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"Studies on the social and sexual behaviour of bulls."

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"Studies on the social and sexual behaviour of bulls."

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https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/handle/11343/39540/81406_748.pdf?sequence=1

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"Mate-guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants."

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"Mate-guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants."

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https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joyce_Poole/publication/222028670_Mate_guarding_reproductive_success_and_female_choice_in_African_elephants/links/02e7e538ef40c6b932000000/Mate-guarding-reproductive-success-and-female-choice-in-African-elephants.pdf

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The gestation period for cattle is around nine months. When the female starts the calving process, she will generally separate herself from the group. In normal calving situations, the calf is born head and forelegs first. There is usually a single calf but twins do occur. Birth rates can vary from 70lbs-95lbs depending on the breed.

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Gestation Periods and Calving: Elephants

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Gestation Periods and Calving: Elephants

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The gestation period for elephants is two years (20-22 months). From www.seaworld.org, "As the time of giving birth approaches, the female will seek close contact with another female in her family unit for protection during labor." A single calf is usually born head and forelegs first. Twins are extremely rare. On average, newborn calves weigh around 265lbs but can weigh as much as 365lbs.

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Gestation Periods and Calving: Elephants vs. Cattle

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Gestation Periods and Calving: Elephants vs. Cattle

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Male-male competition and female choice are eliminated when it comes to mating systems in cattle. Since cattle are domestic animals, their breeding is virtually all controlled by humans. According to our text, "The loss of female choice when the animal breeder, rather than the animal itself, chooses it's mate ("forced" pairings) can increase the incidence of behavioral incompatibility and breeding failure greatly."

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Elephants use male-male competition along with female choice as the deciding factor of who they will mate with. In the wild, male elephants will push, ram, tusk, and wrestle each other. The weaker of the two will retreat and give up mating rights. https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=elephants+fighting+&&view=detail&mid=E29509F7E42DF2F65BC2E29509F7E42DF2F65BC2&FORM=VRDGAR

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Elephants: Is The Female Ready to be Bred?

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Elephants: Is The Female Ready to be Bred?

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From www.seaworld.org, "Reproductive receptiveness is often displayed in females by greater interest and enthusiasm at the approach of a bull." Females will also perform an "estrous walk". Here, the receptive female will hold their head high and frequently look over their shoulders. They will also vocalize which helps males locate them.

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Beef Cattle: Is The Female Ready to be Bred?

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Beef Cattle: Is The Female Ready to be Bred?

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According to our text, "the single, most important female behavior signaling sexual receptivity is willingness to stand immobile to be mounted and served by the male." Female-female mounting is also an obvious sign displaying that the female is sexually ready.

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"Males assess a female's reproductive status by testing her urine for hormones. Chemical information is taken through the trunk and blown into the roof of the mouth for detection." (www.seaworld.org).

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According to www.animalbehaviour.net, "Once a female has gone into heat, the bull becomes excited in which he will follow her closely, smelling and licking her external genitalia, and often times exhibiting flehmen."

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Bull, cow, and calf are used for BOTH beef cattle and elephants.

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According to www.botswana.co.za, "Many elephant species adopt a bachelor herd policy whereby males that have reached sexual maturity will be chased out of a breeding herd by the dominant male or female and will join up with a group of males-bachelor herd-and here they will compete with the others to establish dominance."

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-Beef cattle are a polygamous species. More specifically, they practice polygyny. According to our text book, "Principles and Applications of Domestic Animal Behavior", in polygyny, males have multiple mating partners.
-Like beef cattle, many elephant species practice polygyny. These bonds are either temporary or non-existent and care of the offspring is not shared.