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Human anatomy is the branch of science concerned with the structure and function of the body. The human body is the dancer's instrument of expression. Understanding how the body works can help a dancer stay in shape, improve performance, increase confidence and add longevity to his or her performing career.

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At the Royal Opera House in London, home of the Royal Ballet, art is fusing with science to revolutionise the way dancers prepare. In the glass-panelled healthcare suite, ballerinas are standing on high-tech force platforms which analyse their leg power, and gripping barbells fitted with linear encoders to track their lifting velocity. This is how modern dancers fortify their joints and boost the dazzling height of their grands jetés. With their hair in buns and pink pointe shoes poking out of their gym bags, the ballerinas shift weights with such power that staff have installed padding to spare the nerves of the costume department below.

Our facilities are now similar to those of a Premier League club

Principal dancers Marianela Nuñez and Alexander Campbell glide past. More arrive in white tutus, fresh from rehearsals for Swan Lake; a graceful, giggling wave of youthful energy, chatting about barbecues and Instagram. Some complete bespoke cardio drills, calibrated using oxygen-uptake tests, to get fit for quick-tempo allegro routines. Others strengthen their soleus calf muscles, which on-site electromyography (EMG) analysis suggests can help stabilise their ankles. Every workout is uploaded to Smartabase, a data-analysis platform also used by the US military. Meanwhile, fatigued dancers apply Game Ready leg wraps, which harness Nasa space-suit technology to deliver tissue-repairing cold therapy, and learn how adding omega-3-rich anchovies to their salads can reduce muscle inflammation.

The Royal Ballet is rich in tradition, but the company's 97 dancers are now supported by a 17-strong team of sports science and healthcare experts. "Our facilities are now similar to those of a Premier League football club," explains Gregory Retter, clinical director of ballet healthcare. "Strength, jumping, force attenuation, cardiovascular fitness, psychological wellbeing and nutrition; all support the dancer to be free to create artistic excellence. This is a completely new concept in dance."

Many of the Royal Ballet's innovations are inspired by a wave of game-changing new research overseen by the National Institute of Dance Medicine and Science (NIDMS). Launched in 2012, this collaboration of UK dance institutions and universities examines everything from dancers' ankle mechanics to performance anxiety. Professor Emma Redding, head of dance science at Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music & Dance in south-east London, is a founding partner of NIDMS. "Dance has always been based on tradition and anecdote, but we started using words like 'measure' and 'evaluate', which are frowned upon in the arts world," explains Redding, a former dancer. "People thought science might dilute the art. But we started asking, can't we get dancers' bodies and minds even stronger? Or even extend their capacities?"

Trinity Laban's Dance Science lab features wireless EMG equipment and face masks that can measure dancers' muscle activity and oxygen uptake; an Optojump system, which uses infrared LED lights to analyse jumps; and a Tekscan pressure sensor, which gauges postural sway during pliés and pirouettes. This is where many ballet innovations are tested. "We have worked with choreographers like Wayne McGregor, but if you are paying to watch a professional ballet, you don't want to see people with masks on," smiles Redding. However, her findings are disseminated through journals and conferences to companies such as the Royal Ballet, which joined NIDMS last year. Research by current guest lecturer Kim Hutt, supervised by Redding, has shown how eyes-closed training can boost a dancer's proprioception - a kind of "sixth sense" which helps them understand the relative position of their limbs on darkened stages.

Ballet's old regime didn't cater to the type of dancers we have become

"Our challenge is to apply these new insights into a busy company," says Retter, guiding me into a light-drenched rehearsal studio at the Royal Opera House where principals Sarah Lamb, Yasmine Naghdi and Federico Bonelli are painting elegant arcs with their bodies to the sound of a live piano. Dancers face relentless workloads, with a 75-minute class and five to six hours of rehearsals every day, six days a week, and typically three to four performances every week. That's why Retter's main priority is to reduce injuries. Dancers suffer an injury rate comparable to American football, with a mean of 6.8 injuries per year. "The guys suffer shoulder, patella [knee] and Achilles injuries from the lifts and jumps, and the females suffer foot injuries from pointe work, but generally 60-70% of injuries are below the knee. We're working to protect them from this huge workload."

To achieve this, Retter's team combines external insights from NIDMS with in-house research. Strength coach Adam Mattiussi opens his laptop to show me a series of charts. "We are starting to quantify ballet," he explains. "What are the dancers' physical requirements? How many jumps will they do? What are their rest intervals?" As well as force platforms, EMG units, oxygen-uptake masks and heart-rate monitors, extra tools are accessible through their partnership with St Mary's University, London, including a Vicon motion capture system used in Hollywood special effects studios. Data is allied to "difficulty scores" for each role, provided by the artistic staff.

The mission is to build a digital bible of the Royal Ballet's entire repertoire, enabling dancers to tailor their physical training for upcoming roles. The data has already yielded surprises. In The Nutcracker, Clara must complete 196 jumps, while Hans-Peter executes 18 lifts. Some male dancers land with 6,000N of force - the equivalent of eight times their body weight. These stats are now transforming the way dancers prepare. "The biggest change is the strength training," explains Royal Ballet sports scientist Gregor Rosenkranz, pointing out the barbells, kettlebells and heavy sandbags. "It helps dancers attenuate those landing forces and avoid muscle injuries. But squats also influence jump height and balance, which helps create buy-in from the dancers." A study by NIDMS confirmed that a year of conditioning can slash the injuries suffered by female dancers from 4.14 per 1,000 hours of dancing to 1.71.

Dancers' career longevity and post-retirement health are also factors. Research suggests 36% of professional dancers retire due to a musculoskeletal injury, with 91% suffering pain in later life. Dancers are also more prone to low bone-mineral density, which is linked to osteoporosis. The strength-training sessions help to boost bone-mineral density and reduce muscle injuries. But Redding speculates that dancers' growing scientific education may even influence choreography in the future: "The culture of ballet is that you don't ask many questions, but when a movement isn't good for them they may start to say something."

Retter had to "convince and cajole" dancers when the suite first opened in 2013. "Dancers see themselves as artists whose job is to perform complex choreography and convey emotion to the audience and I am trying to gently say, actually, you are athletic artists," he explains. "If we make dancers jump higher and land more softly, they should perform better aesthetically, too." One study published by NIDMS confirmed that strength, aerobic and power training can increase dancers' aesthetic performances by developing better timing and rhythmical accuracy.

First soloist Claire Calvert's knee surgery in 2013 was her catalyst for experimentation. "A year off can send you into a black hole, but I thought about how I wanted to come back even better," she says. "Suddenly, if I wanted to spend eight hours in the gym, I could." At the peak of her rehab her squat one-rep max was 100kg. "It is my claim to fame," she chuckles. That gives her a higher strength to weight ratio than 6ft 7in, 111kg England rugby star Courtney Lawes, whose one-rep max is 180kg.

"Ballet's old-school regime didn't cater for the type of dancers we have become," she explains, citing the relentless programme and high scrutiny. "Now we have higher demands of physicality, a more diverse repertoire, so many shows, and little recovery time. On stage, I now have the strength and confidence to keep pushing through and perform steps better. When productions return every few years I realise they feel easier."

First artist Gemma Pitchley-Gale once deadlifted 97.5kg. "I was shocked when the staff said, 'You know it is not normal to lift more than double your bodyweight.' But the squats and deadlifts have alleviated my back and hip pain and I find jumps much easier." During workouts between shows, the dancers lift lower weights but the maximal figures reveal their huge physical capacity: most can lift 2.5 times their bodyweight using just their calf muscles.

Dancers are artists, not gymnasts, and value emotional storytelling over raw athleticism, but science is supporting their aesthetic endeavours in surprising ways. Tests have shown how dancers can soften their landings by ironing out muscle imbalances. EMG analysis has even suggested technical improvements. "By priming their leg muscles in the 'flight phase', dancers can attenuate landing forces using tendons and muscles, instead of relying on bone and cartilage, which causes stress and injury," says Rosenkranz. Fitness tests also revealed that dancers' heart rates never got as high during rehearsals as in front of audiences, when adrenaline kicks in. "If you only dance, without extra fitness sessions, you can't perform at your best," insists Rosenkranz. Dancers now bolster their fitness with bespoke cardio drills on rowers and stationary bikes. "I am no longer afraid of running out of breath," says Campbell.

Finding the time is not so easy. "We have to be respectful of rehearsal because this is where the real artistic excellence is created," says Retter. His team uses strategic planning to avoid interfering with the sacrosanct work of the choreographers and artistic staff. "We map dancers' workloads and do tests throughout the year to identify how best to use our limited time," says Mattiussi. "We might say: let's use that six-week gap before The Nutcracker for some big training, then back off during the shows."

The relentless schedule also plays havoc with the work of dietitian Jacqueline Birtwisle. "For dancers, it's a constant battle between quality, bulk, availability and speed of digestion," she says, shaking her head in mock-horror at the challenges. "And, of course, aesthetics are important. They work in front of a mirror all day and in front of an audience at night."

Drawing on nutritional science, she encourages dancers to drip-feed their bodies with easily digestible fuel, such as softened bircher muesli with milk and berries for breakfast; a tuna salad for lunch, eaten at intervals between rehearsals and topped up with snacks of rice cakes, popcorn or malt loaf; and a light risotto before a show. Dancers eat oily fish to fight muscle inflammation and use flaxseed to take in fibre without the bloating caused by heavier foods like potatoes. They also supplement with vitamin D, which research by NIDMS has shown can boost jump performances by 7.1%. Nutritional science is proving popular. "Federico [Bonelli] quizzes me all the time and Yasmine, Frankie Hayward and Sarah Lamb are very diligent," says Birtwisle. Dancers can also download an app which enables her to give live feedback on their food choices.

Ballerinas have long been vulnerable to the "female athlete triad" of anorexia, amenorrhoea and osteoporosis - interrelated conditions caused by insufficient calorie intake - but Birtwisle says this is normally the result of "unintentional underfuelling", and improved awareness is reducing the threat. Retter has noticed a cultural shift: "When I arrived, the nutritionist was seen as the person you visited if you had a disordered eating issue. Now she is the person dancers ask about how best to fuel their day."

Professional ballet is riddled with pressures and anxieties, which is why occupational psychologist Britt Tajet-Foxell likens her work to The Princess and the Pea. "A psychological issue may be hidden under a hundred mattresses but it's my job to find it," she says. "I tell dancers, you get goblins in your mind that chew and get fat, but you can have warfare with them when you know how."

Injured dancers learn to create a mental video reel of positive associations - memories of good performances, safe places, or positive colours like red or yellow - to break negative reinforcement loops and boost self-esteem. "The subconscious says, 'I will miss that role in Swan Lake, people think I am unreliable.' Those dysfunctional thoughts wear you down. I collect those shattered fragments of confidence and create a positive framework to tap into." Nervous performers learn to change focus, like switching camera lenses: "You must focus on the here and now, not 'I hope I don't wobble on that pirouette.' Consequence-land is not a good place to be." Tajet-Foxell also rewires signs of perfectionism - a trait linked to disordered eating and anxiety. "A perfectionist's mindset is: 'I must do it perfectly.' That's not possible. But if you say: 'I am pursuing excellence,' you always have somewhere to go."

Other wellbeing services range from expert tuition in the pilates studio to massage therapy in the recovery suite. Science is making its mark here, too, with those Nasa-inspired leg wraps, as well as Recovery Boots, which use sequential pneumatic pressure to squeeze out metabolic waste after exercise. An advanced system of pulleys known as a Gyrotonic station helps develop flexibility through fluid, dance-specific movements. Thanks to this mix of expertise and innovation, performance time lost to injuries has fallen over the past four years. And skilled ballet rehab coaches are getting dancers back on stage quicker than ever. "One dancer is jumping in the gym four weeks post-op, whereas 10 years ago he would still be on the sofa," says Calvert.

Performance science is even quietly shaping how some dancers manage their bodies on stage. Pitchley-Gale now combines her intuitive ballet mind, honed over decades of disciplined training, with detailed anatomical thinking. "The lower-leg footwork in Swan Lake makes you fatigue rapidly but - thanks to the squats and deadlifts - when I am jumping I now use my more dominant glutes and hamstrings higher up the chain to alleviate the strain on my lower-leg muscles, so my feet last longer," she says. During pointe work, she consciously activates her core to optimise her posture and reduce the pressure on her foot bones. This example of aesthetic instinct underpinned by intelligent athleticism is, in many ways, the ultimate expression of Retter's project: "Gemma is an amazing dancer who absolutely gets that this is all about freeing her to produce a brilliant artistic performance."

Days later, I watch a performance of Swan Lake, attended by 2,256 spectators at the Royal Opera House and beamed to 1,084 cinemas in 29 countries worldwide. Memories of EMG graphs and pneumatic boots dissolve from my mind as the dancers enchant the audience with their ethereal talent, every gesture electrified with raw emotion, every limb flowing like shimmering silk. Science may be silently ushering ballet into the future, but dancers' centuries-old talent for conjuring movements of impossible beauty with such effortless grace will forever remain ballet's grand, unquantifiable mystery - and its greatest gift.

This article was ammended on 17 July to reflect the fact that Dr Redding was Kim Hutt's supervisor while researching training with eyes closed to improve balance. She currently works at London Contemporary Dance School.

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Raising the barre: how science is saving ballet dancers

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At the Royal Opera House in London, home of the Royal Ballet, art is fusing with science to revolutionise the way dancers prepare. In the glass-panelled healthcare suite, ballerinas are standing on high-tech force platforms which analyse their leg power, and gripping barbells fitted with linear encoders to track their lifting velocity.

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Dance medicine and science research is information surrounding the well-being of pre professional and professional dancers to guide them through their training safely.

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One Dance UK is dedicated to supporting everyone involved in dance in the UK through dance training, education, networking and more. Come and be part of a brighter tomorrow.

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Dancers' education, healthcare and research, NIDMS, United Kingdom

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The National Institute of Dance Medicine and Science (NIDMS) aims to enhance dancers' health, welbeing and performance through high quality scientific knowledge and by providing better, more affordable access to dance-specific healthcare.

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Digital Prospectus

Our Digital Prospectus is the number one guide to life at Trinity Laban, packed with information about our programmes, staff, students and everything you need to know if you are considering applying.

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Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance

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Our Digital Prospectus is the number one guide to life at Trinity Laban, packed with information about our programmes, staff, students and everything you need to know if you are considering applying.

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International Association for Dance Medicine & Science

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International Association for Dance Medicine & Science

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The 7 components of fitness and their attributes include:
Speed - quick movements of body parts
Strength - Ability to push, pull, life and jump.
Agility - quickness.
Coordanation - Ability to move body parts together fluently.
Balance - Being steady.
Flexibility - making muscles longer
Endurance - Long, steady activity.

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1)  Cardiovascular system
2) Digestive system
3) Endocrine System
4) Integument System
5) Muscular System
6)Nervous System
7) Respiratory system
8) Skeletal System

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Glossary of Human Anatomy Terms

Human anatomy is the branch of science concerned with the structure and function of the body.

The human body is the dancer's instrument of expression. Understanding how the body works can help a dancer stay in shape, improve performance, increase confidence and add longevity to his or her performing career. It can also help a dancer avoid injury. If an injury does occur, knowledge of human anatomy can contribute to a safe process of healing and recovery.

I. General Anatomical Terms

Anatomical position: Descriptions in human anatomy are expressed in relation to anatomical position. These positions describe where different body parts are found or what the direction of a movement is relative to the midline of the body or to another body part. Anatomical positions are referred to according to their orientation:

1. Superior - toward the head

2. Inferior - toward the feet

3. Anterior - toward the front of the body

4. Posterior - toward the back of the body

5. Medial - toward the midline of the body

6. Lateral - away from the midline of the body

Body cavity: Houses the internal organs. There are three main body cavities:

1. The thoracic cavity is the space above the diaphragm. It encloses the heart and lungs within the ribcage, sternum (breastbone) and twelve thoracic vertebrae.

2. The abdominal cavity, which houses the abdominal viscera, begins below the diaphragm and ends at the top of the pelvis, at about waist level.

3. The pelvic cavity extends from the end of the abdominal cavity to the pelvic floor.

Organ: A group of tissues that perform a particular function. For example, the heart, lungs, liver and kidney are all organs.

Pelvic floor: A group of muscles that reach from the pubic bone back to the sacrum. One function of the pelvic floor is to support the internal organs.

Tissue: A group or collection of similar cells and their intercellular substance that act together to perform a particular function. The primary tissues are epithelial, connective, skeletal, muscular, glandular and nervous.

Viscera: Any internal organ.

II. The Systems of the Body

System: Organs that work together to perform major body functions like breathing, digesting, moving and reacting to external stimuli. Some examples of systems include:

1. Cardiovascular: composed of the heart, blood and blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries)

2. Digestive: composed of the oral cavity, pharynx, stomach and intestines

3. Endocrine: involving glands that secrete hormones

4. Integumentary: composed of skin, hair and nails

5. Muscular: composed of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles

6. Nervous: composed of the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and sensory organs

7. Respiratory: composed of airways and lungs

8. Skeletal: composed of bones and cartilage

All systems are important for normal body functioning but, for a dancer, sound knowledge of the following systems is particularly helpful:

1. The muscular and skeletal systems are often grouped together and called the musculoskeletal system. This system's primary function is movement.

2. The nervous system is comprised of three main parts:

1. The central nervous system involves the brain and the spinal cord. It is the control centre of the nervous system.

2. The peripheral nervous system consists of any nervous tissue that is not encased in the skull or vertebral column. It includes the peripheral nerves and the sensory organs they stimulate in different parts of the body. The peripheral nervous system is important in balance.

3. The autonomic nervous system is chiefly concerned with the regulation of visceral activity. It is involuntary.

III. Bones

Bone (osseus tissue): A specialized form of dense connective tissue consisting of bone cells (osteocytes) embedded in a matrix of calcified intercellular substance. The main functions of bone are to:

1. Protect vital structures

2. Support the body

3. Provide a basis for movement through muscle and tendon attachments

4. Provide attachment points for ligaments

5. Store important mineral salts such as calcium

6. Produce red blood cells which transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from tissues

Bones give shape and structure to the body. They provide points of attachment for muscles and become the levers making movement possible. Bones are classified as follows:

1. Flat, e.g. scapula (shoulder blade) and sternum (breast bone)

2. Irregular, e.g. talus (ankle bone) and vertebrae (spinal bones)

3. Long, e.g. femur (thighbone) and ulna (one of the forearm bones)

4. Short, e.g. navicular (a small bone in the arch of the foot)

5. Sesamoid, e.g. patella (knee cap, where the bone is free but a tendon runs through it)

Trochanter: A bony protuberance by which muscles are attached between the pelvis and the upper part of the thighbone (femur).

IV. Muscles and Related Terms

Core: The dancer's centre, or core, involves a balance of stability and strength between the abdominal muscles (transversus abdominis, rectus abdominis, and internal and external obliques), the back muscles and the pelvic floor muscles. The diaphragm is also an important part of the dancer's core. A strong core is very important in maintaining good posture and control of limb movement.

Diaphragm: The diaphragm is the most important breathing muscle. It spans from front to back and side to side at the level of the lower ribs. After exhaling, the diaphragm is shaped like a dome. The lungs sit on top of the dome and when they fill with air the dome flattens. This flattening pushes the ribs up and out, and also pushes down on the abdominal contents, which is why the belly gets pushed out when a deep, diaphragmatic breath is taken.

Hip joint muscles:

1. The adductors (e.g. adductor longus, adductor brevis and adductor magnus) are the muscles running along the inside of the leg from the groin area. Flexibility in the adductors makes it possible to do side splits.

2. The lateral rotators (e.g. piriformis and posterior fibres of gluteus medius) are found deep in the buttock region. They are often very well developed in the ballet dancer who performs many movements in the "turned-out" position.

3. The medial rotators (e.g. gluteus minimus and anterior fibres of gluteus medius) have the dual function of internal rotation (opposite to the turned-out position) and abduction (moving the leg away from midline). They are the antagonistic, or opposite, muscle group to the lateral rotators.

4. The extensors (e.g. gluteus maximus and the hamstrings) are used in moving the leg backwards, in jumping and in straightening from a crouched position.

5. The flexors (e.g. iliopsoas and rectus femoris) bring the leg forward or the knee toward the chest.

Iliotibial band: A fibrous muscle structure running from the outside of the hip joint to the lower leg just below the knee joint. It is a continuation of the gluteus maximus muscle, which is the largest muscle in the buttock.

Hamstring: A group of muscles found along the back of the leg running from the pelvis to just below the knee that effect hip and knee movements. The semitendinosus and the semimembranosus are found on the medial side and the biceps femoris is found on the lateral side.

Muscle: Composed of contractile tissue with elastic properties. The special characteristics of muscle include shortening and contracting, and also stretching. In general, an overstretched or lengthened muscle is weak. There are three kinds of muscle:

1. Smooth muscle acts involuntarily and is found principally in the internal organs.

2. Cardiac muscle also acts involuntarily and is found around the heart.

3. Skeletal muscle is striated because of different groups of fibres bundled together. It is usually found in the limbs. Skeletal muscles, which produce voluntary movement, are the ones a dancer uses to gain and maintain a certain posture, to start and stop limb movement, and to stretch or strengthen.

Posture: Involves maintaining a certain alignment of the body. A dancer's ability to achieve certain postures requires muscle strength and flexibility of the musculoskeletal system, as well as balance and body awareness involving the nervous system.

Respiration (breathing): A means of revitalizing tissues. When a dancer takes in air, he or she is taking in oxygen, or fuel, bringing energy to the muscles and vital organs. Without oxygen it would be impossible to move and control the body. Breathing also helps the dancer gain awareness of physical states like muscle tension and relaxation.

Rotator cuff: A group of four muscles extending from the scapula (shoulder blade) to the head of the humerus (shoulder). These muscles are very important for stability and mobility of the shoulder throughout all movements. The four individual muscles of the rotator cuff are the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis.

Tendon: The longer fibrous end of a muscle that serves to attach it to the periosteum (outer layer of bone). Tendons are strong, but inelastic. They are slow to heal if injured. A well-known tendon is the Achilles tendon, which attaches the calf group of muscles (the medial and lateral gastrocnemius and soleus muscles) to the heel bone (the calcaneum).

V. Joints and Related Structures

Bursa: A padlike sac usually found near a joint. It is lined with a synovial membrane and contains synovial fluid that reduces friction between tendon and bone, tendon and ligament, or other structures where friction is likely to occur. [See: Bursitis ]

Cartilage: Dense, bluish-white or grey connective tissue, like what is seen at the end of a chicken bone. There are different types of cartilage, including:

1. Articular, a thin layer of smooth, elastic cartilage located on the joint surfaces of bone. It protects the end of the joint.

2. Semilunar, found in-between the joint like the middle of a sandwich. Two good examples are the intervertebral discs, and the medial and lateral menisci in the knee joint.

3. Cricoid, the lowermost cartilage of the larynx (throat).

4. Costal, connects the ends of the first ten ribs (true ribs) with the sternum (breast bone).

Joint ( articulation): The area where two or more bones are joined together along with their associated structures, such as ligaments. Joints are classified into three types according to the material uniting the articulating bones:

1. Fibrous joints: united by fibrous tissue (e.g. sutures of the skull bones).

2. Cartilaginous joints: united by cartilage (e.g. vertebrae and their intervertebral discs) or a combination of cartilage and fibrous tissue (e.g. sacroiliac joint).

3. Synovial joints: united by cartilage with a synovial membrane enclosed in the joint cavity. These are the most common joints and are the ones that provide free movement between the bones they join. They are typical of nearly all the joints of the limbs. Synovial joints are named after the synovial fluid they contain. This lubricating substance allows the dancer's joints to move freely and smoothly.

Joint axes: Joints may move in one (uniaxial) or several directions. A hinge-type joint such as the elbow or the knee is a bi-axial joint and permits movement in two directions: flexion or extension only. A ball-and-socket-type joint such as the hip or shoulder is a multi-axial joint as it allows movement in several directions.

Joint capsule: A sleeve that is over the joint. Made of fibrous tissue, it helps keep everything in the joint together, such as the cartilage, synovial fluid and some ligaments.

Ligament: A band of strong, fibrous connective tissue that connects one bone to another. Ligaments either allow or prevent a specific movement between two bones. They are passive structures so we do not have voluntary control over them. Examples of ligaments are the ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) and PCL (posterior cruciate ligament). These two ligaments are found in the knee and are called "cruciate ligaments" because they cross.

VI. Common Dance-Related Injuries

Bursitis: An acute, painful inflammation of the bursa usually caused by repetitive friction from a tight muscle or a poorly executed movement. Hip bursitis occurs when the tendon of the iliotibial band rubs the greater trochanter of the femur (thighbone).

Joint sprain: A tear of the ligament classified from a Grade 1 (minor) to a Grade 3 (total tear). Joint sprain occurs when a ligament is overstretched or when a joint is bent in the wrong direction. A classic example is rolling over on the ankle. It is not uncommon for more than one ligament to be injured at a time.

Muscle strain: A muscle tear that can range from a Grade 1 (minor) to a Grade 3 (total tear). Muscle strain often occurs from quick movements requiring a sudden, hard muscle contraction, especially when a dancer is not completely warmed up.

Shin splints: Pain in the front of the lower leg. Their cause is unclear, but they tend to develop after prolonged and/or repetitive use of the legs in weight-bearing activities like running and jumping.

Stress fractures: An incomplete break in the bone. In dance they are often caused by repetitive landings from jumps. On an X-ray they appear as a thin line through the bone. In order to heal a stress fracture it is necessary to rest and reduce impact on the fractured bone, which usually means taking a break from dancing for a period of time. Shin splints are one result of stress fractures.

VII. Anatomical Tidbits

The arch of the foot is formed by: the structure of the bones, the navicular being the high point of the arch; the plantar fascia, a fibrous band extending from the heel to the ball of the foot; ligaments, the main one being the spring ligament acting as a supporting sling to the navicular bone; and muscles both starting and ending in the foot, as well as muscles originating from the lower leg area. The primary role of the long arch of the foot is to absorb shock.

The arm is divided into two parts: the upper arm and the forearm. The long bone of the upper arm is called the humerus and extends from the ball-and-socket multi-axial-type shoulder joint to the hinge-type elbow joint. The forearm consists of two bones, the ulna and the radius, which extend from the elbow to the wrist. The main muscles in the upper arm are the deltoids, triceps and biceps. The muscles of the forearm mostly start at the elbow and continue into the hand controlling movement of the wrist and hand.

Arteries are blood vessels containing oxygenated blood that is pumped from the heart to other organs of the body. After the organs have taken the oxygen out of the blood for fuel, another set of blood vessels called veins carry the de-oxygenated blood back to the heart, thereby completing the circuit.

Normal body temperature for a healthy adult at rest is 37 degrees Celsius.

The scapula or shoulder blade acts like a pulley and has muscle attachments to the head, neck, spinal column, sacrum and upper arm.

The spine is made up of seven cervical, twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae; the sacrum (five fused vertebrae); and the coccyx (four fused vertebrae), which is the remnant of the human tail. The spinal cord running down the centre of the vertebrae is a continuation of the brain and ends at L1-L2 (the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae). The rest of the spinal column after L2 is filled with a bunch of nerves that look like a horse's tail and is called the cauda equina.

The human body has different structural levels of organization. These levels start with atoms, molecules and compounds, increasing in size and complexity to cells, tissues, organs and, finally, systems.

VIII. References

Calais-Germain, Blandine. Anatomy of Movement. Seattle: Eastland Press, 1993

Calais-Germain, Blandine and Anderson, Stephen. Anatomy of Movement:
Exercises, Seattle: Eastland Press, 1996

Carola, R., Harley, J.P., and Noback, C. Human Anatomy. New York: McGraw
Hill, 1992

Kapit, Wynn and Elson, Lawrence M. The Anatomy Coloring Book, 3rd edition.
Benjamin Cummings, 2001.

Lesson Planning: The Human Body, Online Resources

Human Anatomy Online

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Human anatomy is the branch of science concerned with the structure and function of the body. The human body is the dancer's instrument of expression. Understanding how the body works can help a dancer stay in shape, improve performance, increase confidence and add longevity to his or her performing career.

# data[].attributes.body
All systems are important for normal body functioning but, for a dancer, sound knowledge of the following systems are particularly helpful:
The muscular and skeletal systems are often grouped together and called the musculoskeltal system.
The nervous system is comprised of three main parts:
The central nervous system
The peripheral nervous system
The autonomic nervous system

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- Bursitis
- Joint sprain
- Muscle strain
- Shin splints
- Stress fractures

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One Dance UK's Healthier Dancer Programme 

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One Dance UK's Healthier Dancer Programme 

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One Dance UK’s Healthier Dancer Programme (HDP) promotes, undertakes, and disseminates research that extends our understanding of the relationships between dancers’ health (physical and psychological), injury, training and performance