# data[].attributes.headline
Preclassic Mesoamerica- spread of agriculture 2000BC- AD 250

# data[].attributes.subject
Preclassic Mesoamerica- spread of agriculture 2000BC- AD 250

# data[].attributes.body
The beginnings of social complexity in Mesoamerica began with widespread agriculture. The first crop that was domesticated was squash, bottle gourd and beans (Scarre, 314). One of the most important crops, however was maize. The exact date of domestication and origin is still debated. Maize was more than just food to the Mesoamericans, it held ideological and spiritual importance. Rituals and sacrifice mimicked the life cycle of maize and many of their belief systems were rooted in maize and its growing. The importance of Maize is the beginning of a developing culture and religion (Scarre, 598-599).

The start date that is drawn for the preclassic is due to the appearance of pottery at 2000 BC, a century or so later pottery was widespread. Another important preclassic innovation is prismatic blades, first appearing by 1500 BC through to the 16th century. They were widely used for trade (Scarre 600).

First widespread sedentary communities date to around 1600 BC and still weren’t complete dependent on agriculture. This villages consisted of simple houses with earth floors, walls of wattle, and roofs of thatch with the spaces between houses used to garden. At sites such as San Jose Mogote imported goods such as macaw feathers, oyster shells, and turtle shell show some evidence of wealth. There is also signs of warfare and violence, but no evidence of large residences or elaborate burials (Scarre, 601). These villages are the beginning of complex societies.

Maize God:

# data[].attributes.body
This period in the preclassic marks the beginning of true social complexity. The famous Mesoamerican ballcourts were created during this time. These ballcourts and the game played on them were an important indicator of the social complexity happening. The ballgame is extensively present in Mesoamerican mythology and the games were frequently used to make sacrifices to the gods, the losers would be decapitated (Cartwright). The ball games also had great political significance, used events for chiefs and kings to host emissaries from other polities (Scarre, 599).

During this time period we also see the rise of the Olmec people. The two most impressive Olmec societies were San Lorenzo and La Venta. San Lorenzo thrived from 1200-900 BC. They built an impressive structure called the Red Palace which appears to be first evidence of elites. They also had objects such as polished exotic iron and jade carvings to show wealth. San Lorenzo declined in 900 BC with the rise of La Venta. They built an impressive earthen pyramid. There was found an elaborate tomb of two infants which provide the earliest evidence of inherited rank and social position in Mesoamerica (Scarre, 602-603).

# data[].attributes.body
One of the most important artifacts that come out of this period is writing and the Mesoamerican calendar. Although the calendar and writing help archaeologists assemble events correctly their origins are rather mysterious and highly debated. The earliest writing in Mesoamerica is thought to be either from the Zapotec or Olmec (Rice).

No matter how writing and the calendar originated it appears to be the symptoms of the rise of kingship and the territorial state. We see evidence for kingship's in monuments and dated inscriptions such as the Hauberg Stela. Such monuments became increasingly common around AD 250. The scale and complexity of constructing of temples, ball courts, and other buildings are indicative of a central authority (Scarre, 610).

# data[].attributes.body
This period marks the rise of the polity of Teotihuacan. These peoples had completely control of the Mexican Basin but their power extended far beyond central Mexico, especially during the 4th and 6th century AD. Teotihuacan had a population of about 80,000 with extensive apartment compounds used for some sort of specialized economy. This city was a cosmopolitan place with pottery from the Maya evident and later evidence for visitors from the Gulf Coast. There is area in the city called the Merchant Burrio, that has the highest concentration of foreign pottery known anywhere.

We don’t know much about Teotihuacan’s social and political structure but there have been found the looted remains of at least one major tomb with 40 sacrificial victims. These victims have also helped to show that Teotihuacan was actually war like. Their influence stretched as far as the Maya lowlands, highland Guatemala, the Gulf Coast, Monte Alban, and even north to Alta Vista. Their influence was more than just political it was also cultural. Teotihuacan artistic and architectural evidence can be found all over, like at several sites in Yucatan.

The demise of Teotihuacan appears to have been violent although we unsure exactly what is responsible, there is evidence of burned and looted buildings around AD 700-750. It seems likely the fall was due to internal struggles. (Scarre, 613-620)

# data[].attributes.body
The fall of Teotihuacan left a political vacuum that no other polities were strong enough to fill causing the rise of a series of local centers. Despite this archaeologists have found evidence of complex economic activity, such as long range trade, and internal market exchange. All the structures during this time were well fortified with walls and archaeologists have unearthed scores of cut, broken, and burdened human bones, indicating the centuries of violence and instability following the fall of Teotihuacan (Scarre 621-622).

One of the most famous Mesoamerican cultures is lowland Maya  partly because we are able to understand their texts and calendars which has helped archaeologists have a unique understanding of their culture. During the late preclassic and early classic periods, AD 250-600, Tikal became the Maya superpower, allied with Teotihuacan, who was in a struggle with another great alliance led by the Calakmul. These struggles caused population decline and political crisis during the early classic period. This period of mayhem led to massive reorganization of Maya society and culture which ultimately led to its power. After AD 600 we see an increase in monuments that show kings and lords in a more personalized way with an increased emphasis of war. 20,000 texts were found dating to this time most were used in palaces or elite residences and focused on Maya elite society with titles of rulers and dynasty emblems (Scarre, 622-623).

The Maya lowlands consisted of 45-50 small kingdoms, that were never wholly unified, which we can see from the different glyph's associated with them. Because of the lack of unification, Maya experienced much political and demographic instability, with cycles of prosperity and decline. Each kingdom focused on a central precinct that had a huge masonry pyramid-temple where kings and lords lived, this pyramids also grew to incorporate the elaborate tombs of elites and rulers. These monuments were the centers of zones where the kings and elites ruled with the households of lesser people radiating out from them. Maya social structure is formatted with the king at the top central to the Maya society. Kings were expected to be powerful warriors, which we see from their monuments that boast the capture and sacrifice of enemies. Next is great lords and officials who did not pay tax but were expected to serve the king in the army or by keeping his books or leading ritual. In texts these lords are characterized as owned by the king. At the bottom at this time are the commoners. They were mostly farmers who paid tax either in goods or labor or both (scarre, 623-626).

# data[].attributes.body
A great deal is known about this time period because it comes within range of reliable oral histories from interaction between natives and Europeans (Scarre, 627).

The most celebrated post classic kingdom is that of the Toltecs in Tula, who were the successors of Teotihuacan. The Toltecs were greatly revered by the Aztecs, who had created many mythological stories about the Toltecs. They began as a small group of people in AD 700 that matured into a huge city of about 60,000 people between AD 900 and 1200. The common houses at Tula were a set of rectangular adobe structures with a central courtyard. They had many workshops where they manufactured special products like obsidian. Tula wasn’t as powerful as Teotihucan but they did have strong links with the rest of Mesoamerica and beyond its borders. There have been Tula trading colonies as far south as El Salvador, and exchanges with people far to the south such as Casas Grandes in norther Mexico. Tula appears to have fallen around AD 1150-1200. Their fall appears to have been violent with signs of burning of principle buildings (Scarre, 628-631).

# data[].attributes.body
The Maya polities of the northern part of the Yucatan Peninsula survived the collapse of southern kingdoms and may have benefitted from them. During the 8th century AD population expanded into the Puuc region of northwest Yucatan, however it was not until sophisticated water storage came along that people began to live in large numbers. Eventually Puuc had many opposing centers but by AD 875-900 Uxmal had gained political ascendency. Their architectural influence spanned in the northern plains of the Yucatan. Their prosperity was great but they were short lived and collapsed by AD 1000 (Scarre, 631-632).

In Maya chronicles the next upcoming capital, Chichen Itza, was the greatest. It rose around the 8th century AD with the Castillo pyramid, Monjas palace and a gigantic ball court at its center. Not a lot is known about Chichen Itza but we do see warrior imagery that celebrates conquest and sacrifice, telling us that they were likely part of many conflicts. For several centuries they were the capital of the north that benefited from trade of commodities. Chichen Itza declined as a regional power around AD 1200 or 1250 (Scarre, 632).

The Mayan successor to Chichen Itza was the Mayapan founded by a lord of the Cocom family around AD 1263. Many of Mayapans inhabitants were elites who stayed probably only through part of the year. Mayapan was a great confederacy but was less powerful than Chichen Itza. Maya legend says that Mayapan fell around AD 1441 due to draught, famine, and rebellion. We do see in the archaeological record evidence for a violent end with signs of the burning of elite households (Scarre, 632-633).

Chichen Itza pyramid:

# data[].attributes.body
16th century Maya is Maya as the Spaniards found it. The land was cut up into hundreds of polities with hereditary rulers called batabs. War was very common between and within the batabs. Still northern Maya society was quite complex with large towns organized around temple pyramids, public plazas, and elaborate houses, that impressed the Spaniards. They had nobles with prestigious family names who were rich in land, they traded long distance in things like clothes, honey, chocolate, and slaves. Lowest in the social pyramid were slaves who were war captives or debtors. At this time the Maya remained relatively untouched by the Spaniards, who moved onto the Aztecs (Scarre, 633).

# data[].attributes.body
The Aztec empire had matured and dominated over at least 400 polities by 1519, ruling over more than 77,000 miles of land and between 6-10 million people. About 1.5 million of these populated the basin of Mexico which was now transformed by artificially drained fields, terracing, and irrigation systems, making this the most productive agrarian region of Mesoamerica. The Aztec empire was made through intimidation, alliance, and conquest. The conquered polities were divided into 38 tributary provinces. There existed strategic provinces that joined the empire as military allies and only paid minimum tribute. This was necessary to help the Aztec empire support, feed, and move large military forces. One or more hereditary king ruled each city-state with other noble lords, comprising the upper class. Nobles were exempt from tax but had to serve as officers and warriors and participate in the court life of the capital. Below nobles were commoners who basically made a middle class. They paid tax and were mostly farmers living together in neighborhoods with their own leaders, schools, and temples. They had serve either as labor or in the army. Successful warriors and merchants could earn rank and wealth, the richest commoners were called the pochteca. Below them were the mayeque who were tied to the land and labored on the estates of kings and nobles, many of these were previously free commoners who tied down through conquest. At the bottom were the tlacotin, whom the Spaniards referred to as slaves. They owed their service to other people, either because of conquest, criminal acts, or debts. They could buy property and earn back their freedom, their children were also born free. The Aztec empire represents the most sophisticated society in Mesoamerica as well as the last (Scarre, 636-638).

# data[].attributes.body
In 1519 Hernan Cortes landed landed on the shores of the Aztec empire during the reign of King Motercezuma II. In august Cortes and his men marched inland towards the Aztecs greatest enemy the Tlaxcalans. They initially resisted the Spanish but soon realized the Spanish could help them ruin the Aztecs so they joined forces with the Spanish. In November Cortes entered Tenochtitlan and was amicably greeted by Motecezuma who housed the Spaniards for six months. During this time the King was placed house arrest while the Spaniards observed Aztec life. Cortes and Motecezuma went on hunting trips and his men played games with the Aztec monarchs. However this didn’t last long. Fighting broke out after Motecezuma was killed under suspicious circumstances. After many months of fighting the Spanish conquered the Aztecs in August 1521. By 1550 most of Mesoamerica was in the hands of the Spanish, with the exception of the small Itza Maya kingdom who held out in the forests of Guatamala until they were defeated in 1697. It was with them that the 4,000 years Mesoamerican civilization ended (Scarre, 638).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Conquest of Mexico paintings are significant both artistically and historically. Painted in the seventeenth century, the eight detailed canvases tell the story of the 1521 Spanish conquest of the native Aztec people. These images highlight battles between the Spanish and the Aztecs, ceremonial encounters of the Spanish conquistador with the emperor Moctezuma, and other pivotal historic moments. The series ends with the dramatic "Conquest of Tenochtitlán" (the capital of the Aztec civilization, now Mexico City) and the capture of the last Aztec king.

The Conquest of Mexico paintings follow the traditional formula for seventeenth-century Spanish battle paintings in which large figures, often on horseback, are highlighted in the foreground, with the actual conflict occurring in the middle and backgrounds. As is typical of such works, each painting is not limited to one moment. Rather, a series of events are compressed onto a single canvas. Painted about 150 years after the events they depict, these canvases are a remarkable record not only of the events of 1521 but the way in which people in the late seventeenth century regarded the Spanish conquest of Mexico.
View the special presentation
"Entrance of Cortés La Conquista de Mexico"

Cortés's first major conflict with indigenous Mexicans occurred as he and his men made their way toward the city of Tabasco, located on the mainland of Mexico. The Spanish troops, most in full armor and on horseback, engage in a furious battle with the inhabitants of Tabasco.

"The Meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma"

"The Battle of Otumba"

During this flight from Tenochtitlán, Cortés and his men encounter Cuitláhuac, the new Mexica leader of the Aztec empire, the brother of Moctezuma, who attacks the invaders.

"The Capture of Tenochtitlán"

Cortés leads his Spanish armies on horseback across one of the causeways and lays siege to Tenochtitlán. He orders the complete destruction of the city.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Exploring the Early Americas Conquest of Mexico Paintings

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Conquest of Mexico paintings are significant both artistically and historically. Painted in the seventeenth century, the eight detailed canvases tell the story of the 1521 Spanish conquest of the native Aztec people. These images highlight battles between the Spanish and the Aztecs, ceremonial encounters of the Spanish conquistador with the emperor Moctezuma, and other pivotal historic moments.

# data[].attributes.body
"Exploring the Early AmericasConquest of Mexico Paintings." Conquest of Mexico Paintings - Exploring the Early Americas | Exhibitions - Library of Congress. Accessed December 13, 2016. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/exploring-the-early-americas/conquest-of-mexico-paintings.html.

"Maya Religion." Maya Religion. Accessed December 13, 2016. http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_religion.htm.

"The Mayan Calendar & Concept of Time." The Mayan Calendar & Concept of Time. Accessed December 13, 2016. https://www.timecenter.com/articles/the-mayan-calendar-and-concept-of-time/.

Cartwright, Mark. "The Ball Game of Mesoamerica." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Accessed December 13, 2016. http://www.ancient.eu/article/604/.

Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen-Itza." UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed December 13, 2016. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/483.

Rice, Prudence M.. Maya Calendar Origins. Austin, US: University of Texas Press, 2007. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 12 December 2016.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005.