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The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract! When you take the first bite of food, digestion starts. Saliva mixes with food in your mouth which helps in breaking it down to a form that your body can absorb and use.

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Overview

Structure of the Digestive System

What is the digestive system?

Your digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your liver, pancreas and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs that are connected to each other from your mouth to your anus. The organs that make up your GI tract, in the order that they are connected, include your mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.

What does the digestive system do?

Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to do its job of turning your food into the nutrients and energy you need to survive. And when it's done with that, it handily packages your solid waste, or stool, for disposal when you have a bowel movement.

Why is digestion important?

Digestion is important because your body needs nutrients from the food you eat and the liquids you drink in order to stay healthy and function properly. Nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. Your digestive system breaks down and absorbs nutrients from the food and liquids you consume to use for important things like energy, growth and repairing cells.

Anatomy

What organs make up the digestive system?

The main organs that make up the digestive system (in order of their function) are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Helping them along the way are the pancreas, gall bladder and liver.

Here's how these organs work together in your digestive system.

Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even take a bite. Your salivary glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or warm bread. After you start eating, you chew your food into pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes with the food to begin to break it down into a form your body can absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus.

Esophagus

Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth when you swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you swallow to prevent you from choking (when food goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.

But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus called the lower esophageal sphincter has to relax to let the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of the stomach from flowing back into the esophagus. (When it doesn't and these contents flow back into the esophagus, you may experience acid reflux or heartburn.)

Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with stomach enzymes. These enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of your stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are processed enough, they're released into the small intestine.

Small intestine

Made up of three segments - the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum - the small intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also works in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.

The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It's largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form after passing through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine (colon).

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone in your body for metabolizing sugar.

Liver

The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.

The liver is your body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals your body needs to function.

The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs that can be toxic to your body.

Gallbladder

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.

Colon

The colon is responsible for processing waste so that emptying your bowels is easy and convenient. It's a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.

The colon is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day.

It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These "good" bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel movement).

Rectum

The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's job is to receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not.

If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus

The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.

The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it's not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. This keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping involuntarily) when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.

When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

Conditions and Disorders

What are some common conditions that affect the digestive system?

There are temporary conditions and long-term, or chronic, diseases and disorders that affect the digestive system. It's common to have conditions such as constipation, diarrhea or heartburn from time to time. If you are experiencing digestive issues like these frequently, be sure to contact your healthcare professional. It could be a sign of a more serious disorder that needs medical attention and treatment.

Short-term or temporary conditions that affect the digestive system include:

Constipation: Constipation generally happens when you go poop (have a bowel movement) less frequently than you normally do. When you're constipated, your poop is often dry and hard and it's difficult and painful for your poop to pass.

Diarrhea: Diarrhea is when you have loose or watery poop. Diarrhea can be caused by many things, including bacteria, but sometimes the cause is unknown.

Heartburn: Although it has "heart" in its name, heartburn is actually a digestive issue. Heartburn is an uncomfortable burning feeling in your chest that can move up your neck and throat. It happens when acidic digestive juices from your stomach go back up your esophagus.

Hemorrhoids: Hemorrhoids are swollen, enlarged veins that form inside and outside of your anus and rectum. They can be painful, uncomfortable and cause rectal bleeding.

Stomach flu (gastroenteritis): The stomach flu is an infection of the stomach and upper part of the small intestine usually caused by a virus. It usually lasts less than a week. Millions of people get the stomach flu every year.

Ulcers: An ulcer is a sore that develops on the lining of the esophagus, stomach or small intestine. The most common causes of ulcers are infection with a bacteria called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and long-term use of anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen.

Gallstones: Gallstones are small pieces of solid material formed from digestive fluid that form in your gallbladder, a small organ under your liver.

Common digestive system diseases ( gastrointestinal diseases) and disorders include:

GERD (chronic acid reflux): GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease, or chronic acid reflux) is a condition in which acid-containing contents in your stomach frequently leak back up into your esophagus.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): IBS is a condition in which your colon muscle contracts more or less often than normal. People with IBS experience excessive gas, abdominal pain and cramps.

Lactose intolerance: People with lactose intolerance are unable to digest lactose, the sugar primarily found in milk and dairy products.

Diverticulosis and diverticulitis: Diverticulosis and diverticulitis are two conditions that occur in your large intestine (also called your colon). Both share the common feature of diverticula, which are pockets or bulges that form in the wall of your colon.

Cancer: Cancers that affect tissues and organs in the digestive system are called gastrointestinal (GI) cancers. There are multiple kinds of GI cancers. The most common digestive system cancers include esophageal cancer, gastric (stomach) cancer, colon and rectal (colorectal) cancer, pancreatic cancer and liver cancer.

Crohn's disease: Crohn's disease is a lifelong form of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The condition irritates the digestive tract.

Celiac disease: Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder that can damage your small intestine. The damage happens when a person with celiac disease consumes gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley and rye.

Care

How can I keep my digestive system healthy?

If you have a medical condition, always ask your healthcare provider what you should do and eat to stay healthy and manage your condition. In general, the following are ways to keep your digestive system healthy:

Drink water often: Water helps the food you eat flow more easily through your digestive system. Low amounts of water in your body (dehydration) is a common cause of constipation.

Include fiber in your diet: Fiber is beneficial to digestion and helps your body have regular bowel movements. Be sure to incorporate both soluble and insoluble fiber into your diet.

Eat a balanced diet: Be sure to eat several servings of fruit and vegetables every day. Choose whole grains over processed grains and try to avoid processed foods in general. Choose poultry and fish more often than red meat and limit all deli (processed) meats. Limit the amount of sugar you consume.

Eat foods with probiotics or take probiotic supplements: Probiotics are good bacteria that help fight off the bad bacteria in your gut. They also make healthy substances that nourish your gut. It can be especially helpful to consume probiotics after you have taken an antibiotic because antibiotics often kill both bad and good bacteria in your gut.

Eat mindfully and chew your food: Eating slowly gives your body time to digest your food properly. It also allows your body to send you cues that it is full. It is important to chew your food thoroughly because it helps to ensure your body has enough saliva (spit) for digestion. Chewing your food fully also makes it easier for your digestive system to absorb the nutrients in the food.

Exercise: Physical activity and gravity help move food through your digestive system. Taking a walk, for example, after you eat a meal can help your body digest the food more easily.

Avoid alcohol and smoking: Alcohol can increase the amount of acid in your stomach and can cause heartburn, acid reflux and stomach ulcers. Smoking almost doubles your risk of having acid reflux. Research has shown that people who have digestive issues that quit smoking have improved symptoms.

Manage your stress: Stress is associated with digestive issues such as constipation, diarrhea and IBS.

Contact your healthcare provider if you are experiencing frequent symptoms such as constipation, diarrhea, vomiting, stomach pain or cramps, excessive gas (farting), or heartburn. While most people experience these conditions every once in a while, if you experience them often, it could be a sign of a more serious digestive system issue.

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Digestive System: Function, Organs & Anatomy

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Your digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your liver, pancreas and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs that are connected to each other from your mouth to your anus.

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The esophagus is located near your windpipe in your body. It receives food from your mouth after you swallow it! With a series of muscular contractions (peristalsis), it is able to deliver food to the stomach.

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Your stomach is "a container" which holds food while it is being mixed with enzymes that help in the process of breaking down food. The lining of the stomach contains cells that create a strong acid and powerful enzymes that help in the breakdown process.

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Your liver has many functions in your body, but the main function in the digestive system is to help process nutrients from the small intestine. The liver is known as the body's "chemical factory". It takes raw materials absorbed by the intestine and creates various chemicals that the body uses every single day. The liver is also useful to detoxifying potential harmful chemicals.

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It stores and concentrates bile which then releases it into the first part of the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.

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The pancreas helps digestive enzymes into the the first segment of the small intestine. The enzymes in the pancreas break down proteins, fats, and even carbohydrates. It also helps make insulin, the chief hormone for metabolizing sugar.

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The small intestine is made of three segments; the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It is a 22 foot long muscular tube that is able to break down food using enzymes that were released by the pancreas. Anything that is in the small intestine starts out semi-soil, but at the end, they end up in a liquid form after passing through.

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The large intestine, also known as the colon, is a 6 foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to your rectum. It is a highly specialized organ that is very responsible for processing waste so emptying the bowels is easy. Left over waste, also known as stool, is from the digestive process is passed through the large intestine.

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Your appendix is unknown as to what the function of it is! The appendix can be able to act as a storehouse for good bacteria which helps with rebooting the digestive system. Another theory is that is just useless in our bodies.

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The tongue is able to help with pushing the food around while chewing with your teeth. With the help the tongue, you are able to push the mushed up food toward the back of your throat into the beginning of the esophagus.

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Salivary glands produce saliva which helps keep your mouth and other parts in the digestive system moist. It helps in the process of breaking down carbohydrates is helpful in the passage of food down the esophagus to your stomach.

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© 2014 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.

Front View of the Appendix

The appendix sits at the junction of the small intestine and large intestine. It's a thin tube about four inches long. Normally, the appendix sits in the lower right abdomen.

The function of the appendix is unknown. One theory is that the appendix acts as a storehouse for good bacteria, "rebooting" the digestive system after diarrheal illnesses. Other experts believe the appendix is just a useless remnant from our evolutionary past. Surgical removal of the appendix causes no observable health problems.

Appendix Conditions

Appendicitis: For unclear reasons, the appendix often becomes inflamed, infected, and can rupture. This causes severe pain in the right lower part of the belly, along with nausea and vomiting.

Tumors of the appendix: Carcinoid tumors secrete chemicals that cause periodic flushing, wheezing, and diarrhea. Epithelial tumors are growths in the appendix that can be benign or cancerous. Appendix tumors are rare.

Appendix Tests

Medical examination: The original test for appendicitis, a simple examination of the belly remains important in making the diagnosis. Changes in the abdominal exam help doctors tell if appendicitis is progressing, as well.

CT scan (computed tomography): A CT scanner uses X-rays and a computer to create detailed images. In appendicitis, CT scans can show the inflamed appendix, and whether it has ruptured.

Ultrasound: An ultrasound uses sound waves to detect signs of appendicitis, such as a swollen appendix.

Complete blood count (CBC): An increased number of white blood cells -- a sign of infection and inflammation -- are often seen on blood tests during appendicitis.

Other imaging tests: When a rare tumor of the appendix is suspected, imaging exams may locate it. These include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and CT scans.

Appendix Treatment

Appendectomy: Surgery is the only treatment for appendicitis. The doctor may use the traditional technique (one large cut) or laparoscopy (several small cuts and using a camera to see inside). Surgery is also needed to remove tumors of the appendix. If the tumor is large, it may require more aggressive surgery with removal of part of the colon.

Antibiotics: While the diagnosis is in question, antibiotics treat any potential infection that might be causing the symptoms. In general, antibiotics alone cannot effectively treat appendicitis.

Sources

SOURCES
Netter F, Atlas of Human Anatomy, 3 rd edition, Saunders, 2002.
Young B, Wheater's Functional Histology, 4 th edition, Churchill Livingstone, 2000.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Randal Bollinger R, Journal of Theoretical Biology, 2007; vol. 249: pp. 826-831.
Wagner JM, JAMA, 1996; vol. 276: pp. 1589-1594.
Connor SJ, Diseases of the Colon & Rectum, 1998; vol. 41: pp. 75-80.
The New England Journal of Medicine. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/317/27/1699
Emedicine: Carcinoid Tumor.

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The Appendix (Human Anatomy): Appendix Picture, Definition, Function, Conditions, Tests, and Treatments

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The appendix sits at the junction of the small intestine and large intestine. It's a thin tube about four inches long. Normally, the appendix sits in the lower right abdomen. The function of the appendix is unknown. One theory is that the appendix acts as a storehouse for good bacteria, "rebooting" the digestive system after diarrheal illnesses.

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Digestive System

Watch this movie about your digestive system, the system that handles the food you eat.

What's Saliva (Spit) Do?

Even before you eat, when you smell a tasty food, see it, or think about it, digestion begins. Saliva (say: suh-LYE-vuh), or spit, begins to form in your mouth.

When you do eat, the saliva breaks down the chemicals in the food a bit, which helps make the food mushy and easy to swallow. Your tongue helps out, pushing the food around while you chew with your teeth. When you're ready to swallow, the tongue pushes a tiny bit of mushed-up food called a bolus (say: BO-luss) toward the back of your throat and into the opening of your esophagus, the second part of the digestive tract.

What's the Esophagus?

The esophagus (say: ih-SOF-eh-guss) is like a stretchy pipe that's about 10 inches (25 centimeters) long. It moves food from the back of your throat to your stomach. But also at the back of your throat is your windpipe, which allows air to come in and out of your body. When you swallow a small ball of mushed-up food or liquids, a special flap called the epiglottis (say: ep-ih-GLOT-iss) flops down over the opening of your windpipe to make sure the food enters the esophagus and not the windpipe.

If you've ever drunk something too fast, started to cough, and heard someone say that your drink "went down the wrong way," the person meant that it went down your windpipe by mistake. This happens when the epiglottis doesn't have enough time to flop down, and you cough involuntarily (without thinking about it) to clear your windpipe.

Once food has entered the esophagus, it doesn't just drop right into your stomach. Instead, muscles in the walls of the esophagus move in a wavy way to slowly squeeze the food through the esophagus. This takes about 2 or 3 seconds.

What Does the Stomach Do?

Your stomach, which is attached to the end of the esophagus, is a stretchy sack shaped like the letter J. It has three important jobs:

1. to store the food you've eaten

2. to break down the food into a liquidy mixture

3. to slowly empty that liquidy mixture into the small intestine

The stomach is like a mixer, churning and mashing together all the small balls of food that came down the esophagus into smaller and smaller pieces. It does this with help from the strong muscles in the walls of the stomach and gastric (say: GAS-trik) juices that also come from the stomach's walls. In addition to breaking down food, gastric juices also help kill bacteria that might be in the eaten food.

Onward to the small intestine!

What Does the Small Intestine Do?

The small intestine (say: in-TESS-tin) is a long tube that's about 1½ inches to 2 inches (about 3.5 to 5 centimeters) around, and it's packed inside you beneath your stomach. If you stretched out an adult's small intestine, it would be about 22 feet long (6.7 meters) - that's like 22 notebooks lined up end to end, all in a row!

The small intestine breaks down the food mixture even more so your body can absorb all the vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The grilled chicken on your pizza is full of proteins - and a little fat - and the small intestine can help extract them with a little help from three friends: the pancreas (say: PAN-kree-uss), liver, and gallbladder.

Those organs send different juices to the first part of the small intestine. These juices help to digest food and allow the body to absorb nutrients. The pancreas makes juices that help the body digest fats and protein. A juice from the liver called bile helps to absorb fats into the bloodstream. And the gallbladder serves as a warehouse for bile, storing it until the body needs it.

Your food may spend as long as 4 hours in the small intestine and will become a very thin, watery mixture. It's time well spent because, at the end of the journey, the nutrients from your pizza, orange, and milk can pass from the intestine into the blood. Once in the blood, your body is closer to benefiting from the complex carbohydrates in the pizza crust, the vitamin C in your orange, the protein in the chicken, and the calcium in your milk.

Next stop for these nutrients: the liver! And the leftover waste - parts of the food that your body can't use - goes on to the large intestine.

How Does the Liver Help With Digestion?

The nutrient-rich blood comes directly to the liver for processing. The liver filters out harmful substances or wastes, turning some of the waste into more bile. The liver even helps figure out how many nutrients will go to the rest of the body, and how many will stay behind in storage. For example, the liver stores certain vitamins and a type of sugar your body uses for energy.

What Does the Large Intestine Do?

At 3 or 4 inches around (about 7 to 10 centimeters), the large intestine is fatter than the small intestine and it's almost the last stop on the digestive tract. Like the small intestine, it is packed into the body, and would measure 5 feet (about 1.5 meters) long if you spread it out.

What's the Appendix?

The large intestine has a tiny tube with a closed end coming off it called the appendix (say: uh-PEN-dix). It's part of the digestive tract, but it doesn't seem to do anything, though it can cause big problems because it sometimes gets infected and needs to be removed.

Like we mentioned, after most of the nutrients are removed from the food mixture there is waste left over - stuff your body can't use. This stuff needs to be passed out of the body. Can you guess where it ends up? Well, here's a hint: It goes out with a flush.

What's the Colon?

Before it goes, it passes through the part of the large intestine called the colon (say: CO-lun), which is where the body gets its last chance to absorb the water and some minerals into the blood. As the water leaves the waste product, what's left gets harder and harder as it keeps moving along, until it becomes a solid. Yep, it's poop (also called stool or a bowel movement).

What's the Rectum? And What's the Anus?

The large intestine pushes the poop into the rectum (say: REK-tum), the very last stop on the digestive tract. The solid waste stays here until you are ready to go to the bathroom. When you go to the bathroom, you are getting rid of this solid waste by pushing it through the anus (say: AY-nus). There's the flush we were talking about!

How Can I Keep My Digestive System Healthy?

You can help your digestive system by drinking water and eating a healthy diet that includes foods rich in fiber. High-fiber foods, like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, make it easier for poop to pass through your system.

The digestive system is a pretty important part of your body. Without it, you couldn't get the nutrients you need to grow properly and stay healthy. And next time you sit down to lunch, you'll know where your food goes - from start to finish!

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The digestive system breaks down the food you eat. Learn how in this article for kids.

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The salivary glands produce saliva, which keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system moist.

It also helps break down carbohydrates (with salivary amylase, formerly known as ptyalin) and lubricates the passage of food down from the oro-pharynx to the esophagus to the stomach.

There are three main pairs of salivary glands: the parotid, the submandibular and the sublingual glands.

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The salivary glands produce saliva, which keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system moist. It also helps break down carbohydrates (with salivary amylase, formerly known as ptyalin) and lubricates the passage of food down from the oro-pharynx to the esophagus to the stomach.

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The function of the digestive system is to be used for digestion and absorption. With the help of the digestive system, you can break down food into smaller parts which is then absorbed in your body.

It helps with....
-Ingestion of food
-Excretion of waste
-Absorption of nutrients
-Digestion of food into smaller pieces

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Drawn Tongue labelled diagram 16 - 800 X 705 | Dumielauxepices.net

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Avoid foods that have lots of fat in them. You should get little fat in your diet. A lot of fat can slow down your digestive system.

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Researchers who want to treat diseases by ferrying a gene into cells often face the hurdle of safely introducing the DNA into enough of them to make a difference. Now, scientists have come up with a novel way to make gene-modified cells in the liver take over much of that organ: They cripple the unmodified cells. This seemingly risky strategy, which relies on the liver's exceptional regenerative skills, has passed its first test in mice. If equally successful in people, it could be a boon for treating many inherited diseases involving the liver.

"This is very much proof of concept. The authors [of the new study] would be first to admit it still has a way to go, but it's a very exciting step in my view," says Ian Alexander of the University of Sydney in Australia, who works on gene therapy for childhood liver diseases.

Gene therapy is showing promise for several rare diseases, including hemophilia B, in which people lack a livermade protein called factor IX that helps blood clot. Some researchers and companies are currently using a so-called vector, the harmless adeno-associated virus (AAV), to carry into liver cells a loop of DNA with a working copy of the gene for factor IX.

But the treatment has limitations. So far, it hasn't given hemophilia B patients enough factor IX to completely avoid bleeding episodes-they need about 12% of normal levels, but get half or less with the therapy. And those treated with higher doses sometimes need a steroid drug to counter an immune response to the virus. For many other liver diseases, a similar AAV gene therapy would not modify enough cells, or sustain high enough activity of the new genes, to produce the needed amount of a protein. And in children, such therapies can lose their efficacy as the liver grows and modified cells lose the loops of foreign DNA.

But the human liver's ability to regenerate offers another strategy. Remove three-quarters, and it will quickly renew itself. Knowing of this bounce-back ability, Sean Nygaard and others in the lab of liver gene therapy researcher Markus Grompe at Oregon Health & Science University in Portland and collaborators at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, sought to boost production of the foreign gene by giving the modified liver cells two key changes. First, instead of using the AAV to carry loops of DNA into the cell, they designed an AAV to integrate the human factor IX gene into a cell chromosome, near another gene that drove its expression, so that foreign DNA would not be lost as cells divided. The AAV also carried DNA coding for a short strand of RNA that blocks an enzyme that makes liver cells suffer DNA damage and stop dividing when exposed to a drug called CEHPOBA.

In healthy, newborn mice that received an AAV injection in the liver followed by daily injections of CEHPOBA for 4 weeks, the modified liver cells multiplied to replace the disabled ones. As this happened, the mice's blood levels of human factor IX rose well above the level a patient with hemophilia B would need-from 10- to 30-fold higher than in mice that got the gene therapy but no CEHPOBA, the team reports today in Science Translational Medicine. Depending on the liver disease, by adjusting the doses of CEHPOBA, Grompe says, "you could dial in how much factor IX [or other protein] you wanted."

But what about the dangers of using a drug to deliberately injure liver cells? Grompe says that is not as risky as it sounds because babies are sometimes born with a condition that mimics the liver-damaging effects of the CEHPOBA drug. Yet they can fully recover if treated. "We have the natural history of what happens to these patients as an argument to say you could do this," Grompe says. And although CEHPOBA is not an approved drug, his team thinks it can achieve the same results using a RNA that confers resistance to a common drug that is toxic to the liver, such as the painkiller acetaminophen.

Kathy High, president of Spark Therapeutics, a gene therapy company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, calls the new strategy "clever," but she's wary of injuring any liver cells deliberately. Her company is working on an improved AAV treatment that at low doses has given three hemophilia B patients up to 30% of the factor IX activity of healthy people. "There are other ways to do this," she suggests. Still, she and Alexander say it's wise to tackle the problem from many angles because it's hard to predict which will work best in people. "My experience over many years is that trying to work on multiple different strategies is usually a good thing," High says.

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How a liver-damaging drug may give a boost to gene therapy

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Researchers who want to treat diseases by ferrying a gene into cells often face the hurdle of safely introducing the DNA into enough of them to make a difference. Now, scientists have come up with a novel way to make gene-modified cells in the liver take over much of that organ: They cripple the unmodified cells.

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About The Condition

Your esophagus is the tube that carries food from your mouth to your stomach.

There are several types of esophageal disease:

Achalasia - the degeneration of the nerves in your esophagus. This causes failure of the esophagus to move food and liquids into your stomach. It also causes the sphincter between your esophagus and stomach to tighten, as it fails to relax.

Barrett's esophagus - a condition in which the lining of the esophagus is replaced with tissue similar to the stomach lining. Barrett's esophagus is often the result of long-standing gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and can sometimes lead to esophageal cancer. It requires long-term surveillance with the possibility of surgery to reduce reflux.

Esophageal cancer - can occur in any part of the esophagus and spread to your lymph nodes, windpipe, large blood vessels in the chest and nearby organs.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) - a chronic digestive disorder in which your stomach acid flows back into your esophagus, causing heartburn and irritation in the lining of the esophagus. Surgery can tighten the junction between your stomach and esophagus to lessen the backflow of acid.

Hiatal hernia - a weakness in your diaphragm causing the abdominal contents to move upward into the chest cavity. Surgery aims to repair the defect in the diaphragm.

Diagnostic Testing

Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD)

Purpose: An EGD provides a visual inspection of the esophagus, stomach and first part of the small bowel (duodenum). This procedure enables visualization of changes to your esophagus and stomach, such as ulcers, erosions and Barrett's esophagus, as well as changes to the anatomy.

Description: The EGD is performed in the procedure center at any of our surgical locations. You will be sedated to make you relaxed and comfortable. The procedure is painless and takes approximately 15 to 30 minutes. You will go home the same day.

Risks: Having an EGD involves a small risk of complications including, but not limited to, sore throat, bleeding or perforation (puncture) of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Because of the intravenous sedation, there is a risk of problems with breathing, heart arrhythmias and pneumonia.

Preparation:

NO eating or drinking after midnight the night before the procedure.

You may take sips of water with your medication two hours before your procedure.

If your test is in the afternoon, you may not eat or drink anything for eight hours before your procedure.

You may need to stop blood thinners prior to the procedure. Ask your physician.

Afterwards: Because of the sedation, you will need a driver to take you home.

High Resolution Impedance Manometry (HRIM)

Purpose: High Resolution Impedance Manometry measures pressures and fluid movement in the esophagus. These measurements help us diagnose esophageal motility disorders and are crucial in planning esophageal surgery.

Description: The HRIM procedure is performed in the office. A small flexible catheter (tube) will be placed into your esophagus through your nose. You will be asked to swallow small amounts of salt water 10 to 12 times during the test. The test lasts about 15 to 20 minutes.

Risks: During the esophageal manometry procedure, there is a small potential for nose bleed. Some patients have difficulty with gagging, but with relaxation, most patients can complete the procedure.

Preparation: Your stomach needs to be empty, so you should have nothing to eat or drink for four hours prior to the study.

Afterwards: There will be no sedation, so you may drive yourself to and from the appointment.

24-Hour Esophageal Impedance pH test

Purpose: The 24-Hour Esophageal Impedance pH test evaluates the extent of gastric reflux into your esophagus over a prolonged period of time, typically 24 hours. Sensors on a catheter measure the level of acidity at various levels in your esophagus, as well as the reflux of stomach contents up into the esophagus. It is the most accurate test to document gastroesophageal reflux and is generally our preferred test because it measures acidity at different levels as well as non-acid reflux events.

Description: In the Esophageal Impedance pH test, a small catheter (tube) will be placed into your esophagus through your nose. This catheter is very thin (2mm in diameter) and is connected to a pocket-sized recording device that will hang over your shoulder. The catheter is inserted during an office visit. After you leave our office, you should go about as much normal activity as you can for the 24-hour duration of the test. The tube is connected to a small receiver, so you may not shower during the study. You will need to return to the office the following day (24 hours later) to have the tube removed.

Risks: Patients may experience some irritation and discomfort in the back of their throat during the procedure. More than 90 percent of patients are able to complete the procedure. Rarely, refractory stimulation of the gag reflex may prohibit completion.

Alternatives: In some patients who are unable to complete the test, or in whom more prolonged monitoring is thought to be more beneficial, the Bravo capsule pH test is an alternative.
Preparation:

The most accurate results of this test are obtained if you have been off your reflux medication (such as Prilosec, Prevacid or Dexilant) for seven days.

You may take Pepcid, Zantac or Tagamet up until two days before the test.

You may take Tums, Mylanta or Gaviscon up until six hours before the procedure.

During the test, please do not take any antacid medications until the tube comes out. Once the tube is out, you may return to your regular medications.

The receiver is attached to the catheter and cannot get wet. This means you cannot shower until the tube is removed the following day. The catheter is visible and will be taped to your nose for the duration of the test.

BRAVO Capsule Esophageal pH Test

Purpose: The Bravo Capsule Esophageal pH Test measures and records the level of acidity (pH) in your esophagus to determine the degree to which you have acid reflux over a 48 to 96-hour period. The Bravo device consists of a capsule about the size of a vitamin pill that attaches to your esophagus, and transmits information wirelessly to a pocket-sized receiver that you carry with you.

Description: The capsule will be put in place with a catheter. The capsule attaches itself to the inside of your esophagus using suction and the introducing catheter is then removed. The Bravo may be placed during an endoscopy procedure while you are under sedation. The receiver is returned to our office after completion of the test. The capsule will dislodge itself in about 3 to 7 days and pass out with the stool.

Risks: Uncommonly, patients will experience chest pain or discomfort due to the presence of the Bravo capsule in the esophagus. Rarely, the capsule will not fall off spontaneously, or food may hang up on the Bravo capsule, and endoscopy may be required to remove the capsule. The manufacturer advises that an MRI not be obtained if the Bravo capsule could still be in the body. If it has been longer than a month, is is ok to proceed with an MRI. If you need an MRI before one month, it is recommended you have an X-ray to evaluate if the Bravo capsule remains. The Bravo capsule will sometimes dislodge prematurely, or not function properly, and need to be reinserted.

Alternatives: 24-hour Esophageal Impedance or Esophageal Manometry is an alternative catheter-based system that provides greater accuracy in general.
Preparation:

The most accurate results of this test are obtained if you have been off of your reflux medication (such as Prilosec, Prevacid or Dexilant) for seven days.

You may take Pepcid, Zantac or Tagamet up until two days before the test.

You may take Tums, Mylanta or Gaviscon up until six hours before the procedure.

Afterwards: If you have been sedated, you will need someone to drive you home.

Purpose: This test provides X-ray imaging of your esophagus and upper stomach, including the anatomy and motility of the esophagus. It is useful in evaluating swallowing problems, as well as reflux, and is frequently obtained to evaluate esophageal and gastric problems.

Description: An esophagram is performed in the X-ray (radiology) department. You will be given a chalky-tasting thick liquid (barium) to drink, and X-rays will be obtained as you swallow.

Risks: A barium swallow is generally a safe test. Allergic reactions to barium are very uncommon, but may occur. Constipation may result from the barium, and sometimes a mild laxative is helpful. Rarely barium may be aspirated into the lungs during the test.

Preparation: There is no preparation needed for an esophagram.

Afterwards: There is no sedation, so you can drive yourself home.

Before Surgery

Prior to surgery, you may be asked to change your diet and swallow train. Swallow training involves taking bites or swallows with 20 to 30 seconds in between each swallow. It is beneficial to do this with a timer during meals.

Always ask your surgeon about your diet before surgery. For certain conditions, like achalasia, you may be asked to follow a liquid diet before surgery for several days.

Stop smoking for one month prior to your surgery. Nicotine decreases blood flow, prevents healing after surgery and increases your risk of infection.

Increase your activity. Aim for 30 minutes of walking or other aerobic activity daily to build strength.

Improve your nutrition. Add protein supplements such as Boost or Ensure to help your body heal after surgery.

Surgery

Our surgeons perform open surgery, as well as minimally invasive surgeries, for esophageal disease. Your surgeon will explain your particular procedure in more detail.

Minimally invasive surgery. Minimally invasive surgery is performed with laparoscopy or robot-assisted surgery using the da Vinci Surgical System.

Laparoscopic surgery. Laparoscopic surgery requires only a few small incisions into which your surgeon will fit long, thin surgical instruments and a tiny camera. The camera will provide images to guide the surgeon during the procedure.

Robotic surgery. Some laparoscopic surgeries may be performed using the da Vinci Surgical System. This robotic option gives your surgeon a magnified 3D high-definition view inside your body. The system also enables the surgeon's hand movements to be translated into precise movements of small instruments inside your body.

Open surgery. Minimally With open surgery, your physician will make an incision at the site of the abnormality large enough so he or she can see and touch your internal organs while operating.

After Surgery

After any esophageal surgery, swallowing/eating takes practice. We recommend eating slowly, taking 20 to 30 seconds between swallows. If not, you may experience increased abdominal or chest pressure after eating.

Ask your surgeon about diet changes. Due to esophageal swelling, it may be difficult to swallow for the first few weeks. Many patients are encouraged to adhere to a liquid diet for one to three weeks following surgery, with gradual advancement to a regular diet.

You will be encouraged to walk to prevent blood clots, muscle weakness and constipation.

You may experience constipation. If so, you may take a laxative such as Miralax or Milk of Magnesia.

Ice may help to reduce the swelling for the first 48 to 96 hours. Then use heat to ease muscle soreness and relax tight muscles.

Ask your surgeon before taking ibuprofen. A small amount of bleeding or drainage is expected from the wound during the first one or two days.

You may shower one or two days after surgery, but avoid baths, hot tubs, soaking or swimming for two weeks.

Always talk to your surgeon about weight restrictions and return-to-work options.

Most patients who have had laparoscopic or robotic surgery are discharged the day following surgery.

You will be asked to see your surgeon in one to three weeks after surgery.

If you notice a fever greater than 101 degrees Fahrenheit or drainage from your wound, let your surgeon know by calling 763.780.6699.

If you have additional questions, please contact us at 763.780.6699.

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Esophageal Disease Surgery | Specialists in General Surgery - SGS

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Your esophagus is the tube that carries food from your mouth to your stomach. There are several types of esophageal disease: Achalasia - the degeneration of the nerves in your esophagus. This causes failure of the esophagus to move food and liquids into your stomach.

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© 2009 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.

The stomach is a muscular organ located on the left side of the upper abdomen. The stomach receives food from the esophagus. As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it enters the stomach through a muscular valve called the lower esophageal sphincter.

The stomach secretes acid and enzymes that digest food. Ridges of muscle tissue called rugae line the stomach. The stomach muscles contract periodically, churning food to enhance digestion. The pyloric sphincter is a muscular valve that opens to allow food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine.

Stomach Conditions

Gastroesophageal reflux: Stomach contents, including acid, can travel backward up the esophagus. There may be no symptoms, or reflux may cause heartburn or coughing.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): When symptoms of reflux become bothersome or occur frequently, they're called GERD. Infrequently, GERD can cause serious problems of the esophagus.

Dyspepsia: Another name for stomach upset or indigestion. Dyspepsia may be caused by almost any benign or serious condition that affects the stomach.

Gastric ulcer (stomach ulcer): An erosion in the lining of the stomach, often causing pain and/or bleeding. Gastric ulcers are most often caused by NSAIDs or H. pylori infection.

Peptic ulcer disease: Doctors consider ulcers in either the stomach or the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) peptic ulcer disease.

Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach, often causing nausea and/or pain. Gastritis can be caused by alcohol, certain medications, H. pylori infection, or other factors.

Stomach cancer: Gastric cancer is an uncommon form of cancer in the U.S. Adenocarcinoma and lymphoma make up most of the cases of stomach cancer.

Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES): One or more tumors that secrete hormones that lead to increased acid production. Severe GERD and peptic ulcer disease result from this rare disorder.

Gastric varices: In people with severe liver disease, veins in the stomach may swell and bulge under increased pressure. Called varices, these veins are at high risk for bleeding, although less so than esophageal varices are.

Stomach bleeding: Gastritis, ulcers, or gastric cancers may bleed. Seeing blood or black material in vomit or stool is usually a medical emergency.

Gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying): Nerve damage from diabetes or other conditions may impair the stomach's muscle contractions. Nausea and vomiting are the usual symptoms.

Continued

Stomach Tests

Upper endoscopy (esophagogastroduodenoscopy or EGD): A flexible tube with a camera on its end (endoscope) is inserted through the mouth. The endoscope allows examination of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (the first part of the small intestine).

Computed tomography (CT scan): A CT scanner uses X-rays and a computer to create images of the stomach and abdomen.

Magnetic resonance imaging: Using a magnetic field, a scanner creates high-resolution images of the stomach and abdomen.

pH testing: Using a tube through the nose into the esophagus, acid levels in the esophagus can be monitored. This can help diagnose or change treatment for GERD.

Barium swallow: After swallowing barium, X-ray films of the esophagus and stomach are taken. This can sometimes diagnose ulcers or other problems.

Upper GI series: X-rays are taken of the esophagus, stomach, and upper part of the small intestine.

Gastric emptying study: A test of how rapidly food passes through the stomach. The food is labeled with a chemical and viewed on a scanner.

Stomach biopsy: During an endoscopy, a doctor can take a small piece of stomach tissue for tests. This can diagnose H. pylori infection, cancer, or other problems.

H. pylori test: While most people with H. pylori infection don't develop ulcers, simple blood or stool tests can be done to check for infection in people with ulcers or to verify that the infection is wiped out after treatment..

Stomach Treatments

Histamine (H2) blockers: Histamine increases stomach acid secretion; blocking histamine can reduce acid production and GERD symptoms.

Proton pump inhibitors: These medicines directly inhibit the acid pumps in the stomach. They must be taken daily to be effective.

Antacids: These medicines can help against the effects of acid but don't kill bacteria or stop acid production.

Endoscopy: During an upper endoscopy, tools on the endoscope can sometimes stop stomach bleeding, if present.

Motility agents: Medicines can increase contraction of the stomach, improving symptoms of gastroparesis.

Stomach surgery: Cases of severe stomach bleeding, ruptured ulcers, or cancer require surgery to be cured.

Antibiotics: H. pylori infection can be cured with antibiotics, which are taken with other medicines to heal the stomach.

Sources

Trialsight Medical Media: "Stomach Anatomy."

Medline Plus: "EGD - esophagogastroduodenoscopy."

MedicineNet: "Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)."

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The Stomach (Human Anatomy): Picture, Function, Definition, Conditions, and More

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The stomach is a muscular organ located on the left side of the upper abdomen. The stomach receives food from the esophagus. As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it enters the stomach through a muscular valve called the lower esophageal sphincter. The stomach secretes acid and enzymes that digest food.

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The gallbladder is a small, muscular bag that lives beneath your liver in the right upper quadrant of your abdominal cavity. Your liver produces bile, a fluid that helps digest fats in the small intestine. Your gallbladder stores bile throughout the day and releases it into the main bile duct. It then drains into the small intestine. Your gallbladder will sometimes develop gallstones when your body improperly processes cholesterol. Stones will then precipitate inside the gallbladder. Other times, the gallbladder will simply become dysfunctional and produce the same symptoms as gallstones. This condition is called biliary dyskinesia.

Gallbladder Disease Symptoms

Indigestion

Nausea

Vomiting

Diarrhea

Back and/or shoulder pain

Infection

Pain in the middle or right upper side of your belly after eating

Gallbladder Attack

A severe onset of these symptoms is sometimes referred to as a "gallbladder attack". In some cases, if you are seen through the emergency room, you may be taken into surgery the same or next day. This is not always the case. If seen in your primary physician's office for some or all of these symptoms, your doctor may order an Ultrasound, CT or CAT scan, hepatobiliary (HIDA) scan, or another test to identify or confirm gallstones.

The best option is usually surgical removal of the gallbladder. Medical management is a possibility in special cases. This is often poorly tolerated and the results are usually temporary.

Gallstones

Gallstones can be quite painful and, if left untreated, can lead to serious complications. If the stones move to nearby bile ducts, they can cause blockages or inflammation of the pancreas. Jaundice (buildup of bile chemicals in the blood) can also occur. Symptoms of jaundice include a yellowing of the eyes and skin, dark urine, and itching.

Gallbladder Surgery

Cholecystectomy

Gallbladder surgery (cholecystectomy) is most often performed laparoscopically. Laparoscopic surgery offers a minimally invasive approach to gallbladder removal and allows for faster healing time. A traditional open surgery may be required in rare circumstances.

Once you are taken to the operating room and are asleep using general anesthesia, a small incision around your naval will be created where a tiny lighted video camera, called a laparoscope, is inserted. During your consultation, we will discuss the various treatment options and most appropriate method for managing your symptoms. This may include Single Incisions Laparoscopic Removal (SILS) or traditional 4-port laparoscopy. Through various small incision(s) and dissecting instruments, your gallbladder is removed from beneath the liver bed and retrieved through your navel in a sterile plastic bag. To make it easier to visualize your gallbladder, your abdominal cavity is inflated with Carbon Dioxide gas. The incision(s) are closed with dissolvable sutures and covered with steri-strips. Rarely, open (traditional) surgery may be required.

In special circumstances, a dye is injected into your bile duct and an X-ray (cholangiogram) is used to determine if gallstones have migrated out of the gallbladder. These may need to be removed after surgery with an additional procedure called an ERCP (endoscopic retrograde pancreatography). This is coordinated with a Gastroenterologist.

After the procedure is complete, you will be taken to the recovery room for a few hours to wake up from the anesthesia and have something to eat. You will also be asked to get up and walk a little to aid in the recovery process. If you have had Laparoscopic surgery, you will likely return home the same day. If you had open surgery you may remain in the hospital for a few days.

Some patients are candidates for SILS or Single Incision Laparoscopic Surgery.

Getting Back to Normal

You may advance your diet as tolerated. Most patients can eventually resume a normal diet without restrictions. Post-operatively you may experience some food intolerances. This presents with heartburn, nausea, indigestion or diarrhea. During your recovery, you may wish to avoid meals that cause these symptoms (i.e. spicy, greasy, rich, or heavy foods). This is often temporary. It can uncommonly be a permanent lifestyle modification.

Following your surgery, you may experience constipation while taking the pain medications. This is normal and should resolve itself. To aid in this process, use over the counter stool softeners and fiber supplement.

Right shoulder pain is especially common for the first 24-36 hours. It generally passes quickly. A protected heating pad is sometimes helpful.

You will be allowed to shower the day after your surgery. Avoid soaking in a bath or hot tub until after your follow-up visit.

You will be restricted from lifting anything over 30 pounds for 2 weeks after surgery to allow healing.

Ease back into your normal daily activity and be sure to eat balanced healthy meals.

Please be sure to schedule a post-op appointment 7-14 days after your surgery, so the doctor can evaluate your recovery progress.

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Gallbladder Surgery (Cholecystectomy) The gallbladder is a small, muscular bag that lives beneath your liver in the right upper quadrant of your abdominal cavity. Your liver produces bile, a fluid that helps digest fats in the small intestine. Your gallbladder stores bile throughout the day and

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Drink plenty of water daily. Water helps with your stool. An average person whould drink 8 glasses or water a day.

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© 2014 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.

Front View of the Pancreas

The pancreas is about 6 inches long and sits across the back of the abdomen, behind the stomach. The head of the pancreas is on the right side of the abdomen and is connected to the duodenum (the first section of the small intestine) through a small tube called the pancreatic duct. The narrow end of the pancreas, called the tail, extends to the left side of the body.

Pancreas Conditions

Diabetes, type 1: The body's immune system attacks and destroys the pancreas' insulin-producing cells. Lifelong insulin injections are required to control blood sugar.

Diabetes, type 2: The pancreas loses the ability to appropriately produce and release insulin. The body also becomes resistant to insulin, and blood sugar rises.

Cystic fibrosis: A genetic disorder that affects multiple body systems, usually including the lungs and the pancreas. Digestive problems and diabetes often result.

Pancreatic cancer: The pancreas has many different types of cells, each of which can give rise to a different type of tumor. The most common type arises from the cells that line the pancreatic duct. Because there are usually few or no early symptoms, pancreatic cancer is often advanced by the time it's discovered.

Pancreatitis: The pancreas becomes inflamed and damaged by its own digestive chemicals. Swelling and death of tissue of the pancreas can result. Although alcohol or gallstones can contribute, sometimes a cause for pancreatitis is never found.

Pancreatic pseudocyst: After a bout of pancreatitis, a fluid-filled cavity called a pseudocyst can form. Pseudocysts may resolve spontaneously, or they may need surgical drainage.

Islet cell tumor: The hormone-producing cells of the pancreas multiply abnormally, creating a benign or cancerous tumor. These tumors produce excess amounts of hormones and then release them into the blood. Gastrinomas, glucagonomas, and insulinomas are examples of islet cell tumors.

Enlarged pancreas: An enlarged pancreas may mean nothing. You may simply have a pancreas that is larger than normal. Or, it can be because of an anatomic abnormality. But other causes of an enlarged pancreas may exist and require treatment.

Continued

Pancreas Tests

Physical examination: By pressing on the center of the belly, a doctor might check for a mass in the pancreas. He or she can also look for other signs of pancreas conditions.

Computed tomography scan: A CT scanner takes multiple X-rays, and a computer creates detailed images of the pancreas and abdomen. Contrast dye may be injected into your veins to improve the images.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Magnetic waves create highly detailed images of the abdomen. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is an MRI that focuses on the pancreas, liver, and bile system.

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): Using a camera on a flexible tube advanced from the mouth to the intestine, a doctor can access the area of the pancreas head. Tiny surgical tools can be used to diagnose and treat some pancreas conditions.

Pancreas biopsy: Either using a needle through the skin or a surgical procedure, a small piece of pancreas tissue is removed to look for cancer or other conditions.

Ultrasound: A probe is placed on the belly, and harmless sound waves create images by reflecting off the pancreas and other organs.

Amylase and lipase: Blood tests showing elevated levels of these pancreatic enzymes can suggest pancreatitis.

Sweat chloride test: A painless electric current stimulates the skin to sweat, and the chloride in perspiration is measured. People with cystic fibrosis often have high sweat chloride levels.

Genetic testing: Many different mutations of a single gene can cause cystic fibrosis. Genetic testing can help identify if an adult is an unaffected carrier or if a child will develop cystic fibrosis.

Continued

Pancreas Treatments

Insulin: Injecting insulin under the skin causes body tissues to absorb glucose, lowering blood sugar. Insulin can be created in a lab or purified from animal sources.

Pseudocyst drainage: A pseudocyst can be drained by inserting a tube or needle through the skin into the pseudocyst. Alternately, a small tube or stent is placed between either the pseudocyst and the stomach or the small intestine, draining the cyst.

Pseudocyst surgery: Sometimes, surgery is necessary to remove a pseudocyst. Either laparoscopy (multiple small incisions) or laparotomy (one larger incision) may be needed.

Pancreatic cancer resection (Whipple procedure): The standard surgery to remove pancreatic cancer. In a Whipple procedure, a surgeon removes the head of the pancreas, the gallbladder, and the first section of the small intestine (the duodenum). Occasionally, a small part of the stomach is also removed.

Pancreatic enzymes: People with cystic fibrosis often must take oral pancreatic enzymes to replace those that the malfunctioning pancreas doesn't make.

Pancreas transplantation: An organ donor's pancreas is transplanted into someone with diabetes or cystic fibrosis. In some patients, a pancreas transplant cures diabetes.

Islet cell transplantation: Insulin-producing cells are harvested from an organ donor's pancreas and transplanted into someone with type 1 diabetes. The still-experimental procedure can potentially cure type 1 diabetes.

Sources

SOURCES

National Cancer Institute: "Pancreatic and Biliary Tract Cancers."

The Ohio State University Medical Center: "The Pancreas: Anatomy and Functions."

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The Pancreas (Human Anatomy): Picture, Definition, Function, Location in the Body, and More

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The pancreas is about 6 inches long and sits across the back of the abdomen, behind the stomach. The head of the pancreas is on the right side of the abdomen and is connected to the duodenum (the first section of the small intestine) through a small tube called the pancreatic duct.

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Eat around the same time each day. If you keep an eating schedule, your body can relaxed and in shape.

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Salivary Gland Cancer - Brigham and Women's Faulkner Hospital

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Learn about Salivary Gland Cancer and the services offered at Brigham and Women's Division of Otolaryngology at Brigham and Women's Faulkner Hospital.

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Eat meat with no bread just grilled. Your body needs protien, but every meat has a little bit of fat. Fat is not good for your digestive system.

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What are dimensions of the small intestine? What are reasons to explain why the small intestine is so long, compared to the large intestine? | Socratic

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The small intestine is about 7.0 m long and 2.5 cm to 3 cm in diameter. (From www.emaze.com) In contrast, the large intestine is about 1.6 m long and about 6 cm in diameter. Why the difference? There are two main reasons: It takes time for digestion to occur.

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The large intestine also known as the colon, extends from the distal end of the ileum to the anus, a distance of approximately 1.5 m in adults (5 ft) long, making up one-fifth of the length of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and 6.5 cm (2.5 in.) in diameter. The large intestine is named for its relatively large diameter, not its length. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, rectum, and anal canal.

The large intestine is responsible for processing indigestible food material (chyme) after most nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. The large intestine performs an essential role by absorbing water, vitamins, salts and electrolytes from the gut contents, thus forming feces.

Beginning in the right groin as the cecum, with its associated appendix, the large intestine continues upward as the ascending colon through the right flank and into the right hypochondrium. The ascending colon begins at the ileocecal valve and passes up the right side of the abdominal cavity. It makes a 90° turn at the right colic (hepatic) flexure, near the right lobe of the liver, and crosses the abdomen as the transverse colon to the left hypochondrium. At this position, just below the spleen, the large intestine bends downward, forming the left colic flexure (splenic flexure) and continues as the descending colon through the left flank and into the left groin. Ascending, transverse, and descending colons thus form a squarish, three-sided frame around the small intestine.

The cecum is a blind pouch in the lower right abdominal quadrant inferior to the ileocecal valve. Attached to its lower end is the appendix, a blind tube 2 to 7 cm long. The appendix is densely populated with lymphocytes and is a significant source of immune cells.
Figure 1. Large intestine
The pelvic cavity is narrower than the abdominal cavity, so at the hip bone, the colon turns medially and travels along the iliac fossa before turning downward at the pelvic inlet into the pelvic cavity. The resulting S-shaped portion of the tract is called the sigmoid colon. Visual examination of this region is performed with an instrument called a sigmoidoscope. In the pelvic cavity, the large intestine continues as the rectum, about 15 cm long. Despite its name, the rectum is not quite straight but has three lateral curves as well as an anteroposterior curve. It has three infoldings called transverse rectal folds (rectal valves), which enable it to retain feces while passing gas.

The final 3 cm of the large intestine is the anal canal, which passes through the levator ani muscle of the pelvic floor and terminates at the anus. Here, the mucosa forms longitudinal ridges called anal columns with depressions between them called anal sinuses. As feces pass through the canal, they press the sinuses and cause them to exude extra mucus and lubricate the canal during defecation. Prominent hemorrhoidal veins form superficial plexuses in the anal columns and around the orifice. Unlike veins in the limbs, they lack valves and are particularly subject to distension and venous pooling. Hemorrhoids are permanently distended veins that protrude into the anal canal or form bulges external to the anus. They can result from the impaired venous return that occurs in obesity and pregnancy.

The muscularis externa of the colon is unusual. Although it completely encircles the colon just as it does the small intestine, its longitudinal fibers are especially concentrated in three thickened, ribbonlike strips. Each strip is called a taenia coli. The muscle tone of the taeniae coli contracts the colon lengthwise and causes its wall to bulge, forming pouches called haustra (singular, haustrum). Haustra are conspicuous in colonic X-rays of living patients, because they disappear when muscle tone is lost at death. In the rectum and anal canal, the longitudinal muscle forms a continuous sheet and haustra are absent. The anus is regulated by two sphincters: an internal anal sphincter composed of smooth muscle of the muscularis externa and an external anal sphincter composed of skeletal muscle of the pelvic diaphragm.

The ascending and descending colon are retroperitoneal and have a serosa only on the anterior surface, whereas the transverse and sigmoid colon are entirely enclosed in serosa and anchored to the posterior abdominal wall by the mesocolon. The serosa of the transverse through sigmoid colon often has omental appendages, also called epiploic appendages, are fat-filled pouches of visceral peritoneum that hang from the intestine. Their significance is unknown.
Figure 2. Large intestine location Figure 3. Large intestine and small intestine Figure 4. Anal canal
Blood supply to the large intestine

The large intestine is served by mesenteric arteries and veins much like the small intestine. Branches of the superior mesenteric artery fan out to supply the ascending colon and most of the transverse colon; the inferior mesenteric artery supplies the rest of the transverse colon as well as the descending and sigmoid colon and the rectum. The superior and inferior mesenteric veins drain the same parts of the large intestine as the correspondingly named arteries and drain into the hepatic portal system.

Function of large intestine

The large intestine has 3 primary functions: absorbing water and electrolytes, producing and absorbing vitamins, and forming and propelling feces toward the rectum for elimination. By the time indigestible materials have reached the colon, most nutrients and up to 90% of the water has been absorbed by the small intestine. The role of the ascending colon is to absorb the remaining water and other key nutrients from the indigestible material, solidifying it to form stool. The descending colon stores feces that will eventually be emptied into the rectum. The sigmoid colon contracts to increase the pressure inside the colon, causing the stool to move into the rectum. The rectum holds the feces awaiting elimination by defecation.
Functions of the large intestine:

1. Haustral churning, peristalsis, and mass peristalsis drive contents of colon into rectum.

2. Bacteria in large intestine convert proteins to amino acids, break down amino acids, and produce some B vitamins and vitamin K.

3. Absorption of some water, ions, and vitamins.

4. Formation of feces.

5. Defecation (emptying rectum).

Motility
The intestinal wall is made up of multiple layers. The 4 layers of the large intestine from the lumen outward are the mucosa, submucosa, muscular layer, and serosa. The muscular layer is made up of 2 layers of smooth muscle, the inner, circular layer, and the outer, longitudinal layer. These layers contribute to the motility of the large intestine. There are 2 types of motility present in the colon, haustral contraction and mass movement. Haustra are saccules in the colon that give it its segmented appearance. Haustral contraction is activated by the presence of chyme and serves to move food slowly to the next haustra, along with mixing the chyme to help with water absorption. Mass movements are stronger and serve to move the chyme to the rectum quickly.
Absorption of Water and Electrolytes
Absorption of water occurs by osmosis. Water diffuses in response to an osmotic gradient established by the absorption of electrolytes. Sodium is actively absorbed in the colon by sodium channels. Potassium is either absorbed or secreted depending on the concentration in the lumen. The electrochemical gradient created by the active absorption of sodium allows for this. Chloride ions are exchanged for bicarbonate ions across an electrochemical gradient.
Production/Absorption of Vitamins
The colon also plays a role in providing required vitamins through an environment that is conducive for bacterial cultivation. The colon houses trillions of bacteria that protect our gut and produce vitamins. The bacteria in the colon produce substantial amounts of vitamins by fermentation. Vitamin K and B vitamins, including biotin, are produced by the colonic bacteria. These vitamins are then absorbed into the blood. When dietary intake of these vitamins is low in an individual, the colon plays a significant role in minimizing vitamin disparity.

The wall of the large intestine contains the typical four layers found in the rest of the gastrointestinal tract: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. The mucosa consists of simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria (areolar connective tissue), and muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle). The epithelium contains mostly absorptive and goblet cells. The absorptive cells function primarily in water absorption; the goblet cells secrete mucus that lubricates the passage of the colonic contents. Both absorptive and goblet cells are located in long, straight, tubular intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn) that extend the full thickness of the mucosa. Solitary lymphatic nodules are also found in the lamina propria of the mucosa and may extend through the muscularis mucosae into the submucosa.

Compared to the small intestine, the mucosa of the large intestine does not have as many structural adaptations that increase surface area. There are no circular folds or villi; however, microvilli are present on the absorptive cells. Consequently, much more absorption occurs in the small intestine than in the large intestine.

The mucosa of the large intestine has a simple columnar epithelium in all regions except the lower half of the anal canal, where it has a nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The latter provides more resistance to the abrasion caused by the passage of feces. There are no circular folds or villi in the large intestine, but there are intestinal crypts. They are deeper than in the small intestine and have a greater density of goblet cells; mucus is their only significant secretion. The lamina propria and submucosa have an abundance of lymphatic tissue, providing protection from the bacteria that densely populate the large intestine.

The submucosa of the large intestine consists of areolar connective tissue. The muscularis consists of an external layer of longitudinal smooth muscle and an internal layer of circular smooth muscle. Unlike other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, portions of the longitudinal muscles are thickened, forming three conspicuous bands called the teniae coli that run most of the length of the large intestine. The teniae coli are separated by portions of the wall with less or no longitudinal muscle. Tonic contractions of the bands gather the colon into a series of pouches called haustra (shaped like pouches), which give the colon a puckered appearance. A single layer of circular smooth muscle lies between teniae coli. The serosa of the large intestine is part of the visceral peritoneum. Small pouches of visceral peritoneum filled with fat are attached to teniae coli and are called omental (fatty) appendices.
Figure 5. Large intestine anatomy
Mechanical Digestion in the Large Intestine

The passage of chyme from the ileum into the cecum is regulated by the action of the ileocecal sphincter. Normally, the valve remains partially closed so that the passage of chyme into the cecum usually occurs slowly. Immediately after a meal, a gastroileal reflex intensifies peristalsis in the ileum and forces any chyme into the cecum. The hormone gastrin also relaxes the sphincter. Whenever the cecum is distended, the degree of contraction of the ileocecal sphincter intensifies.

Movements of the colon begin when substances pass the ileocecal sphincter. Because chyme moves through the small intestine at a fairly constant rate, the time required for a meal to pass into the colon is determined by gastric emptying time. As food passes through the ileocecal sphincter, it fills the cecum and accumulates in the ascending colon.

The most common type of colonic motility is a type of segmentation called haustral contractions, which occur about every 30 minutes. Distension of a haustrum with feces stimulates it to contract. This churns and mixes the residue, promotes water and salt absorption, and passes the residue distally to another haustrum. Peristalsis also occurs, although at a slower rate (3-12 contractions per minute) than in more proximal portions of the tract. A final type of movement is mass peristalsis, a strong peristaltic wave that begins at about the middle of the transverse colon and quickly drives the contents of the colon into the rectum. Because food in the stomach initiates this gastrocolic reflex in the colon, mass peristalsis usually takes place three or four times a day, during or immediately aft er a meal. They last about 15 minutes and move residue several centimeters at a time. Mass peristalsis occur especially in the transverse to sigmoid colon, often within an hour after breakfast, moving the feces that accumulated and stretched the colon overnight.

The large intestine takes 36 to 48 hours to reduce the residue of a meal to feces, with the residue spending the greatest time (about 24 h) in the transverse colon. The colon doesn't chemically change the residue, but reabsorbs water and electrolytes (especially NaCl) from it. Feces usually consist of about 75% water and 25% solids. The solids are about 30% bacteria, 30% undigested dietary fiber, 10% to 20% fat, and smaller amounts of protein, sloughed epithelial cells, salts, mucus, and other digestive secretions. The fat is not from the diet but from bacteria and broken-down epithelial cells.

Chemical Digestion in the Large Intestine

The final stage of digestion occurs in the colon through the activity of bacteria that inhabit the lumen. Mucus is secreted by the glands of the large intestine, but no enzymes are secreted. Chyme is prepared for elimination by the action of bacteria, which ferment any remaining carbohydrates and release hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane gases. These gases contribute to flatus (gas) in the colon, termed flatulence when it is excessive. Bacteria also convert any remaining proteins to amino acids and break down the amino acids into simpler substances: indole, skatole, hydrogen sulfide, and fatty acids. Some of the indole and skatole is eliminated in the feces and contributes to their odor; the rest is absorbed and transported to the liver, where these compounds are converted to less toxic compounds and excreted in the urine.

Bacteria also decompose bilirubin to simpler pigments, including stercobilin, which gives feces their brown color. Bacterial products that are absorbed in the colon include several vitamins needed for normal metabolism, among them some B vitamins and vitamin K.

Large Intestine Microbes and Gas

The large intestine harbors about 800 species of bacteria collectively called the gut microbiome. You have a mutually beneficial relationship with many of these. You provide them with room and board while they provide you with nutrients from your food that you are not equipped to extract on your own. For example, they digest cellulose, pectin, and other plant polysaccharides for which you have no digestive enzymes, and you absorb the resulting sugars. Thus, you get more nutrition from your food because of these bacteria than you would get without them. Indeed, one person may get more calories than another from the same amount of food because of differences in their bacterial populations. Some bacteria also synthesize B vitamins and vitamin K, which are absorbed by the colon. This vitamin K is especially important because the diet alone usually does not provide enough to ensure adequate blood clotting.

One of the less desirable and sometimes embarrassing products of these bacteria is intestinal gas. The large intestine contains about 7 to 10 L of gas, expelling about 500 mL/day as flatus and reabsorbing the rest. Much of this is swallowed air that has worked its way through the digestive tract, but the gut microbes add to it. Painful cramping can result when undigested nutrients pass into the colon and furnish an abnormal substrate for bacterial action, so the bacteria produce excess gas-for example, in lactose intolerance. Flatus is composed mostly of nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and two amines: indole and skatole. Indole, skatole, and H2S produce most of the odor of flatus and feces, whereas the others are odorless. The hydrogen gas is combustible and has been known to explode during the use of electrical cauterization in surgery.

Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine

By the time chyme has remained in the large intestine 3-10 hours, it has become solid or semisolid because of water absorption and is now called feces. Chemically, feces consist of water, inorganic salts, sloughed-off epithelial cells from the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract, bacteria, products of bacterial decomposition, unabsorbed digested materials, and indigestible parts of food. Although 90% of all water absorption occurs in the small intestine, the large intestine absorbs enough to make it an important organ in maintaining the body's water balance. Of the 0.5-1.0 liter of water that enters the large intestine, all but about 100-200 mL is normally absorbed via osmosis. The large intestine also absorbs ions, including sodium and chloride, and some vitamins.

The Defecation Reflex

Mass peristaltic movements push fecal material from the sigmoid colon into the rectum. The resulting distension of the rectal wall stimulates stretch receptors, which initiates a defecation reflex that results in defecation, the elimination of feces from the rectum through the anus. The defecation reflex occurs as follows: In response to distension of the rectal wall, the receptors send sensory nerve impulses to the sacral spinal cord.

Motor impulses from the cord travel along parasympathetic nerves back to the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus. The resulting contraction of the longitudinal rectal muscles shortens the rectum, thereby increasing the pressure within it. This pressure, along with voluntary contractions of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, plus parasympathetic stimulation, opens the internal anal sphincter.

The external anal sphincter is voluntarily controlled. If it is voluntarily relaxed, defecation occurs and the feces are expelled through the anus; if it is voluntarily constricted, defecation can be postponed. Voluntary contractions of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles aid defecation by increasing the pressure within the abdomen, which pushes the walls of the sigmoid colon and rectum inward. If defecation does not occur, the feces back up into the sigmoid colon until the next wave of mass peristalsis stimulates the stretch receptors, again creating the urge to defecate. In infants, the defecation reflex causes automatic emptying of the rectum because voluntary control of the external anal sphincter has not yet developed.
Figure 6. Defecation neural control
The amount of bowel movements that a person has over a given period of time depends on various factors such as diet, health, and stress. The normal range of bowel activity varies from two or three bowel movements per day to three or four bowel movements per week. Diarrhea is an increase in the frequency, volume, and fluid content of the feces caused by increased motility of and decreased absorption by the intestines. When chyme passes too quickly through the small intestine and feces pass too quickly through the large intestine, there is not enough time for absorption. Frequent diarrhea can result in dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Excessive motility may be caused by lactose intolerance, stress, and microbes that irritate the gastrointestinal mucosa.

Constipation refers to infrequent or difficult defecation caused by decreased motility of the intestines. Because the feces remain in the colon for prolonged periods, excessive water absorption occurs, and the feces become dry and hard. Constipation may be caused by poor habits (delaying defecation), spasms of the colon, insufficient fiber in the diet, inadequate fluid intake, lack of exercise, emotional stress, and certain drugs. A common treatment is a mild laxative, such as milk of magnesia, which induces defecation. However, many physicians maintain that laxatives are habit-forming, and that adding fiber to the diet, increasing the amount of exercise, and increasing fluid intake are safer ways of controlling this common problem.

Large intestine problems

Pathology of the large intestine is common. One out of every 10 Americans over the age of 40 have diverticular disease, and around 3 million people in the United States have inflammatory bowel disease . It is important to incorporate a healthy diet and lifestyle to maintain a properly functioning colon. Eating a diet high in fiber and drinking plenty of water allows food to easily move through the colon, keeping the colon relatively clean, which can decrease the risk of diverticular disease. It is also important to maintain healthy colonic flora. Maintaining healthy colonic flora will decrease the risk of abdominal bloating, gas, diarrhea, constipation, and infectious colitis.

Disorders of Large Intestinal Motility

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome is thought to be due to psychological factors influencing the motility of the large intestine via the extrinsic autonomic nervous system. During times of stress, segmentation contractions may be increased or decreased, resulting in constipation or diarrhea.

Hirschsprung Disease: Megacolon

Hirschsprung disease is a disorder at birth that occurs when nerve cells are absent (Auerbach's Plexus) in the muscles of the colon. This affects motility in the colon, making it difficult to pass stool.

Diverticulosis/Diverticulitis

Diverticulosis is a disorder in which pockets develop in the colonic mucosa due to the weakness of the muscle layers in the colon wall. This usually occurs over time from chronic attrition of the aging process. Diverticulitis can develop if these pockets get infected or inflamed, causing abdominal pain and change in bowel movements. Diverticular disease is very common, especially in older adults.

Large Intestine Inflammation

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease includes either Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis. Both cause inflammation and scarring within the digestive tract, disrupting the normal function. The cause of inflammatory bowel disease is not known but is likely due to an abnormal response of the immune system. Ulcerative colitis is confined to the large intestine, whereas Crohn's disease can occur anywhere in the GI (gastrointestinal) tract, from mouth to anus.

Ischemic colitis

Ischemic colitis is more common in the elderly and occurs when there is decreased blood flow to the colon. Decreased blood flow can cause inflammation or injury to the colon. Some causes of ischemic colitis are atherosclerosis of arteries, low blood pressure, blood clots, and bowel obstruction.

Infectious colitis

Infectious colitis can occur from many different viruses, bacteria, or parasites. Infectious colitis most commonly occurs due to ingestion of contaminated food or water, introducing the infectious organism into the colon. The most common causes are Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Shigella, and Salmonella. These infectious organisms invade the colon, cause inflammation, and affect the normal function, causing abdominal pain and diarrhea. Clostridium difficile is another organism that can cause colitis in association with antibiotic use. Clostridium difficile is part of healthy, normal flora in the colon but can cause problems if it overgrows. Antibiotic use can destroy other susceptible normal flora in the colon, allowing overgrowth and invasion of Clostridium difficile.

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Large Intestine Anatomy, Function, Location, Length and Role in Digestion

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The large intestine also known as the colon, extends from the distal end of the ileum to the anus, a distance of approximately 1.5 m in adults (5 ft) long, making up one-fifth of the length of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and 6.5 cm (2.5 in.) in diameter.

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Use probiotics to healp with your digestive system. They help strengthen your immune system. If you don't keep a good diet probiotics might help.

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What Is an Appendix, and What Does It Do?

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The appendix is a finger-like tube in the lower right part of the abdomen. Appendicitis occurs when the appendix becomes inflamed. Its role has long been a mystery, but some experts believe they’re closer to understanding its function.

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Your digestive system breaks down the foods you eat into the nutrients your body needs. If you neglect your digestive health, your body could run into problems absorbing those nutrients.

10 Tips for Improving and Maintaining Your Digestive Health

Your digestive health is directly impacted by the foods you eat and the lifestyle you live. By taking steps to improve your digestive health, you'll help your digestive system to function more efficiently, improving your overall health and sense of well-being.

Try these 10 tips for better digestive health:

1. Eat a high-fiber diet. According to Maria Adams, RD, MPH, a nutrition consultant in Marblehead, Massachusetts, consuming a diet that's high in fiber and rich in whole grains, vegetables, legumes, and fruits can improve your digestive health. "A high-fiber diet helps to keep food moving through your digestive tract, making you less likely to get constipated," Adams says, adding that a high-fiber diet can also help you prevent or treat various digestive conditions, such as diverticulosis, hemorrhoids, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). In addition, it can help you achieve or maintain a healthy weight.

2. Get both insoluble and soluble fiber. It's important to consume both types of fiber, since they help your digestive system in different ways. "Insoluble fiber, also known as roughage, can't be digested by the body and therefore helps add bulk to the stools," says Adams. "Soluble fiber draws in water and can help prevent stools that are too watery." Good sources of insoluble fiber include wheat bran, vegetables, and whole grains; get soluble fiber from oat bran, nuts, seeds, and legumes.

3. Limit foods that are high in fat. "In general, fatty foods tend to slow down the digestive process, making you more prone to constipation," says Adams. But since it's important to get some fat in your diet, Adams says that pairing fatty foods with high-fiber foods can make them easier on your digestive system.

4. Choose lean meats. Protein is an essential part of a healthful diet, but fatty cuts of meat can lead to uncomfortable digestion. When you eat meat, select lean cuts, such as pork loin and skinless poultry.

5. Incorporate probiotics into your diet. Probiotics are the same kind of healthy bacteria naturally present in your digestive tract. "They help keep the body healthy by combating the effects of a poor diet, antibiotics, and stress," says Adams. In addition, probiotics can enhance nutrient absorption, may help break down lactose, strengthen your immune system, and possibly even help treat IBS. Adams recommends that people eat good sources of probiotics, such as low-fat yogurt or kefir, on a daily basis.

6. Eat on schedule. Adams says that consuming your meals and snacks on a regular schedule can help keep your digestive system in top shape. Aim to sit down for breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks around the same time each day.

7. Stay hydrated. Drinking plenty of water is good for your digestive health, according to Adams. Fiber pulls water into the colon to create softer, bulkier stools, allowing them to pass through more easily.

8. Skip the bad habits: smoking, excessive caffeine, and alcohol. Liquor, coffee, and cigarettes can interfere with the functioning of your digestive system, and lead to problems like stomach ulcers and heartburn.

9. Exercise regularly. "Regular exercise helps keep foods moving through your digestive system, reducing constipation," says Adams. Exercise can also help you maintain a healthy weight, which is good for your digestive health. Make it a point to work regular exercise into your weekly schedule.

10. Manage stress. Too much stress or anxiety can cause your digestive system to go into overdrive, according to Adams. Find stress-reducing activities that you enjoy and practice them on a regular basis.

What you eat and the quality of your digestive health are intertwined. Following these 10 strategies will help make sure it's always a happy relationship.

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Your digestive system breaks down the foods you eat into the nutrients your body needs. If you neglect your digestive health, your body could run into problems absorbing those nutrients. Your digestive health is directly impacted by the foods you eat and the lifestyle you live.

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Human Digestive System Parts and Functions Ppt Luxury Digestion Igcse

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The digestive system is a vital bodily system that is responsible for processing the food ingested, absorbing necessary nutrients and water, and for eliminating waste materials from the body.

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The digestive system is a vital bodily system that is responsible for processing the food ingested, absorbing necessary nutrients and water, and for eliminating waste materials from the body.