seven effective instructional practices for teaching mathematics to K-12 students with learning disabilities that were identified in the Center on Instruction's synthesis of intervention research, and also incorporates recommendations from "The Final Report of The National Mathematics Advisory Panel."

This paper provides guidance to educators seeking out the latest scientifically based research to improve the likelihood of improving mathematics performance for students with mathematics disabilities and to give teachers a degree of confidence on the effectiveness of their instruction.

Additional Resources

This resource from the Iris Center covers several research-backed strategies for teaching students who struggle in math. Sections include explicit instruction, visual representations, schema instruction, metacognitive strategies and effective classroom practices.

This article examines characteristics and cultural and linguistic factors relevant to mathematics instruction of students with learning disabilities from language-minority backgrounds. Recommendations and strategies are introduced with attention given to balancing the influences of language, culture and disability. Specific recommendations relate to:

Appraising math ability

Selecting the language of instruction

Moving from concrete to abstract understanding

Using strategies that help students develop mathematical concepts

Using math for language development

Taking student strengths into consideration

This brief resource lists concepts and examples for teaching math based on evidence of effectiveness from high-quality research. You can also download the accompanying 10 Key Math Practices for All Middle and High Schools.

Additional Research

This article reviews the changing terminology for specific learning disabilities in math and describes the emerging genetics and brain research that relate to individuals with math disabilities. It is important to maintain a developmental perspective on math disabilities, as presentation changes with age, instruction and the different models (educational and medical) of identification. Intervention requires a systematic approach to screening and remediation that has evolved with more evidence-based literature.

This article provides special education teachers with a practical guide for assessing and evaluating the extent to which mathematics programs contain validated principles of explicit mathematics instruction. An example illustrates how teachers can apply the evaluation guide and use the results to address potential instructional shortfalls of mathematics programs.

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Mathematics Interventions: What Strategies Work for Struggling Students?

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According to the 2015 National Assessment of Educational Progress, two-thirds of eighth-grade students performed at or below a basic level of proficiency in mathematics. In addition, over 90 percent of eighth-grade students with disabilities performed at or below basic levels of proficiency in mathematics.

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By Carole Boudreau, Anne Rodrigue, Julie Myre-Bisaillon, Véronique Parent, and Annick Tremblay-Bouchard
Introduction

According to Scruggs and Mastropieri (2013), teaching science to high school students with learning disabilities (LDs) must take into account five conditions for making learning more effective:

1. Clear learning goals;

2. High-level cognitive activities;

3. Concrete and meaningful learning;

4. An active, reflective process, and

5. Explicit instruction of learning and comprehension strategies.

A study by Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, and Brigham (1993) reveals that instructional practices based on a constructivist approach are most appropriate for students with LDs, because they make it possible to learn by drawing on the students' strengths without calling attention to their weaknesses.

This theoretical observation led Scruggs and Mastropieri (2013) to identify a number of effective practices for working with high school students with LDs; the practices they suggest are particularly relevant for teaching science.

1. Summarization

The strategy that consists of summarizing a text is known to help students with LDs for recall important information (Malone & Mastropieri, 1992). This strategy is even more effective when the summary is supported by specific key phrases, words, and information from the text (Bakken, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 1997).

For example, when reading a paragraph, students are asked to identify the main idea by locating it in the text (e.g. by underlining it); then they write one sentence that summarizes the main idea of the paragraph; finally, a few keywords in support of the main idea are recorded.

2. Keyword Strategy

The keyword method, a type of mnemonic strategy, is suggested when students are learning new words (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010; Mastropieri, Scruggs, Levin, Gaffney, & McLoone, 1985). The keyword method utilizes acoustically similar words as meaningful substitutes or alternatives for unfamiliar words (e.g., vocabulary words, terminology, people, places) that must be learned for understanding important elements of the curriculum (see, Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1990a; Scruggs et al., 2010). For example:

The teacher introduces a new word by first identifying a keyword that sounds similar to the word being taught and is easily represented by a picture or drawing, then;

The teacher creates a picture connecting words to be learned with its definition (Access Center, 2007).

When using this strategy, the educator must teach the students to analyse the image acoustically and visually so that, later on, they are able to retrieve the information associated with this mental image.

This approach has also been used in history courses to teach unfamiliar facts and to memorize spatial information, such as geographical maps (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1989b; Scruggs, Mastropieri, Brigham, & Sullivan, 1992; Brigham, Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 1995). Place names are associated with images that have the same sound; actions and people can also be associated with and represented by images.

3. Guided Reflection

Following specific lesson or reading on a given topic, the educator asks the student questions in order to help them to reflect on the topic of the lesson (Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Sullivan, 1994; Scruggs, Mastropieri, Sullivan, & Hesser, 1993; Sullivan, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 1995). This approach enables the student to construct their own learning and their own explanations of the scientific concepts covered in class.

With this strategy, the educator provides basic information and then allows the students to build or construct the concept for themselves. It is recommended that the educator use scaffolding to support the student to stretch their higher-order thinking on the topic.

For example, in order to teach students the purpose of claws on anteaters' front feet, the educator provides them with a series of clues that steer them toward the right answer.

Educator: Anteaters have long claws on their front feet. Why does it make sense for anteaters to have claws on their front feet?

Student: I don't know.

Educator: Well, think about it. What do we know about anteaters? For example, what do they eat?

Student: Anteaters eat ants.

Educator: Right! And where do anteaters live?

Student: In holes they dig in the ground.

Educator: So, why does it make sense for anteaters to have claws on their front feet?

Student: So that they can dig and find ants.

Educator: Right, so that they can dig and find ants.

4. Student Discussion

In small groups, students take turns reading a paragraph from a text. After each reading, the other students ask questions of the student who was responsible for reading the given paragraph. The questions are designed to facilitate comprehension and to clarify the content. The educator then asks the students questions that were discussed by the group (Mastropieri, Scruggs, Spencer, & Fontana, 2003):

What is the most important part of this text?

What did we learn from this paragraph?

What is the key sentence of this paragraph?

5. Adapting Materials and Instruction

In order to encourage participation by students who are struggling the most, it may be a good idea to adapt the basic material to varying levels of difficulty. For example, for each activity suggested, there are three possible types of responses:

choosing the correct answer, from a multiple choice list;

providing the correct answer with the help of clues; and

providing the correct answer without any prompting (Mastropieri et al., 2006).

All activities are planned with varying levels of difficulty, and students are given choice of the level they would like to try, based on their needs (Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Marshak, 2011).

In this approach, it is suggested that students work in small groups and that they are guided to achieve each level of the activity. Clear learning objectives for each level of difficulty must be explained, and the students' progress must be documented after each activity. During activities, peer tutoring and peer mediation are used to maximize the engagement of students with LDs in the required tasks (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Kazdan, 1999; Mathes & Fuchs, 1994).

Conclusion

Studies on teaching science to students with LDs show that some practices are conducive to academic achievement in this area. In a learning context based on constructivism, practices that support high-level cognitive activities such as summarizing, reflection, and discussion, also support better comprehension of texts used for reading. Supporting secondary students with LDs to verbalize what they understand of a text; select the important information, and articulate their thoughts sets an intention for reading that improves comprehension.

Relevant Resources on the LD@school Website
Click here to access the article Mnemonics.
Click here to access the article Explicit Instruction: A Teaching Strategy in Reading, Writing, and Mathematics for Students with Learning Disabilities.

Click here to access the article Direct Instruction of Reading for Elementary-aged Students.

References

Bakken, J. P., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (1997). Reading comprehension of expository science material and students with learning disabilities: A comparison of strategies. The Journal of Special Education 31(3), 300-324.

Brigham, F. J., Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1995). Elaborative maps for enhanced learning of historical information: Uniting spatial, verbal, and imaginal information. The Journal of Special Education, 28(4), 440-460.

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Kazdan, S. (1999). Effects of peer-assisted learning strategies on high school students with serious reading problems. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 309-318.

Malone, L. D., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1992). Reading comprehension instruction: summarization and self-monitoring training for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional children. 58, 270-279.

Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2010). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (1997). Best practices in promoting reading comprehension in students with learning disabilities 1976 to 1996. Remedial and Special Education, 18(4), 198-213.

Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., Levin, J. R., Gaffney, J., & McLoone, B. (1985). Mnemonic vocabulary instruction for learning disabled students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8(1), 57-63.

Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., Norland, J. J., Berkeley, S., McDuffie, K., Tornquist, E. H., & Connors, N. (2006). Differentiated Curriculum Enhancement in Inclusive Middle School Science Effects on Classroom and High-Stakes Tests. The Journal of Special Education, 40(3), 130-137.

Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., Spencer, V., & Fontana, J. (2003). Promoting success in high school world history: Peer tutoring versus guided notes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18(1), 52-65.

Mathes, P. G., & Fuchs, L. S. (1994). The efficacy of peer tutoring in reading for students with mild disabilities: A best-evidence synthesis. School Psychology Review, 23, 59-80.

Scruggs, T. E. et Mastropieri, M. A. (2013): Science and Social Studies Education for Students with Learning Disabilities in Handbook of learning disabilities, second edition In Swanson H. L., Harris K. R. and Graham S. (Eds.), The Guilford Press.

Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1989). Reconstructive elaborations: A model for content area learning. American Educational Research Journal, 26(2), 311-327.

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Bakken, J. P., & Brigham, F. J. (1993). Reading versus doing: The relative effects of textbook-based and inquiry-oriented approaches to science learning in special education classrooms. The Journal of Special Education, 27(1), 1-15.

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Brigham, F. J., & Sullivan, G. S. (1992). Effects of mnemonic reconstructions on the spatial learning of adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15(3), 154-162.

Scruggs, T. E. et Mastropieri, M. A., & Marshak, L. (2011). Science and Social Studies. In J. Kauffman, D. P. Hallahan, & J. Lloyd (Eds.), Handbook of special education (pp445-455). New York: Routledge.

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & Sullivan, G. S. (1994). Promoting relational thinking skills: Elaborative interrogation for mildly handicapped students. Exceptional Children, 60, 450-457.

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Sullivan, G. S., & Hesser, L. S. (1993). Improving reasoning and recall: The differential effects of elaborative interrogation and mnemonic elaboration. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16(3), 233-240.
Carole Boudreau teaches at the Département d'études sur l'adaptation scolaire et sociale (Department of Academic and Social Accommodation Studies) at the University of Sherbrooke. Before accepting this position, she worked as a remedial teacher in the school environment, as a guidance teacher specialized in hearing impairment and as a project officer for the Quebec Ministry of Education's Direction de l'adaptation scolaire (Academic Accommodation Branch). Her research interests focus on reading and writing difficulties as well as remedial instruction. She is a member of the Collectif de recherche sur la continuité des apprentissages en lecture et en écriture (CLÉ) (Research Group on the Continuity of Learning to Read and Write). Véronique Parent is a psychologist and professor at the Département de psychologie (Department of Psychology) at the University of Sherbrooke. Her research interests focus on cognitive disorders related to learning disabilities and accommodation. She is also interested in using novel intervention approaches in school environments, such as the use of cognitive training programs, to promote the development of special education students' learning potential. She is a member of the Collectif de recherche sur la continuité des apprentissages en lecture et en écriture (CLÉ) (Research Group on the Continuity of Learning to Read and Write). Anne Rodrigue is a PhD student in the Département des études sur l'adaptation scolaire et sociale (Department of Academic and Social Accommodation Studies) at the University of Sherbrooke. She was trained as a remedial teacher and for over 10 years has been dividing her time between research at the University and practice in schools. Annick Tremblay-Bouchard is a Masters student in Education Science focusing on academic accommodation at the University of Sherbrooke. Trained as a primary school teacher, she specializes in students with hearing disabilities. Julie Myre-Bisaillon is a full professor at the Département des études sur l'adaptation scolaire et sociale (Department of Academic and Social Accommodation Studies) in the Faculty of Education at the University of Sherbrooke. She is in charge of the Collectif de recherche sur la continuité des apprentissages en lecture et en écriture (CLÉ) (Research Group on the Continuity of Learning to Read and Write), a research team with roughly twenty members. Her research interests focus on teaching accommodation for special education students, using by-project approaches based on children's literature from a multidisciplinary perspective, and on reading and writing awareness in disadvantaged areas. She has also taught at the high school level and performed remedial work.
Sullivan, G. S., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (1995). Reasoning and remembering coaching students with learning disabilities to think. The Journal of Special Education, 29(3), 310-322.

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Teaching Science to High School Students with Learning Disabilities: Rising to the Challenge

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By Carole Boudreau, Anne Rodrigue, Julie Myre-Bisaillon, Véronique Parent, and Annick Tremblay-Bouchard Introduction According to Scruggs and Mastropieri (2013), teaching science to high school students with learning disabilities (LDs) must take into account five conditions for making learning more effective: Clear learning

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By: Diane Torres Raborn

New York State Association for Bilingual Education Journal Volume10, pp. 25-33

This article examines characteristics and cultural and linguistic factors relevant to mathematics instruction of students with learning disabilities from language-minority backgrounds. Recommendations and strategies are introduced with attention given to balancing the influences of language, culture, and disability. Specific recommendations relate to: 1) appraising math ability; 2) selecting the language of instruction; 3) moving from concrete to abstract understanding; 4) using strategies that help students develop mathematical concepts; 5) using math for language development; and 6) taking student strengths into consideration.

Introduction

Professionals in both special education and bilingual education have worked adamantly to keep routes to learning accessible to populations whose educational needs differ from students of the mainstream. Many of the issues that have had an impact on bilingual education have also had an impact on special education. One such issue is the current reform movement aimed at improving academic achievement among all students.

In examining mathematics reform and its implications for students with disabilities, Rivera (1993) responded to issues that have been raised by researchers in the field of special education. In a review of the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989), Rivera found that the standards were written primarily for a general education audience and did not provide sufficient information about the learning needs of students with disabilities in math. She also discovered that only brief reference was made to student diversity. She called for educators to consider the diverse needs of their student population and to investigate diverse ways to teach mathematics concepts.

There are methods that have demonstrated success for special education and bilingual education. However, a major concern among bilingual educators is that the approaches generally used in special education to provide mathematics instruction are not only incompatible with the holistic approach typically used to promote natural second language acquisition, but that they may even stifle language development (Gersten & Woodward, 1994).

What, then, constitutes effective instruction for students with learning disabilities from language-minority backgrounds? Gersten and Woodward call for an effective balance between bilingual and special education methodology. They suggest providing language-minority students with engaging material, comprehensible input, and encouragement for expression of complex ideas and feelings. They further suggest that special educators bring their task-oriented instructional practices in useful ways to meet the needs of students with disabilities from language-minority backgrounds.

In this article, a brief description is provided of basic characteristics that must be considered when addressing the individual needs of students from language-minority backgrounds who also have disabilities in mathematics. Recommendations for mathematics instruction are suggested based upon the limited research which examines the interplay of language, culture, disability and mathematics.

Students With Learning Disabilities

Briefly defined, a learning disability is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, which may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations (Kretschmer, 1991). It must be pointed out that not all students with learning disabilities do poorly in math. On the contrary, for some students math is an area of strength.

Students with learning disabilities who are struggling in math generally have average or above average intelligence (Bley & Thornton, 1989). However, math ability may be restricted by substantial differences in the areas of attention, perception, visual-motor abilities, language processing, memory, reading / writing, and in the use of cognitive strategies. These significant differences will stand out in each language used by a bilingual student with a learning disability. If differences appear only in English, then those differences are probably due to the challenges of learning a new language.

Attentional differences may be evident in students who are highly distractible, impulsive or demonstrate extremes in perseveration. Students with attentional deficits may guess at answers or have difficulty completing their work. Students with visual and auditory perception differences may frequently lose their place, have trouble noticing size differences or have trouble hearing patterns. Visual-motor differences may become apparent as students learn to shape numbers or as they are asked to write on lined paper. Difficulties with memory may result in reversal of digits in a number, inability to retrieve basic facts or to solve multi-operational calculations. Adequate reading and writing abilities are especially critical as students work with story problems. A student who loses his/her place in the text of a story problem may exhibit problems in the areas of decoding, comprehension or sequence; and, therefore, be doubly confounded by the mathematics required to solve the problem.

Students From Language Minority Backgrounds

Mathematics is one of the subjects in which both students learning English as a second language and students with disabilities are first mainstreamed. Yet, comparatively little attention has been given to math education for language-minority students. One reason may be the perception that mathematics is a universal language, transcending language concerns (Lass, 1988). Recently, researchers in bilingual education have begun to address such issues as the complexity of the interplay between language and mathematics skills for bilingual students.

Linguistic factors must be considered during planning and instruction of mathematics. Math vocabulary is precise but not always familiar. It may be difficult, even for students who are not bilingual, to determine which meaning of 'odd' is intended in a problem (odd as in something peculiar or odd as in numbers that are not divisible by two). Special problems may exist for students with learning disabilities who are concurrently learning the English language. Cuevas and Beech (1983) noted the importance of considering issues of language comprehension, knowledge of syntax and vocabulary, and understanding of relational terms as they apply to mathematics. Students may experience difficulty distinguishing differences and making comparisons in relationships that pertain to size, speed, space, and time. Students with learning disabilities from language-minority backgrounds are likely to encounter difficulty with language concepts and structures even in their native language. Therefore, Cuevas and Beech recommended use of native language instruction for teaching mathematics concepts before transition to English.

Cultural differences define our values and what may be perceived as a real problem by one group may be unfamiliar or unimportant to another group (Fellows, Koblitz, & Koblitz, 1994). Consider the comprehension of story problems. Within mainstream American culture, the gap between achievement in math by gender is an area of concern. In examining the work of a research project supported by the National Science Foundation, Fellows, Koblitz, and Koblitz (1994) encountered a number of units that appeared to be flawed because of cultural bias. One example was a story problem from a unit on probabilities. Although not necessarily language-based, the following is an example of how culture influences our curriculum. The motivation for this unit was baseball pennant fever. It was assumed that all children were motivated by the topic, but in reality it makes sense that boys might be more apt to have a working knowledge of the statistical aspects of baseball, especially since most leagues from Little League to the professional leagues are presently dominated by male athletes. This example might be considered minor compared to one the researchers themselves discovered in their own work. They used a story about a "Tourist Town" in which the merchants were preparing for the summer season. They presented their problem solving unit to students in Peru. The question was "What is the minimum number of ice cream stands they [the merchants] will have to build so that anyone standing at a street corner without an ice cream stand will have to walk only one block to find one?"(p.7). The story made little sense to the children. The authors had failed to consider that in a country with large unemployment, there was always an overabundance of people available to sell ice cream to tourists. Of course the children had difficulty comprehending and relating to the material.

Another difficulty that may arise with language-minority students is that of differences in algorithms. An algorithm is the procedure used for finding the solution to a mathematical problem. Most Americans learn to calculate using set algorithms taught in the schools. Students from South American or Asian countries learn algorithms that are different in sequence. The position of numbers on the written page often does not match the algorithms typically used in American schools. Therefore, when students are asked to calculate, a difference in the algorithm may be misinterpreted as lack of math ability. For language-minority students, it is more important to determine if the student knows how to obtain the correct answer and if they can explain the procedure, rather than how well the student's algorithms match those used in our schools.

Recommendations

Scott and Raborn (in press) propose that educators tap into the richness of diversity brought to the classroom by their students. By tapping into the richness of culture and language, while recognizing individual learning differences, educators can tailor curriculum and instruction to assist all students in reaching higher levels of mathematics. The following recommendations embrace the belief that diversity can be viewed as a gift.

1. Appraise Math Abilities
Individual needs and strengths vary between all students, including language-minority students. Bilingual students may have high ability in math and yet not be able to communicate that ability, due to lack of English proficiency or lack of communication skills in either language. Therefore, it is critical that math ability be appraised on the basis of cognitive ability and not assumed on the basis of the student's proficiency in English, or because of a disability that affects communication skills.

According to Cawley (1985), appraisal consists of three stages: measurement, assessment, and diagnosis. The primary intent of measurement is to compare the performance of one or more individuals with that of others, primarily through norm-referenced procedures. Three examples of measurement approaches include the Wide Range Achievement Test, the K-ABC Arithmetic Test, and the Woodcock Johnson Math Cluster.

In the assessment stage, the student is evaluated across a number of mathematical strands or content areas. The purpose of assessment is to identify patterns of strengths and weaknesses so as to guide the instructor in placement decision. Two examples of assessment instruments are the Mathematics Concept Inventory and the Key MATH Diagnostic Test. Cawley stresses caution in interpreting assessment results, due to the lack of assessment instruments which deal with areas other than arithmetic computation. He stresses the need for all students to be assessed in the many areas of mathematics, including, for example, geometry and measurement. This concern is especially relevant to students with learning disabilities, whose strengths may lie in areas of mathematics other than computation.

Diagnostic procedures focus upon intraindividual performance in a single or limited number of mathematics topics. Appropriate diagnostic procedures enable teachers to identify patterns of performance in specific areas of mathematics within the capabilities of an individual student. Examples of diagnostic measures include the Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills (Brigance, 1984); Brigance Diagnostic Assessment of Basic Skills, Spanish Edition (Brigance, 1985) ; and the Diagnostic Test of Arithmetic Strategies (DTAS) . The DTAS is an informal measure that allows teachers to observe the procedures children use to perform arithmetic operations.

Cawley recommends that teacher observation be integrated into appraisal of student ability and performance in math. How does the learner respond to new or novel demands in math? What algorithms does the student use and how were they learned? How do students interpret mathematical questions? How does the student relate to quantifiable material and mathematical stimuli in the environment? These types of questions provide information that is not available in quantifiable test scores, but is important in identifying needs and strengths of the learner.

2. Select the Language of Instruction
Determine how well bilingual students speak both languages. Many school districts assess English language proficiency and fail to obtain a measure of native language proficiency. In selecting the language of instruction, all languages to which the student is regularly exposed must be assessed to make the best decision concerning language of instruction. In addition to using an instrument to assess oral language proficiency, the instructor should observe the student in both social and academic settings. Willig and Ortiz (1991) recommended that if the student is stronger in the native language than in English, instruction should continue in the native language. Instructional use of the native language allows students to learn developmentally appropriate content without having to wait for their language abilities in English to "catch up." Students who are stronger in math skills than in English skills should be taught at their level of math ability, not at their level of English proficiency.

If it is determined that the native language will be used for instruction, then a teacher who is fluent at the academic level of that language should provide instruction. Just as the language proficiency of bilingual students can range dramatically, so can the language proficiency of bilingual teachers. If the teacher is highly proficient in the academic language of math, then the student will be more likely to learn that higher level of their native language. A teacher who is only fluent in the social aspects of the native language may struggle to communicate precisely with mathematical terms and expressions in that language, and may not be able to take their native language students to a higher level of learning.

3. Proceed from Concrete to Abstract
Math can be used for connecting the language of concrete experiences to the development of abstract concepts. It is important to begin the development of concepts with concrete materials. Manipulation of concrete materials is then supported and extended through the use of language.

Often, students with learning disabilities have difficulty connecting language to actions, memories, and concepts. Because a learning disability often involves a difficulty with the processing of language, students with learning disabilities may find it especially difficult to learn mathematics when it is taught solely through language. It may be asking too much if students are presented with a request and then expected to remember a sequence based solely on verbal instructions. For students with visual strengths, non-verbal routes to understanding can reduce the role of language. Manipulation of concrete materials, carefully tied to a verbal description of visual and kinesthetic images, solidifies concepts.

Verbal labelling is a strategy that provides language for visual forms as they are manipulated and represented spatially (Kibel, 1992). An important aspect of this strategy is the concrete nature of the learning task. Say, for example, the student is learning the concept of borrowing with hundreds, tens, and ones blocks. In the first stage, the student learns to trade hundreds for tens and tens for ones, and learns to use language in describing the process. Language use may be the most difficult aspect of the initial stage of verbal labeling. Words may be unfamiliar and precision of the statement used to describe the process may be awkward. In the second stage, the student forms an internal model by describing the idea or process without the use of manipulatives or visual cues.

Language use in this stage may be highly dependent upon the action. It may be difficult for the student to close his/her eyes and remember the idea and the language. At this point students can step back to the first stage and practice tying the language to the visual and kinesthetic action. Students may benefit from using the manipulatives with their eyes closed as they verbally describe the process. Eventually, the student will no longer need the cues. At this point an internal model has formed. Now, in the third stage, standard written subtraction can be introduced. Obviously, some drill is involved in verbal labeling, but it is not drill for the sake of minimizing errors in the language of instruction. In verbal labeling, drill is used as a tool to make connections and strengthen understanding of math in a meaningful context.

4. Use Strategies to Help Students Develop Concepts
One method that uses cognitive strategies to help students develop concepts is concept attain ment. Concept attainment is much like categorization in that it helps students learn categories and requires students to make grouping decisions based upon attributes. Students compare and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept (positive exemplars) with examples that do not contain those attributes (negative exemplars). Joyce, Weil, and Showers (1992) pointed out that, unlike categorization, concept attainment requires students to figure out the attributes of a category that is already formed in another person's mind . These strategies provide instruction on specific concepts and can help students understand the nature of concepts (Joyce, Weil & Showers, 1992).

Concept attainment can be used with any age level and across the mathematics curriculum. The following steps can be adapted to teach vocabulary, rules, and concepts at any degree of difficulty. These examples are more appropriate for very young children, however, the strategy can be adapted for any age group.

Step 1. The teacher begins by presenting a focus, or category, under which the concept falls. The teacher may want students to learn the definition of a circle. The teacher may say, "I'm thinking of a shape. "

Step 2. The teacher then presents data in the form of words, phrases, concrete materials or pictorial representations and presents approximately equal numbers of positive and negative exemplars (typically, the data set contains 15 examples). While presenting the exemplars, the teacher may say "I have two groups of shapes here. Notice that some are under the word 'yes' and some are under the word 'no'. I want you to try to guess what shape I'm thinking of." The teacher points out the exemplars "This is a yes (referring to a circle) " or "This is a no (referring to shapes that are not circles)":

Students examine the exemplars and develop a hypothesis about the concept. They need to consider what the positive exemplars have in common and how they are different from the negative ones (see figure 1).

Step 3. Students develop a hypothesis to name the concept being presented. They are asked to describe how they arrived at their hypothesis. The teacher probes the students by asking, "Can you come up with the name of my idea?"

Step 4. Once the concept has been correctly identified, it is named. Students then provide additional exemplars of their own to test further their understanding of the concept. The teacher asks "Do you know how to see if your idea is the one I'm thinking of? I'll give you some examples and you tell me if they are a 'yes' or a 'no'. " The teacher gives examples and then the students categorize them under 'yes' or 'no'. When they appear to understand the concept, the students are then asked to provide examples for the rest of the class to categorize.

5. Use Math for Language Development
Students with learning disabilities from language-minority backgrounds who have deficits in receptive or expressive language skills profit from learning the language of math as they develop precise vocabulary, sequence, and comprehension skills in their native language. They need time to pose their own questions and to explore ways of answering them. It is important to give students the opportunity to talk with peers and adults so that they can experiment with and validate their own ideas.

Mathematics teaches predictable patterns and can foster a natural acquisition of social and academic language proficiency. The following excerpt is from a math lesson in a cross-categorical, self-contained Bilingual Special Education classroom. Perla, a six-year-old first grader with a learning disability, demonstrates her ability in math following a math lesson taught in Spanish. Perla has been learning addition of sums to ten in Spanish and wants her teacher to see how well she can add using Teddy Bear Counters. She also wants her teacher to see that she is learning English. Looking over her worksheet, the teacher observes that all the answers were correct. She congratulates Perla and asks her to demonstrate a problem.

Teacher:"Muy bien, Perla! Eres muy inteligente! A ver, enséñame." (Very good, Perla! You are so smart! Let's see, show me how you did that.)

Perla:"Four plus five equals is nine."

Somehow, as Perla was learning English, she had learned the "=" meant equals and she had learned that "=" meant is, so she thought "=" could be translated to mean " equals/is". Yet, when this student was asked to demonstrate in Spanish, she was able to do so with correct Spanish grammar. Activities were introduced that allowed the teacher to capture and cultivate Perla's mathematical understand ing outside the structured time for math instruction. Often Perla would switch to English very naturally. The teacher continued to teach Perla math at her academic level in Spanish, and was able to pinpoint special vocabulary that was causing confusion or needed work in her academic level of English.

6. Take Student Strengths into Consideration
Often, it is difficult for students to recognize their own learning strengths and specific areas for improvement. Information can be obtained from diagnostic reports written after initial assess ment, and from teacher tests and observation. Some students learn best when material is presented visually, others learn from kinesthetic modes. Students can learn to benefit from their strengths when those strengths are pointed out to them. It is also helpful if teachers are willing to model recognition and use their own personal strengths. The following recommendations may be helpful for teachers in providing instruction in math.

For students who are visual learners, graphic representations provide many more clues than words that are difficult to read or visualize. Students with visual strengths can benefit from drawing or examining pictures, diagrams, or graphic organizers to represent story problems. Color coded steps of lessons or worksheets which are highlighted provide additional cues to signal important information. Students using highlighter pens can learn to identify and mark important information.

Demonstration, plus permanent model, is a strategy that can be highly effective for helping children master computational mathematics (Rivera & Smith, 1987). This strategy is especially appropriate for learning math skills rather than learning math concepts. It is based on the principles of direct instruction, task analysis, and individualized instruction (Smith & Luckasson, 1995) and is especially useful in helping students to organize and remember the sequence of multi-step algorithms. Demonstration, plus permanent model, consists of three key basic steps. First, the teacher pinpoints what the student already knows about a particular math skill. Second, the teacher selects or constructs worksheets so that only those problems pinpointed at the students' level of instruction are represented. Third, the teacher demonstrates the skill to be taught and monitors the student through guided practice. This final step is key to the strategy. As the teacher demonstrates the skill, the example is highlighted and left with the student as a permanent model. As the student is directed through guided practice, that work is also highlighted, thus making it possible for the student to refer back to recently solved work as a model.

For students with kinesthetic strengths, manipulatives with tactile markings help students identify boundaries. For example, in developing manipulatives for students with visual impair ments, educators at Lawrence Hall of Science invented graduated cylinders and tools for measure ment that had tactile markings in addition to the visual markings typically used for measurement. Another example of materials with tactile cues are Unifix cubes, a product sold by Didax materials company, that can be snapped together and pulled apart. At the point where the cubes are snapped together is an indentation that serves as a visual and kinesthetic cue. Among the numerous materials which compliment instruction with Unifix cubes are number trays, ten's trays, and a number track. Each of these has raised edges that serve as boundaries in which a set number of connected cubes must fit. These types of boundaries provide additional tactile cues for students with kinesthetic strengths.

Of course, the student just learning English may comprehend more easily if the teacher speaks clearly and at a natural pace, facing the student so that body language can be observed by the student as an extra cue. Teachers can check for understanding by asking students to explain directions to other students or to have them repeat instructions back to the teacher. Students stronger in their native language should be allowed to use that language, even if the teacher only speaks English. Assigning students to develop a bilingual dictionary or index card file is one way to encourage the use of math vocabulary in the native language.

Cooperative learning is one tool that continues to provide success for language-minority students (Cohen, 1994). Cooperative groupwork in the math class can be structured so that students attain intellectual and social goals. The communication needed to learn cooperatively will not only strengthen the language, but will also strengthen understanding and retention of the mathematical concept being learned. An important component of cooperative learning is the opportunity it provides for students to take responsibility for their cooperative roles. In identifying social goals and monitoring their progress toward those goals, students develop and reinforce their understanding of class, school, and community values and behavioral expectations.

If students have difficulty with attention, instruction must be paced carefully. Although it is important to keep high expectations for learning, the quantity of assigned work may need to be carefully monitored and adjusted. Consideration must be given to the number of problems a student really needs to complete in order to demonstrate understanding and mastery of a concept. Modifications of a prepared worksheet may be needed. For example, the amount of problems assigned may be adjusted or the amount of time allowed for completion of work may be altered. Students who are highly distractible may benefit from the use of a timer. Students are often surprised at how quickly they can work when they have the visual cue of an egg timer or are presented with the auditory cue of a clicking timer.

Areas of weakness certainly cannot be ignored. Students who have difficulty writing with pencils may find that mechanical pencils produce neater end products. Students can learn to erase neatly if they are provided with the type of plastic or aluminum stencils that architects use as tools of the trade.

Summary

While educators may consider math to be universal, there are factors related to language, culture, and cognition that must be considered in math education. With careful assessment, planning, and implementation, students with diverse learning characteristics can be successful in math. A number of recommendations and strategies were presented to guide teachers in meeting diverse needs. Creativity in identifying or developing additional strategies is certainly welcome.
References
References

Bley, N. S., & Thornton, C. A. (1989). Teaching mathematics to the learning disabled. Austin,TX: PRO-ED.

Brigance, A. H. (1984). Brigance Diagnostic Assessment of Basic Skills, (Spanish Edition). North Billerica, MA: Curriculum Associates.

Brigance, A. H. (1985). Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills. North Billerica, MA: Curriculum Associates.

Cawley, J. F. (1985). Learning disability and mathematics appraisal. In J. F. Cawley (Ed.), Practical mathematics: Appraisal of the learning disabled (pp. 1-40). Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corpora tion.

Cohen, E. G. (1994). Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.

Cuevas, G. J., & Beech, M. C. (1983). A second-language approach to mathematics skills: Applications for limited-English proficient students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 6, 489-495.

Fellows, M., Koblitz, A. H., & Koblitz, N. (1994). Cultural aspects of mathematics education reform. Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 41 (1), 5-9.

Gersten, R., & Woodward, J. (1994). The language-minority student and special education: Issues, trends, and paradoxes. Exceptional Children, 60, 310-322.

Ginsburg, H. P., & Mathews, S. (1984). Diagnostic Test of Arithmetic Strategies. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Showers, B. (1992). Models of teaching. (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Kibel, M. (1992). Linking language to action. In T. R. Miles & E. Miles (Eds.), Dyslexia and mathematics (pp. 42-57). London: Routledge.

Kretschmer, R. E. (1991). Exceptionality and the limited English proficient student: Historical and practical contexts. In E. Hamayan & J. S. Damico (Eds.), Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students (pp. 1-38). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Lass, M. J. (1988). Suggestions from research for improving mathematics instruction for bilinguals. School Science and Mathematics, 88, 480-486.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

Rivera, D. M. (1993). Examining mathematics reform and the implications for students with mathematics disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 14(6), 24-27.

Rivera, D., & Smith, D. D. (1987). Influence of modeling on acquisition and sites. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 69 - 80.

Smith, D. D., & Luckasson, R. (1995). Introduction to Special Education: Teaching in an age of challenge. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Willig, A. C. & Ortíz, A. A. (1991). The non-biased individualized educational program: Linking assessment to instruction. In E. Hamayan & J. S. Damico (Eds.). Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students (pp. 281-302). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Research for this paper was partially supported by Federal Grant # HO29E30033-94

Diane Torres Raborn (1995)

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Mathematics For Students with Learning Disabilities from Language-Minority Backgrounds: Recommendations for Teaching

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LD OnLine is the leading website on learning disabilities, learning disorders and differences. Parents and teachers of learning disabled children will find authoritative guidance on attention deficit disorder, ADD, ADHD, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dysnomia, reading difficulties, speech and related disorders.

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Students with learning disabilities in reading usually have problems in spelling as well. Spelling can be especially difficult for these students, for several reasons. First, the core deficit in reading disability (RD) typically involves word decoding, and many of the same weaknesses that impact word decoding in individuals with RD - such as poor phonemic awareness or poor knowledge of letter-sound relationships - also influence spelling. Furthermore, spelling is affected by independent reading and exposure to text; avid readers see more words in print and have more opportunities to learn spellings of specific words. Because individuals with RD are rarely avid readers, lack of exposure to printed words may adversely influence their spelling. Finally, English spelling is complex, drawing upon several different kinds of knowledge. Effective teaching of this knowledge is especially crucial for students with RD.

Spelling difficulties can be enduring in individuals with RD, sometimes even after reading has been successfully remediated. Addressing spelling difficulties is important, because poor spelling can hamper writing and can convey a negative impression even when the content of the writing is excellent.

Knowledge required for spelling in English

The most basic kind of knowledge required for good English spelling involves phonics knowledge, or knowledge of common letter-sound relationships. For example, children need to learn that the sound they hear at the beginning of the spoken word "bag" is spelled with the letter b, the medial sound is spelled with the letter a, and the final sound is spelled with the letter g. Unfortunately, however, basic phonics knowledge is necessary, but often not sufficient, for accurate spelling in English. Some familiarity with the printed word is essential for correct spelling of many words. This is true not only for phonetically irregular words such as of or what, but for many regular words as well. For instance, phonics knowledge serves as an essential base for spelling a word such as shirt, but the only way to know that the word is not spelled with ur (shurt) or er (shert) is to be familiar with the printed word. Morphological knowledge about root words and relationships among words is also important, especially as children progress to more advanced levels of reading and spelling. For example, the second vowel sound in the word colonist is a schwa (unstressed) vowel; it is impossible to hear that the vowel is an o rather than, say, an i or a u. However, if the child knows the spelling of the root word colony, this knowledge facilitates the spelling of the related word colonist (as well as colonial and colonize). All three kinds of knowledge - basic phonics knowledge, word-specific knowledge, and morphological knowledge - need to be addressed in spelling instruction.

Suggestions for teaching spelling to students with LD

Provide systematic phonics instruction that incorporates teaching of phonemic awareness. Although this kind of instruction alone will not be enough to make students flawless spellers, phonemic awareness and phonics knowledge form an essential base for accurate spelling in English.

Teach common irregular words from the earliest stages of spelling. It is virtually impossible to generate a complete sentence without common irregular words such as of, what, and were. Therefore, it is important to begin teaching these kinds of words early, as one part of a more comprehensive spelling program. Multisensory techniques involving repeated tracing and saying of words can be especially helpful for introducing irregular words.

Teach useful spelling rules. Although many English words do not conform to consistent rules, some generalizations are very helpful to students, such as rules for adding endings to words with a silent e (make, making) or to closed syllables that end in a single consonant (sit, sitting).

Teach spelling of important grade-appropriate words. Because many English words cannot be spelled solely through the use of rules or phonics knowledge, spelling instruction also should include studying a corpus of important words needed for accurate spelling at each grade level.

Emphasize activities that involve writing or building printed words with letter tiles, not oral spelling. Oral spelling activities, such as traditional spelling bees, usually are not as effective as activities that require children to look carefully at the printed word.

Encourage students to use knowledge about root words and relationships among words to help them spell new words. Even when they possess this kind of knowledge, students will not always apply it spontaneously. It is very helpful to point out relationships among words and to illustrate how knowing the spelling of one word facilitates spelling of related words, as in the colony-colonist example.

Encourage independent reading to increase exposure to printed words. Independent reading cannot substitute for direct spelling instruction, but it can help to promote spelling knowledge---and of course, it is valuable for many other reasons as well.

Teach older children how to use a computer spell-checker. Like independent reading, spell-checkers are not a substitute for explicit spelling instruction from a knowledgeable teacher. Also, children need some phonics knowledge in order to use spell-checkers effectively. Nevertheless, spell-checkers can be enormously helpful to struggling spellers and writers, especially in the later grades when the volume of writing increases greatly.

Examples of sources

Peer-reviewed journal articles:

Bruck, M. (1990). Word-recognition skills of adults with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 26, 439-454.

Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1991) Tracking the unique effects of print exposure in children: Associations with vocabulary, general knowledge, and spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 264-274.

Greene, J. (1996). Language!: Effects of an individualized structured language curriculum for middle and high school students. Annals of Dyslexia, 46, 97-121.

Invernizzi, M., Abouzeid, M., & Gill, T. (1994). Using students' invented spelling as a guide for spelling instruction that emphasizes word study. Elementary School Journal, 95, 155-167.

Other helpful sources:

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Ehri, L. C. (1998). Learning to read and learning to spell are one and the same, almost. In C. Perfetti, L. Rieben, & M. Fayol (Eds.), Learning to spell: Research, theory and practice across languages (pp. 237-269). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Moats, L. C. (1995). Spelling: Development, disability, and instruction. Timonium, MD: York Press.

Moats, L. C. (2000). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Co.

Treiman, R., & Cassar, M. (1998). Spelling acquisition in English. In C. Perfetti, L. Rieben, & M. Fayol (Eds.), Learning to spell: Research, theory and practice across languages (pp. 61-80). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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Spelling and Students with Learning Disabilities

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Spelling difficulties can be enduring in individuals with reading disabilities, sometimes even after reading has been successfully remediated. Addressing spelling difficulties is important, because poor spelling can hamper writing and can convey a negative impression even when the content of the writing is excellent.

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5 Math Strategies to Support a Child With Learning Challenges

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Find out how simple tools and tips like using graph paper or a highlighter can make a big difference if your child has a learning disability.

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How to Teach Science to Students with Learning Disabilities - How to Teach Science Tips

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Simple accomodations can help students with learning disabilites perform well in science class, with help. Find out how to provide it in this HST article.

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Please check out the last 3 sections in this article.

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By: International Dyslexia Association

Students who have oral and/or written language learning difficulties in their mother tongue may have problems learning another language in school. This does not mean that they should avoid the study of a new language. With appropriate instruction most students can experience success. The keys to success are the responsibility of both teachers and students. Teachers need to provide appropriate, adapted instruction that meets a particular student's needs. Students need to recognize their learning strengths and weaknesses and stay committed to the task.

Are students who struggle to learn a foreign language usually classified as learning disabled?

No. Many students have difficulties learning a new language system. This does not mean that they are dyslexic or that they have a learning disability. Just as there are some students who have particular strengths in math, science, or any other discipline, some students have particular strengths in learning languages. There is great variability in people's success in studying a foreign language in school settings. Because some students classified as dyslexic or as having learning disabilities (LD) and those not classified as dyslexic or LD generally display similar difficulties and struggles with foreign language, these students are sometimes referred to as at-risk.

What is the nature of the foreign language learning difficulties of at-risk learners?

Students who have significant difficulties in one or more of the four language systems in their mother tongue (i.e., reading, writing, listening, and speaking) may experience problems with foreign language learning in school. The extent of this difficulty in the foreign language classroom is likely to depend on the nature and severity of their oral and written native language problems. Students who have difficulties in most or all of the four language systems are likely to experience the most problems learning a foreign language, particularly in traditional language classrooms. Language problems can range on a continuum from no difficulties to mild to moderate to severe difficulties. Research findings suggest that there is not a specific disability for learning a foreign language. Rather, the difficulties are an extension of a continuum from very good to very poor language learners.

Why might a regular foreign language class be difficult to pass for at-risk learners?

In general, foreign language teachers are not trained to identify specific learning needs, nor are they trained to provide specific accommodations. Their training may have stressed whole-language-like strategies for in-class learning and testing of the four language areas in the foreign language. Oral communication, language laboratory practice with listening tapes, and computer-assisted learning are currently traditional components of foreign language learning classes. These methods of instruction may serve the ideal learner without language processing problems, but they are often detrimental to the at-risk learner, who may need a more systematic, structured, multisensory approach.

What kinds of problems characterize the foreign language learner with mild to moderate language difficulties?

Some students exhibit mild to moderate language difficulties, such as the following:

maintaining the pace of the class.

being unable to respond immediately when called upon spontaneously for a response.

spending more time on foreign language study than other school subjects.

knowing how to study a particular foreign language concept, such as learning new vocabulary or analyzing a grammar or pronunciation rule.

comprehending spoken language, especially when it is spoken quickly.

understanding a language concept and applying it correctly in specific testing situations.

understanding directions when they are given in the foreign language.

producing spelling errors in writing.

What additional kinds of problems characterize the foreign language learner with severe language difficulties?

Students who exhibit severe language difficulties may display some or all of the following additional problems:

learning and remembering the sounds or phonemes of the new language, especially those sounds or phonemes that have little or no resemblance to the native language.

repeating sounds, words, phrases or sentences that are provided by the teacher or through an audiotape or computer.

breaking down words of more than one syllable, such as words with prefixes and suffixes, or compound words.

reading and spelling multisyllabic words.

recognizing common spelling patterns across words.

understanding and applying grammatical rules, such as forming plurals and possessives and using proper word order, especially when these rules are different from the native language.

comprehending spoken language even when it is spoken slowly.

hearing a word and then recognizing it as the same word in writing.

What might the foreign language teacher do to assist students with mild to moderate foreign language learning difficulties?

A systematic multisensory structured language (MSL) approach that benefits students who struggle to learn to read and spell in their native language also benefits students who have difficulties learning a foreign language. The following recommendations are based on the key principles of the multisensory approach:

Provide opportunities for students to practice and review a concept frequently (repetitive principle).

Teach language concepts in a logical progression and help students to categorize concepts; also organize these language concepts from simple to complex (structured, sequential principles).

Build on what students already know, and make the connection between the known and the new information explicit (cumulative principle).

Systematically and explicitly teach the phonemes or speech sounds of the foreign language.

Directly teach students the sounds of the letters in the foreign language and the letter(s) the sounds represent (alphabetic/phonetic principle).

Show students how to think about a language concept to be learned and ask them to explain the concept in their own words; examples include rules for applying word endings, appropriate word order, and subject/verb agreement (metacognitive principle).

Model for students the way to break apart words while reading, especially words with more than one syllable (analysis principle).

Model for students the way to put parts of words back together for spelling (synthetic principle).

What additional adaptations might the teacher make that will benefit the student with severe language learning difficulties?

Additional ways to enhance foreign language learning success include the following:

When teaching new sounds or phonemes and symbols, teach only one or two at a time. Emphasize how to use mouth movements to produce clear pronunciations. After pronouncing the sound, have students simultaneously trace, say, and repeat the sound pattern. Repeated, explicit modeling is key, as is clarifying for students the difference between the native and the foreign language pronunciation of the same letter pattern.

Conduct a task analysis of the concept to be learned. Break the concept into small working steps that are often considerably more detailed than a typical textbook presentation of the steps. Model for students how to think through the concept step by step. It sometimes helps to present a memorization/recall device, such as a song, mnemonic device, or color-coding (which works well with rules for word endings).

Use several learning channels simultaneously (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) to teach a language concept.

Use simple visual aids, such as picture clues, whenever possible.

Provide structured overviews (study guides, summary sheets, and graphic representations) of the material covered.

Provide guided pair work activities to practice and reinforce a concept, pairing a strong student with a weaker student.

Use color coding for gender, verb/noun agreement, and other matching principles in the foreign language to highlight a concept.

Use devices to remember a concept, such as songs with specified grammatical sentence structures, special rhythms, and words in the native language that sound like the word in the foreign language.

Explicitly model study and test-taking strategies.

Avoid gap-filling exercises, such as vocabulary or grammar worksheets, unless choices of answers are provided.

Take time to explain how to read grammatical charts in foreign language textbooks.

Provide sufficient time during tests to accommodate students with slow language processing skills.

Do students with foreign language learning difficulties have to study a foreign language in school?

The study of a foreign language is becoming increasingly important in our global economy and multilingual society. Many at-risk students can reap the benefits from the study of a foreign language in the appropriate learning environment.

Unfortunately, such an environment may not be available. In some high schools, colleges, and universities in the United States, another option is to substitute courses on culture for the foreign language requirement. In most cases, to receive accommodations the student must be classified as having a learning disability. Some schools may accept a history of failure in foreign language courses. Schools that offer options generally include a statement in the school's governance document; alternatively, the student might talk to the school's learning assistance specialist.

Suggested Readings & Resources

Birsh, J. R. (Ed.). (2005). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Brookes.

Ganschow, L., Philips, L., & Schneider, E. (2001). Closing the gap: Accommodating students with language disabilities in college. Topics in Language Disorders, 21, 17-37.

Ganschow, L., & Sparks, R. (2001). Learning difficulties and foreign language learning: A review of research and instruction. Language Teaching, 34, 79-98.

Schneider, E., & Crombie, M. (2003). Dyslexia and foreign language learning. United Kingdom: Fulton Publishers.

Schneider, E., Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., & Miller, K. (2007). Identifying and teaching learners with special needs. In R. McCarthy (Ed.), Best practices tool kit ï¿½Avanza! Avenï¿½emos! (pp. A35-A42). Boston: McDougal Littell-Houghton Mifflin Division.

Schwarz, R. L. (1997). Learning disabilities and foreign language learning. Available here.

Scott, S. S., & Manglitz, E. (1997). Foreign language learning and learning disabilities. Available here.

This fact sheet, At-Risk Students and the Study of a Foreign Language in School, was prepared by Leonore Ganschow and Elke Schnieder. © 2008 International Dyslexia Association.

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At Risk Students and the Study of Foreign Language in Schools

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LD OnLine is the leading website on learning disabilities, learning disorders and differences. Parents and teachers of learning disabled children will find authoritative guidance on attention deficit disorder, ADD, ADHD, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dysnomia, reading difficulties, speech and related disorders.

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Interactive app to excite and engage students with visual activities.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
‎After the success of AB Math, our new educational game goes further for the practice of math. Several varied games are proposed one after the other, they allow children and adults to improve their math skills in a fun and motivating way. From 7 years old, available as an universal app for iPad and...