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Main Topic: Word Formation
Concept: Clipping
Linguistic Phenomenon: Clipping in the Hypocorisms used in British English
Topic: The Use of Clipping in the Hypocorism of British English Rom-Coms

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We, humans, use communication as a tool to exchange information with each other every day. That is how a variety of languages exist among different countries enabling us to communicate without any issues. We have also been gifted with a functioning human brain to think creatively by inventing and forming such unique ways of speaking, which brings us to the English language. According to the British Council, the world had more than 1 billion people learning English in 2000. The history of the English language began in 449 AD when the Germanic tribes arrived on the British Islands, which are now called Denmark and Germany. As the language develops and spreads across Britain, other languages like French and Latin have influenced it. Moreover, English being the third most spoken language in the world proves that learning it has been easy. With the help of ever-growing technology, the media has created words and abbreviations, which have become a norm in society. For example, the use of media of movies, films, and other types of entertainment nowadays. These media can be the learning resources for English learners, especially movies, which are the most beneficial in increasing knowledge in culture.

The most interesting part of this phenomenon is that British English hypocorisms are commonly used worldwide, not only by British people. Based on an article by Translate Day, it is estimated that over 160 different English dialects exist around the world. But how is British English any different? People have practiced British English hypocorisms in their sentences as they became a part of standard English, rather than other dialects. The same applies to films as we adapt to a new environment in this modern technology era. What is fascinating is how the idea of reducing syllables in words is to make simpler terms. It doesn’t matter how we shorten the terms; they are still synonymous with the standard words, so it is valid to use them. At first, it can be marked as an informal language, but it can become quite formal over time.

One of the reasons that the phenomenon occurs is that the words are easy to apply in our daily life’s vocabulary. Considering that simple things are predictable, we would most likely use them first rather than something complicated. According to an article about the psychology of simple by Jory MacKay, we love simple things because they’re easy on our brain — it doesn’t have to work as hard to understand them. These hypocorisms exist because people like to simplify words to make them better in terms of writing and speaking. It’s interesting how they could become a part of our lives, and sometimes the initial word has rarely been used. Furthermore, another reason is that people use British English hypocorisms more than other dialects. Although Asianet Newsable reports that American English is the most widely spoken globally, British was the one who introduced the language to Americans. So, the majority of English speakers usually use British English slang.

Take it from a British romantic comedy movie called Love, Rosie as evidence. This film is adapted from a book named Where Rainbows End by Cecelia Ahern. Fun fact, the entire novel is written in the form of letters, emails, and messages. One of the examples of hypocorisms that exist is how the characters’ names are shortened. For instance, the main character’s name is Rosie, which could be short for Rosalyn, and Rosie’s daughter named Katie could be short for Katherine. Also, Rosie’s enemy, Bethany, called another character Mr. Schnuffie as a pet name, short for Mr. Schnuffles. These examples prove that hypocorisms are pretty common for pet names or a diminutive form of a person’s name. Besides that, Katie used the term ‘bogeys’ for boogers when she told Alex that she wasn’t in love with him, even though she was. Other British English hypocorisms are ‘preggy,’ short for pregnant, and ‘Scottie,’ short for Scottish.

Clipping occurs when one or more syllables are reduced from a word. It creates a shorter form of words as slang as they have served for the whole word. Clipping can also be called shortening or truncation, which retains the exact meaning of the clipping word. According to Irina Arnold, a Russian and Soviet linguist, there are four types of clipping: final clipping, initial clipping, medial clipping, and complex clipping. The most common type in English is final clipping, where the beginning of the syllables of the words is retained. For example, the word advertisement can be shortened to ‘ad,’ and the word doctor can be shortened to ‘doc.’ On the other hand, hypocorism is a specific type of reduction; in this case, it’s favored in British English. This process drops a single syllable and adds '-y' or '-ie' to the end. For instance, 'footy' or 'footie' means football in informal British English. Also, the term ‘blankie’ that is short for blanket is usually used by kids.

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The concept of clipping and the hypocorisms in British English can be related as both of them are commonly used shortened words or slang. People can learn the clipped words from a deeper perspective through British rom-com, which tends to touch the hearts and emotions of hopeless romantics. Movies are authentic and engaging for anyone to learn English through storylines with meaningful plots easily. Other than that, hypocorisms are under the word formation clipping, and they fall into the lexicon semantic category. As stated by Dwight Bolinger in Aspects of Language, the words are not coined in order to extract the meaning of their elements and compile a new meaning for them. The new definition is there first, and the coiner is looking for the best way to express it without going into too much trouble. To make it simple to understand, the context of the words stays the same, even though some syllables are changed or cut off grammatically.

Examples of the relation are the words 'grannie,’ short for grandmother, and ‘lippy,’ short for lipstick, which is hypocorisms under clipping. These terms still have the same meaning as the initial word, only a few syllables have been cut off, and ‘ie’ or ‘-y’ are added to the end. Some other examples are fit, short for outfit, math, short for mathematics, merch, short for merchandise, and knob, short for knobkerrie. We can see that these clipped words are commonly used, and sometimes we would forget the full word. English words are flexible enough for us to make any changes for our convenience. Ever wonder if the language would stay the same in another 100 years to come? With how fast the world is changing, it wouldn’t be a surprise if English could become a whole new different language that would be adapted in films.

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To summarize everything that has been stated, we can conclude that clipping in the hypocorisms used in British English is essential like any other word formation. The particular reason for this effect is that the linguistic phenomenon becomes widely valuable for our everyday life as it helps us remember and convey words easily. In this way, we would gain more knowledge in the English language without causing any language barriers. We would also learn more about the origin and culture of the hypocorisms from films in the cinemas or the telly. For instance, most clipped words that combine with other clipped or full words have become accepted, such as ‘teen lit’ and ‘hi-tech’. It proves that the use of clipping in hypocorism is not something peculiar among society, especially when this generation preferably uses abbreviations and slang online.

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Nordquist, R. (2020, February 5). What is clipping in language? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-clipping-words-1689855

Yule, G. (2016). The study of language. Cambridge University Press.

MacKay, J. (2017, January 5). The psychology of simple. Medium. https://medium.com/swlh/the-psychology-of-simple-fd5d25a3ca#:~:text=We%20love%20simple%20things%20because,at%20an%20insanely%20fast%20pace.&text=The%20judgments%20we%20make%20happen,rather%20than%20a%20mental%20process

Signoriello, F. (2016, April 21). The development of the British English language. Culture Trip. https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/articles/the-development-of-the-british-english-language/

Allan, K. (2015) Linguistic Meaning. (reprint) Routledge.

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Main Topic: Word Formation

Concept: Borrowing

Linguistic Phenomenon: Lexical Analysis on Cultural and Language Barriers

Topic: How Cultural and Language Barriers Influence Borrowing and Loan-Shifts in Genshin Impact

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Main Topic: Word Formation
Concept: Blending
Linguistic Phenomenon: English Netspeak Neologism
Topic: Neologism of English Bends in Social Media

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Main Topic: Word Formation
Concept: Derivation
Linguistic Phenomenon: Word Structure Changes
Topic: Derivation Method; Distinction Between Old Words and New Words

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Languages are constantly adding new words.Some of those new words are formed by affixation using the derivation method.In morphology,derivation is the process of creating a new word out of an old word,usually by adding a prefix or a suffix to the base.The word comes from Latin,"to draw off" and its adjectival form is derivational.Derivation studies the principles governing the construction of new words,without reference to the specific grammatical role a word might play in a sentence.In the formation if drinkable from drink,or disinfect from infect,for example,we can see the formation of new words,each with its own grammatical properties.

Derivation occurs so that the word will not sound strange when we say it in a verse or to make the word becomes more appropriate in a sentence and make the sentence more advanced.For example,the water can be drunk into the water is drinkable.

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The other job that morphemes do is derivation,the process that creates new words.The new,derived word is related to the original word,but it has some new component of meaning to it,and often it belongs to a new category so the word structure changes.One of the common ways that English derives new words is by affixing a derivational morpheme to a base.

For example,if we start a verb that describes in action,like teach and we add the morpheme -er,we derive a morphologically complex noun,teacher that refers to the person who does the action of teaching.The same -er morpheme does the same job in singer,dancer,baker and writer.

Verb           Suffix.         Noun
Teach          -er            Teacher
Sing            -er             Singer
Dance         -er            Dancer
Bake           -er             Baker
Write.          -er            Writer

Besides,the derivation of nouns ending in -er from verb is productive in english but the derivation of nouns in -th from adjectives is not.It is hard to expand the set of words of this type such as depth,health,length,strength and wealth.

If we start with an adjective like happy and add suffix -ness,we derive the noun that refers to the state of being that adjective,happiness.

Adjective      Suffix.         Noun
Happy          -ness         Happiness
Sad              -ness         Sadness

Calm            -ness          Calmness

After that,we also can create new words from adjective to verb such as adding the suffix -ize to an adjective:

Adjective.     Suffix          Verb
Final             -ize             Finalize

Modern       -ize             Modernize

Social          -ize             Socialize

Public          -ize             Publicize

Notice that each morphologically complex derived word is related in meaning to the base,but it has a new meaning of its own.English also derives new words by prefixing,and while adding a derivational prefix does lead to a new word with a new meaning,it often does not lead to a category change.

Prefix.        Verb               Verb
Re-             write            Rewrite

Re-             read             Reread

Re-            examine        Reexamine

Re-            assess          Reassess

Each instance of derivation creates a new word,and the new word could then serve as the base for another instance of derivation,so it is possible to have new words that are quite complex morphologically.For example,say you have a machine that you use to compute things;you might call it a computer(compute+ er).Then if people start using that machine to perform a task,you could say that they are going to computerize(computer+ -ize) that task.Perhaps the computerization(computerize+ -ation) of that task makes it more efficient.You can see how many words have many steps in their derivations.

An interesting thing to note is that once a base has been inflected,then it can no longer go through any derivations.We can inflect the word computer so that we can talk about plural computers,but then we can't do derivation on the plural form (*computers+ -ize).Likewise,we can add tense inflection to the verb computerize and talk about how yesterday we computerized something,but then we can't take that inflected form and use it as the base for a new derivation(*computerized+ -ation).Inflection always occurs as the last step in word formation.

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We can deduce a conclusion from the explanation that derivation is the formation of making new word or inflectable stem from another word.It typically occurs by the addition of an affix.English derivational affixes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.In many cases,derivational affixes change both the syntactic category and the meaning(semantic).But sometimes derivational affixes do not necessarily modify the syntactic category,they modify the meaning of the base.

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- (2019). The Derivations of Words Used in English. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/derivation-words-term-1690438

- Derivation | traditional grammar. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/derivation-traditional-grammar

- Englicious. (n.d.). Word structure: Derivation. Www.englicious.org. http://www.englicious.org/lesson/word-structure/word-structure-derivation

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Main Topic: Word Formation

Concept: Compounding

Linguistic Phenomenon: Neologism in Mass Communication

Topic: Compounding in TV Broadcasting

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In today’s era we are living, we can clearly spot the differences from the world before especially in communication. More genius and fantastic creations were invented to smoothen humans’ life hence, more names or words, generally, were also invented. Elizabeth Drew (1887-1965) said, “language is like soil, however rich it is subject to erosion and its fertility is constantly threatened by uses that exhaust its vitality. It needs constant reinvigoration if it is not to become arid and sterile,”.

This is what we call neologism. Neologism in its literal sense, means “new words”, it refers to the creation of new words, any word which may be in the formation process or in its initial state of use, which has not yet gained legitimate acceptance. It can be totally new words or existing words but with different meanings. Neologisms are often formed by combining existing words (compounding) or by adding new and unique affixes. It can also be formed by blending words. Neologisms can become popular through mass communication, the internet or word of mouth.

As stated earlier, mass communication is one of the fields where many new words were created. Everyone is aware that this field has been growing rapidly over the past few decades and TV broadcasting is one of them. Either we realized or not, there are lots of words in this area that were created by compounding words. Hence, that is why some words might sound weird or unusual.

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A television network or broadcaster is a telecommunications network for distribution of television program content. Broadcasting can be considered as a new field since it only started to become famous in 1975  and it improved a lot as time went on. As stated earlier, once a new invention or product comes out, it will be named resulting in new words creation. Once the name is accepted, it will become global and used widely. People who are not in the broadcasting field also use the names and terms. Let us look at some famous words that we use frequently without knowing they are actually compounding words !

First up is billboard. Billboard is a board containing short announcements to identify a sponsor at the beginning or end of a production element such as the news. It is a combination of the word 'bill', from the Medieval Latin 'bulla' meaning 'decree or sealed document', and 'board', from the Old English 'bord' meaning 'plank, flat surface'.

Second, we have breaking news. The word was actually created based on its literal meaning. Any news which was deemed to be of such importance that it had an immediate effect on general people's lives was thus, broadcasted by interrupting (breaking) the scheduled programming of that channel.

If you notice, there is a scrolling ticker at the bottom of the display of television content. It is called news crawl. It is formed with the word news and crawl, referring to how the line looks like ‘crawling’ under the main display. It is usually reserved for text headlines or numeric statistics (or both), depending upon the focus of the channel.

Next is the break bumper. It is something everyone always see because it is an animation or logotype briefly shown before or after a program or part of a program before the advertising. The word symbolized that the show is taking a break and the logo appearance is some sort of a 'bump' for the break.

Lastly, double pumping. This is a term when two episodes of a show were aired back-to-back, either to boost ratings in a given slot or to burn off episodes of a cancelled show. the word pumping is referring to boost (pump) the ratings by doubling the air time.

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Based on the explanation and examples given, we can clearly see how important neologism is for us especially in fields where new products were produced or improved. With the birth of these new terms, it helps the process to sail smoother since we recognized which is which. Besides, we might not realize that we use more compounding words than non-compounding ones. As time blend into years, we might have a special dictionary for compounding words just so it will help people to recognize the words more.

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1. Terms in broadcasting (2018) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_broadcasting_terms

2. Neologism in Mass Communication (2016) https://g.co/kgs/B8f8uu

3. Broadcasting Terms You Need to Know by Bunny Studio.co (2021) https://bunnystudio.com/blog/broadcasting-terms-the-basics-you-need-to-know/

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below are some visual examples,
hope you'll understand better !

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Main Topic: Word Formation
Concept: Coinage
Linguistic Phenomenon: Linguistic Analysis of Neologism in Films
Topic: Coinage in J.K Rowling’s Harry Potter

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In the era of technology, it is obvious that traditional methods in language learning become unprogressive and should be replaced with more contemporary methods and techniques. Since people are bombarded with mass media, they can enjoy and learn better by referring to the “Language of Film” in both audio and visual features. Films are a form of communication and they enable the learner to see body rhythm and speech rhythm in second language discourses through observing the use of authentic language and intonation in various situations (Bello, 1999). Because they combine visual and audio stimuli, films can lower anxiety when practicing the skill of listening (Arthur, 1999).

In this context, the usage of films might be a good way to create a new ambiance for audiences, where the theoretical evidence for film linguistics is debatable but rising in acceptability and maturity. Furthermore, it provides a more realistic picture of the language's cultural features, allowing people to enhance their language abilities, think critically, and develop their own approaches to employing films in language education.

The term neologism refers to a freshly generated word that accommodates the usage of a language at a specific moment. It describes a relatively new or isolated term, word, or phrase that is in the process of becoming commonplace but has not yet been fully accepted into language. As a result, the goal of linguistic study of neologism in films was to convey linguistic principles and examine the terms that were created from each culture's language and then commonly used in everyday conversation. Procedures and criteria for producing the internal grammatical structures of the specified films were described by an actor. In addition, actors were created for grammatical analysis of film by using shot, scene, and sequence as analogues to word, sentence, and bigger unit, respectively. Four main stages were detailed which are selection of textual materials, generation of descriptors, analysis of constituents and organization of structure principles.

Breaking Dawn words are one of the most important instruments people use to communicate, according to the word formation process found in Wulan Priscilla's "Breaking Dawn" film script. Nowadays, individuals frequently employ new words in discussions, for example, by mixing original words with other terms to create a new word as a result of the process. The word formation process refers to the process of creating a new term. On the other side, the goal of this study is to look into the word formation method used in Melissa Rosenberg's "Breaking Dawn" film script. The technique of this research is applying qualitative research methodologies to identify sorts of word production processes discovered in dialogue in the Breaking Dawn film script, based on George Yule's (2006) hypothesis about the word development process. The writer discovered nine sorts of word production processes from twelve types of word formation categorized according to George Yule's theory as a consequence of this research. One of them is coinage, which has resulted in the discovery of four data sets of words. The word "Toyota" in the sentence from the Breaking Dawn novel can be used as an example among the 4 data gathered. “Lucky for the Toyota, I stomped on the brake in time” (26). The word Toyota comes from the name of a city in South Honshu, Japan and became the brand name of one of the well known vehicle products. It means that the coinage process is applied to this word because it is formed from scratch and commonly becomes an attractive name for a product.

Coinage is the invention and general use of new terms and it is not common in English. Typical sources are names for brands such as beauty brand, food brand and fitness brand. Aspirin, Teflon and Google are examples of coinage. To make this clear, Google is generally known as a noun but people nowadays use it as a verb too like, “You need to google to find the information” which means to use the internet to find information. Hence, it became a general term and everyday word in the language. Besides, new words are invented based on the name of a person or a place which are called eponyms. For example, jeans come after the Italian city of Genoa where the type of cloth was first made.

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Because it has become one of the most important wonderful series in recent years, J.K Rowling's Harry Potter has been chosen to study the production of new terms, or neologisms. The story takes place in a universe full of supernatural elements especially wizarding. The author employs a variety of tactics to identify such elements: on the one hand, she reuses names or phrases from European folklore or mythology, such as goblins, hippogriffs, and dragons, and on the other hand, she invents new words to name her creations. The study will be focused on that fresh development of words, or neologisms. The primary role of neologisms in languages is to provide dynamism to them by incorporating new concepts into previously existing vocabulary. When neologisms occur in popular series like Harry Potter, their impact on society is greater because they reach a large number of people who know the new words and, in some cases, begin to use them in ordinary conversation. As most readers can see, J.K. Rowling's writing style influenced not only literature but also other fields of study. The purpose of this study is to look at coinage in Rowling's Harry Potter films from a stylistic standpoint.

In the series, the evil Lord Voldemort or (He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named) wants Harry Potter dead, thus the word has come to refer to other, more general evils in our lives. As a result, the term 'Voldemort' is now widely used to describe an unknown evil monster. Rowling has said that Donald Trump, the Republican presidential nominee, is worse than Voldemort, writing that "Voldemort was nowhere near as awful." Others in the United Kingdom "Remain" camp, who lost a referendum vote last month that determined Britain would leave the European Union, have pointed out that Brexit happened on the same day as Lord Voldemort's return in the series, on June 24, after murdering student Cedric Diggory during the Triwizard Tournament.

Furthermore, according to the dictionary, the word "muggle" is a person who lacks a specific skill or skills, or who is considered as inferior in some way, which is what the term muggle alludes to in the Harry Potter films. Witches and wizards with non-magical parents are called Muggle-borns in Harry Potter, and one of the most prominent Muggle-borns is Hermione Granger, who was born to Muggles of undisclosed names. J.K Rowling has created the word "muggle" from "mug" which means for someone who is easily fooled and then she added the "-gle" at the back to make it sounds less demeaning and more snuggly. However, Eleanor Maier, a senior editor at the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), recently informed BuzzFeed News that the publisher has unearthed a slew of new meanings for the word muggle  including a fishtail, a young woman, and marijuana, a joint. As a result, the word muggle has several parts of speech and meanings as it can be employed as a noun or a verb.

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Taking the results of the analysis as a reference, some conclusions can be extracted. Neologism is the creation of new words in a particular language. It can be found in daily communication, in the novel language or in the conversation in the film. In this research, coinage is used in the Harry Potter novels and film scripts. Nearly one out of three neologisms found in Coinage are used in Harry Potter but not as much as other types of word formation such as compounding and derivation. As a suggestion, it is expected that in the future researchers will analyze neologism not only the words but also the meaning. The future researchers can continue this analysis more deeply and elaborate each word in neologism, especially coinage and also the meaning of them. The writer hopes to get valuable suggestions as well as advice from the reader in order to repair to be more accurate and complete in the future.

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- Marina Martinez Jabal (2014).Neologisms in Harry Potter Books. Report of Documentary Valladolid University, 9-10. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/211091639.pdf

- Zoe Henry (2016). 11 Words from Harry Potter that Every Boss Should Know. Inc.
https://www.inc.com/zoe-henry/11-words-from-harry-potter-that-we-use-at-work.html

- Hale, C. Benjamin (1980). The Application of Linguistic Principles to the Analysis of Film Surface-Structure. UNT Digital Library, 1-7. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc331786/

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The first Harry Potter series which is "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone" (2001)

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Perhaps when anyone is asked about the origins of the word alcohol or persona in the 21st century, many would share the same answer: the English language, or a variation of said answer is “Old English”. What about more complex words such as antagonist and parenthood? Would you consider these words to originate from the English language as well? Further questioning will be met with hesitation when rarer words such as partisanship and filibuster are brought up.

Neither of the words above actually have any English origin. Alcohol is Arabic and French, persona comes from Latin, antagonist Greek, the French parenthood and partisanship, then filibuster originating from both Spanish and French… But when words that are more mainstream, more commonly used are questioned, everyone could discern how cafe, croissant and boutique have French origins and are borrowed.

As we all know, English is considered the lingua franca in today’s era- similar to how the Malay language was in the past- and with humans being dependent creatures that require communication to ensure survival and conservation of its species, it is widely used around the globe as a second language: in business, schools, basically everywhere; even science, navigation and law (Gordin, 2015). During the era of early medieval England was this West Germanic language first spoken. After the printing press was introduced in the late 15th century in London, it spread around the world two centuries later as the modern English we know today. Studies show that English- one of the 42 Indo-European languages- is in the first ranking in a research done on the most spoken languages in the world, with a considerably significant amount of about a billion speakers in total. English is only third to Mandarin Chinese and Spanish in terms of the total number of native speakers, with an astounding number of 379 million. Due to this, a commonly accepted misconception is that a lot of languages are adapted or borrowed from English, and that English is the primary source of all languages.

That is clearly proven false, as all the languages originate from either any of these ancient languages: Indo-European, Sino-Tibetian, Afro-Asiatic, Austronesian, Naponic, Niger-Congo, Dravidian, Turkic, Koreanic, Kra-Dai and Uranic.

The first claim however, is both true, and also false. It is undeniable that a lot of languages, such as Korean and Japanese have lexical borrowing from English, such as the loanwords “keyboard” in Korean, 키보드 (kibodeu) and the Japanese スーパーマーケット (supamaketto) for “supermarket”. But people tend to overlook the fact that English itself is a flexible language, given its huge influence in a considerable number of other languages. It is shaped through multiple dialects and tongues, over a long process of 1400 years, adapting and changing all the time, with new words from various sources being added to it.

Studies have proven that the English language has borrowed words from Latin, French, Greek, Arabic, Japanese and Italian and these borrowed words- also known as “loanwords”- when absorbed into the English, may have a change in meaning or semantics when used daily. Did you know that even the word “loanword” doesn’t actually originate from Old English, but rather German (“lehnwort”), thanks to the calque technique? Though these are considerably different from that of “loan-shifts”, it is another method of how the concept of borrowing works in English.

As mentioned before, English is a language that is formed by borrowing words from many other languages of the world- none of the languages in the world except the ancient ones are actually created without the influence of other languages. In total, there are a total of four styles of how borrowing is applied in English: loanwords, loan-translation (calque), loan-blending and also loan-shifts according to Hockett (1958). These four are closely related and are dependent on one another albeit not interchangeable.

Loanwords is the simplest method of the four: it is merely a direct usage of the borrowed words of the particular language. Did you know that about 80% of the words in the English language are actually from other languages? The examples that have been used previously are the Korean 키보드 (kibodeu) for “keyboard” and the Japanese スーパーマーケット (supamaketto) for “supermarket”. As shown, these words are still almost the same, albeit spelt, pronounced and written differently in each respective character of each language. However, this is not applicable for all other languages and words. Take the word alchemy, for example. Since the word alcohol was provided at the start, it is not wrong to assume that it may have Arabic origins. But even the Arabic word al-kīmiyā isn’t fully Arabic. The word kīmiyā itself comes from the Greek word khēmia. This shows how different the original word is, when compared to its anglicized word.

The second method of borrowing words is loan-translation or calque; this technique involves borrowing a word or term from a particular language, then translating the word of term of aforementioned language, creating a new lexeme as a result of the process. There are four forms of calque in total: structural or synthetic calque, typographic calque, orthographic calque and paronymous calque. Take the word skyscraper in English, for example. Its equivalents are wolkenkratzer (German for “cloud scraper”), wolkenkrabber (Dutch for “could scratcher”) and gratte-ciel (French for “skyscraper”). Of course, calques in English are not limited to that alone. New World Spanish has introduced the word honeymoon (luna de miel), Latin with the term devil’s advocate (advocatus diaboli)... and yes, even the word “loanword”, as mentioned previously.

What sets loanwords and calque apart is how the new words are formed: calque involves the construction of new words or terms, whilst loanwords cause phonetic and morphologic adaptation. Some previous examples of loanwords that were used previously are boutique, antagonist, filibuster and parenthood.

However, only few may know that, if the word boutique is to be used an example, the word actually originated from the Greek word ἀποθήκη (apothēkē) which carries the meaning of “storehouse”, while boutique in French meant “shop”. When this word is anglicized, it is now defined as “a small shop that deals in fashionable clothing or accessories”. This is a simple explanation on how anglicization changes the context of a particular word, or “loan-shifts”, albeit still having the same idea of a shop.

Loan-shifts, in fact, is the toughest method of “borrowing” in the English language, as it is prone to be influenced by other factors.

Loan-shifts are actually more common than it may seem in our society today; easily put, it is the occurrence of how a word or term of a language- when it is translated into another language, causes a change in context, albeit still maintaining the same “meaning”; in other terms, they go through “semantic extensions” due to multiple factors. The previous example, boutique, is one of the easiest, though there are many more words of different languages that go through the same process as the word boutique did.

But what happens when other factors, such as cultural and language barriers, come into play?

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Communication is the most important aspect of human existence. The main instrument of social interactions throughout the history of mankind has undoubtedly always been languages. Social changes have been linked closely with new experiences, thus resulting in language transformations. One feature that characterises language development is the loss and appearance of linguistic units. When the world changes through inventions, discoveries, revolutions, evolutions and personal transformations, so does the language. As the language that has the greatest impact on a global scale in this 21st century, English is constantly advancing and evolving by the day. It is a lingua franca of intercultural relations, international science, education, high technologies and the Internet due to 80% of all electronically stored information being English.

With the easy access to the Internet, the languages changes so quickly that if a netizen fails to follow the new  emergences,  it  would  bring  difficulty  to  their online  communication  with  others. Even when the netizens communicate offline, sometimes they would like to use the  new words that were created  through the Internet. Therefore, a  new  language  variant  exists with  the  rapid  development of technology and   the   emergence   of   computer-mediated   communication (CMC) ,which  is  named Netspeak, used to represent the language used by netizens in the process of CMC. The most noticeable characteristic of netspeak is the neologisms, and the essence of neologisms lies in the word-formation. This is proven when reading  the  latest newspapers and magazines online or listening to the English broadcast, the frequency that English learners will encounter  neologisms  is  rather  high  and  dictionaries  cannot  always  help  them  to  find the exact meaning.

Before  clearly  defining English netspeak neologisms, The definition for both netspeak and neologism should be provided. There is no common definition for neologism. It can be defined as “those derivatives that were newly coined in a given period”(Plag, 2002). However, a neologism does not only refer to a newly-created  word  but also an  old  word  with  new  meaning.  The changing of  words  happens under certain contexts, such as the introduction of new ideas, new inventions, and new phenomena and so forth. On the other hand, netspeak is defined as: A type of language displaying features that unique to the internet, and encountered in e-mail, chat group, virtual world and world wide web, arising out of its character as a medium which is electronic, global, and interactive(Crystal, 2001).

The  neologisms  in netspeak can be  viewed as  a  part  of  English  neologisms.  Lots  of  studies  on  the Netspeak have been conducted from different perspectives such as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis. The  study  on netspeak began  earlier  abroad.  In the  year 1997, University  of  Hartford hosted a conference on “Internet and language”. The status of English in netspeak,  education  by  Internet was discussed.  Then  another  Netspeak-study conference was  held in  Spain  after six years.  These  two conferences are  the  landmarks  of  research  on netspeak in  linguistic  circle.  In  China,  the  study on netspeak began  eleven  or  twelve years  ago.  The  representative work on "An Introduction  to Netspeak" (Genyuan, 2001) displays a systematic analysis of the lexical features of Chinese netspeak.

Broadly, Blending which is the chosen concept, can be defined as combining two clipped words. Kvetko in Bednarova (2014) defines Blending as a word formation process similar to shortening combines with merging two different words. Besides that, Yule also mentions that blending involves the combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term. However, blending is typically accomplished by taking the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word (2020; 61)

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J.K Rowling with her Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows 

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breakbumper

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Voldemort: The antagonist in Harry Potter

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Muggle:  Use of word muggle in Hogwarts newspaper

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breaking news

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news crawl

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Social media plays a vital role in the society today. It is used by people online to socialize and enables them to talk without physically meeting each other. With the advancement of technology and the booming social media industry, there have been interesting outcomes, especially in the linguistic field. Unconsciously, social media has contributed to the appearance of many new words and vocabularies. Which also relates to the English Netspeak Neologism because these new words were formed by the Internet users online. Hence, making it a netspeak neologism. These words are mostly in English and are actually made through word formation. Among the word formation processes that are mostly used in this situation is Blending.

Many of these new English blends are formed in social media platforms such as Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, Tiktok and WhatsApp. Blends found in Instagram are easily recognized because most of them still keep the word ‘Instagram’ with them. For example, ‘Instafood’ or ‘Bookgram’. These new words are formed by blending the word Insta or Gram which are clipped forms of Instagram with certain words. Another example are the blends that are found in Facebook such as ‘wefie’ and ‘brunch’ the first term being a blend of the word ‘we’ and ‘selfie’ and the latter a blend of the word ‘breakfast’ and ‘lunch’. These blends are often used as captions for their Facebook posts online.

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To sum it up, living in the Information Age, humans face the necessity of giving names to every new invention and concept on a regular basis. Never has the tendency of appearance of neologisms been as intense as in the 21st century. That is why it is crucial to linguistically observe this process.

With the existence of neologisms formed by blending, it has made communication much more easier for people online and many have been able to expand their vocabularies. The appearance of English Netspeak Neologism is also one of the reasons as to why some dictionaries nowadays have a section dedicated to netspeak neologisms and are starting to realise the importance of having it.

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- Giyatmi, G., Wijayava, R., & Arumi, S. (2017). Blending Words Found In Social Media. JURNAL ARBITRER, 4(2), 65–75. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.65-75.2017

- Liu, W., & Liu, W. (2014, December 29). View of Analysis on the Word-formation of English Netspeak Neologism. Www.theartsjournal.org. https://www.theartsjournal.org/index.php/site/article/view/624/336

- MURNIYATI, N. 372016048. (2020, August 28). An Analysis of Word Formation Process in Everyday Communication on Facebook. Repository.um-Palembang.ac.id. http://repository.um-palembang.ac.id/id/eprint/11032/

- Vogel, R. (2018). Bednárová-Gibová, K. (2014) The English Language through the Prism of the Centuries. Prešov: Filozofická fakulta Prešovskej univerzity. 94 pp. Discourse and Interaction, 11(2), 109–112. https://journals.muni.cz/discourse-and-interaction/article/view/11524

- Yule, G. (2020). The study of language (7th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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A noticeable proof on how cultural and language barriers influence loan-shifts is through the Genshin Impact fandom discourse on the mischaracterization of Xiao, one of the game’s playable characters, and the relationship between another two playable characters in the RPG game, namely Kaeya Alberich and Diluc Ragnvindr.

Genshin Impact (often shortened to Genshin) is an RPG game created by miHoYo Co., Ltd, a Chinese video game development and animation studio based in Shanghai. The game was launched in September 2020, and ever since, it has become the company’s main source of profit. With that fact given, non-Genshin players would readily jump to the conclusion that the game is a flawless one, though the reality is, saddeningly, a far cry from that.

The existing cultural and language barriers have driven a huge gap between the Chinese and Western sides of the fandom, all due to the persistent mistakes done by the game developers regarding the significant information and details getting “lost in translation”. Both sides of the fandom are constantly altercating with one another regarding Xiao, Kaeya and Diluc, and up to this day, they have yet to come to an agreement due to the lack of clarification from the game developers.

Now, observe and understand these two sentences, then identify the nuances that sets them apart.

“It’s getting late, let’s get going.”

“We’re wasting time, let’s go.”

Upon reading these sentences, many would agree that the first sentence sounds more ceremonious and gentle in tone when compared to the second one, which is a lot harsher and quite impolite, as if urging someone to be fast; yet the meaning between these two barely differs. The first sentence actually comes from Xiao’s Chinese voice line: “时候不早了。出发吧。” and the second from his English voice line. Those who play the game in the Chinese language would have a hard time disliking Xiao, as he appears as a kind, courteous character to the Chinese fandom (generally players who are native Chinese speakers), whilst players who chooses to play in English are in for a shock instead: through his words alone, Xiao is widely accepted as “edgy”, “emo” and rude by the Western fandom (players from the Western countries that do not speak Chinese as a native language, but English instead).

This is one of the abundance of examples as to why Xiao is terribly mischaracterized, misunderstood by the Western Genshin fandom as a whole- when miHoYo added the English voice over through borrowing the content from the Chinese voice over, its tone and exact meaning gets “lost in translation”, which then leads to an evident loan-shift- from the original version (the original language of Genshin Impact is Chinese, which is to no surprise considering the fact that miHoYo is a company from China) of Xiao being an aloof yet gentle and caring character despite awkward at times to an impertinent character who despises humans just due to the loan-shift the English version has caused. The mischaracterization worsens the discord between the Western and Chinese fandom even more with the juxtaposition of other voice lines such as:

“魔物不会因为下雨就休息。我们走。” (“Monsters won’t stop to rest because of rain. Let’s go.”)

“Demons do not stop for the rain. Move.”

For context, Xiao is written as an immortal adeptus that shoulders the burden of karmic debt in order to purge the nation of Liyue of demons and monsters alike, and he has watched the growth of the nation over millennia and eons. One particular voice line about Liyue shows the most jarring contrast of how these two languages result in a clash of interpretation of his characterization:

“近来璃月变化过于迅速了。。。。啊，罢了，我也没打算适应” (“Liyue has been changing/developing quickly recently… ah, I don’t plan on adapting to it, anyway.”)

“Liyue is changing. Forget it, it means nothing to me anyway.”

As a guardian who chooses to shoulder the responsibility to protect the nation, the second voice line- the one that is borrowed into English from Chinese- appears irrelevant, considering the fact he risks his life to ensure Liyue’s prosperity and safety. This one may be the most impactful loan-shift in affecting the characterization of Xiao. The conclusion that could be drawn from these few voice lines (yes, indeed there are more voice lines showing the inaccuracy of the English voice over in comparison to the Chinese voice over, albeit that former is borrowed completely from the latter) through both languages are:

The Chinese fandom that plays Genshin with the Chinese voice over would perceive Xiao as how miHoYo had written him to be (the selfless, reclusive adeptus who only wants the best for Liyue and would do anything to keep it that way) whilst the Western fandom would interpret the version of Xiao with the loan-shifts of the English voice over as canon- a.k.a the mischaracterized Xiao (the impertinent adeptus, forced to risk himself to protect a nation he couldn’t care less about). In all words, the barriers between the English and Chinese languages has led to Xiao being heavily misinterpreted in the Western fandom, and eventually starting arguments between both sides of the fandom due to the discordance of Xiao’s characterization.

Whereas Xiao’s mischaracterization is inherently caused solely by language barriers, the discourse regarding Kaeya and Diluc’s relationship involves both language and cultural barriers. The connection between the two is a constantly heated topic of debate between the Western and Chinese fandoms, and it has escalated to the point of the Western fandom being extremely xenophobic such as by sending hate messages and death threats to KaeLuc/LucKae shippers that are mainly from the Chinese fandom (shippers are those in a fandom who ship characters together. Shipping is the act of rooting for the characters to be romantically involved with one another. KaeLuc and LucKae are both the same “ship” or “pairing”, just different tags used by content creators of the fandom. An example of another popular “ship” from other fandoms is Drarry- Draco Malfoy and Harry Potter- from the Harry Potter novel series).

This discord is due to the loan-shift that occurs in the English version of Kaeya and Diluc’s past; according to the Chinese version of the game text, Kaeya- abandoned outside Dawn Winery (where Diluc lives) as a child- was found by Diluc’s father who took him in and acted as his ward; both Kaeya and Diluc got along very well as children, and soon became each other’s “義兄弟”. However, miHoYo’s game developers have ignored the cultural context of “義兄弟”, in which the English equivalent of it would be “sworn brothers”; the Chinese phrase “義兄弟”, when borrowed into English, causes a major loan-shift that has led to the conflict  of the two different sides of the fandom to deteriorate: from its original meaning of “sworn brothers” to “adopted brothers”.

Of course, the meaning between these two terms are alarmingly different: sworn brothers- unrelated by blood in any way- is a concept derived from the term “sworn siblings”. According to a Twitter thread made by @yuorpheremones- who is a native Chinese speaker- the original words for “sworn brothers” are “結拜兄弟”, which could be broken down to “結拜” which carries the meaning of “becoming” or “swearing to (an oath)” and “兄弟” for “brothers”. The Twitter user even added how “拜” is typically used as an adjective describing how a person looks up to another with a huge sense of adoration due to the way the bond between them is formed. The bond of the sworn brother is often said as something “sacred”, even more familiar than a mere friendship to the point of treating your sworn brother like family, albeit having no blood relation whatsoever. This concept originates from the Chinese ideology of how families are something dear that should be protected and cared for. It is such a bond that you are willing to die for each other, and nowhere near equivalent to “adopted brother”, “brother in law” or even “step brother”. In literature, this bond could be seen as platonic or romantic- hence, a brief clarification on why many KaeLuc/LucKae shippers are mainly from the Chinese fandom.

However, when the game is released in the English version, the meaning of the term again, gets “lost in translation”; the borrowing of the “sworn brothers” term- a term that is not common in the Western culture- turns into “adopted brothers” due to a loan-shift, in order to make the original term make more “sense” to the Western fandom, adapting to the Western culture. Unfortunately, this leads to another significant clash of information from both sides of the fandom. To further more explain how dire the situation is, here are a few more evidences from the official Genshin comic:

In the Chinese version of the comic, Kaeya repeatedly refers to Diluc as “義兄弟” (“sworn brother”) instead of  “哥” (“brother”), and during a scene where he talks about Diluc’s late father, Crepus, his dialogue went “He killed his father,”. He did not call Crepus his own “father”, but rather referred to him as Diluc’s father instead.

According to the Chinese (or the Asian culture, generally) culture, the usage of honorifics such as “uncle” or “auntie” with strangers is very common, hence why there are very few instances where Kaeya refers to Crepus as “father” simply out of respect rather than a “blood” connection between them, as shown through both the English and Chinese voice overs of the game. This clearly shows that there are no familial bonds shared between the two characters as one: Kaeya was never adopted into the Ragnvindr family, and two: Kaeya regards Diluc not as a real “brother” or “adopted brother” but rather as said, “sworn brothers” before they fell apart. It is important to note that “sworn brothers” is a common romance trope in Chinese literature and media.

To draw a conclusion, “sworn brothers” is the original term in Chinese, whilst “adopted brothers” is the result of a prominent loan-shift, thanks to the cultural and language barriers that have come into play when the borrowing occurs between these two languages in the game.

The loan-shifts of the borrowed information on the relationship of Kaeya and Diluc due to the language and cultural barriers between the Western and Chinese sides of the Genshin fandom is the primary root of the strife between these two sides of the fandom: the Western fandom constantly attacks the Chinese fandom for shipping Kaeya and Diluc together romantically as it is “incest”, whilst the Chinese fandom persists on explaining on how they are not related in any way, and how the “ship” or “pairing” is not incestuous albeit their efforts on clarifying the concept of them being “sworn brothers” are to no avail as the Western fandom does not understand- even refuses to understand the term of “sworn brothers” as it is not a part of their culture.

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In a nutshell, the controversy circulating in the Genshin Impact fandom regarding Xiao’s mischaracterization and Kaeya and Diluc’s relationship (the KaeLuc/LucKae “ship”) interpretation that has led to endless disputes between the Western and Chinese sides of the game’s fandom is an irrefutable proof of how cultural and language barriers play a significant role in influencing “loan-shifts” between two languages. Throughout this research, it has already shown how drastically the semantics of a borrowed term or word could change when cultural barriers are either ignored or added into the meaning. If other sorts of borrowing such as calque (loan-translation), loan-blending or loanwords are used in media, there would be a considerably lesser risk of change in semantics. It is advisable for language experts to carry out proper research to truly understand and respect the differences in culture and language when it comes to borrowing terms or words from another language into the English language. For example, had miHoYo hired better translators in the game developments, they could’ve prevented the rise of all the controversial issues in Genshin Impact’s fandom. Hopefully, with the surge of technological advances in our society’s era of globalization, there will be a better understanding and more respect for the discrepancy of languages and cultures amongst humans around the globe.

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David K.Jordan. (2020, April 8). Sworn brothers: A study in Chinese Ritual kinship. Jordan: Sworn Brothers: A Study in Chinese Ritual Kinship. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/scriptorium/jyebay.html.

Nordquist, R. (2018, August 1). What is a loan translation or calque? ThoughtCo. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://www.thoughtco.com/loan-translation-calque-1691255.

Maddox, M. Loanwords and Calques. Daily Writing Tips. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://www.dailywritingtips.com/loanwords-and-calques/.

Liraz Postan. (2021, September 20). What is calque (or loan translation): Blend blog. Localization Services by BLEND. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://www.getblend.com/blog/calque-loan-translation/.

Bradley, R. (2021, January 19). Which words did English take from other languages? Dictionary.com. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://www.dictionary.com/e/borrowed-words/.

Nyarks, A., & Enang, V. S. International Journal of Educational and Scientific ... An Assessment of English Words Borrowed from Other Languages. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://www.globalacademicstar.com/download/article/1607044802.pdf.

Hoffer, B. L. Language Borrowing and the Indices of Adaptability and Receptivity. Language Borrowing. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/05-Bates-L.-Hoffer.pdf.

Yule, G. (2021). The study of language. MTM.

Romano, A. (2016, June 7). Canon, fanon, shipping and more: A glossary of the tricky terminology that makes up fan culture. Vox. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://www.vox.com/2016/6/7/11858680/fandom-glossary-fanfiction-explained.

Thread by @dokihrt, thread on the mischaracterisation of Xiao, including comparisons of his cn va [...]. Twtext.com. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://twtext.com/article/1390300388285317124.

Wikimedia Foundation. (2021, October 23). Genshin impact. Wikipedia. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genshin_Impact.

@yuorpheremones. (2020, October 21). A more cultural insight onto the ship Kaeluc not being incest. and them not being incest because they are not "brothers" but "Sworn brothers" due to translation errors; Twitter. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://twitter.com/yuorpheremones/status/1318750506919972864?s=20.

@kaeyasluvbot 凯. (2021, July 2). This is getting a lot of attention so I'm also leaving this adding onto it, that's not the only mistranslation, I see people going around talking about this specific scene and here's the original version. Twitter. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://twitter.com/kaeyasluvbot/status/1411005574750347265?s=20.

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Even a well-known RPG game from miHoYo isn't free from the influence of cultural and language barriers on semantics that come with loan-shifts.

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Aloof, yet gentle and caring (albeit distant and reclusive), the yaksha dedicates his life to protecting the nation of Liyue, ridding the world of demons and monsters only to be mistaken as an anti-social and rude character who grouches about being "forced" to take on the burden of safeguarding aforementioned nation. A misconception that has led to many players disliking his unique character.

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Albeit akin to fire and ice (no, I mean this quite literally, as Diluc possesses the ability to control fire, whilst Kaeya frost and snow), these two characters, Kaeya Alberich (left) and Diluc Ragnvindr (right) somehow set their differences aside in the past and swore upon an oath to become "sworn brothers": to always stay by each other's side, through thick or thin; that was, until the passing of Diluc's father, and these two went their own separate ways ever since, much to the joy of the players who perceive them as "adopted brothers" instead.