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Leonardo da Vinci would be an excellent guide through this exhibit. Leonardo da Vinci is known as man of many trades, one of these was his interest in the workings of the brain. He was an extraordinary anatomist during the Renaissance and published the first accurate illustrations of various brain structures¹. He had a particular interest in the mechanisms of vision and was the first to describe that vision is processed in the brain through the reception of light through the eyes¹. Leonardo da Vinci was also a Renaissance man himself and would likely be an expert at discussing the neurosurgical advancements explained throughout this exhibit. Leonardo da Vinci made major contributions to the discipline of neuroscience during the Renaissance and his studies of physiology and anatomy would pave the way for future developments in neuroscience and neurosurgery¹.

source (1):
Review Leonardo Da Vinci and Neuroscience: A Theory of ... https://nah.sen.es/vmfiles/vol7/NAHV7N42019146_162EN.pdf.

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Renaissance influence in modern neurosurgery

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Renaissance influence in modern neurosurgery

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The object presented in the image above is called a hemostat. It is an instrument that is used in hundreds of surgeries because of its versatility. It is an extremely useful tool in neurosurgery because it can be used to clamp small vessels¹.  A hemostat can also be used to control subdural and epidural bleeding in both cranial and spinal surgeries¹. The hemostat is an advancement to an instrument invented during the Renaissance by Ambroise Paré: the “bec de corbin”. Paré developed this instrument through his experience with amputees as a military physician². Without the explosion of anatomical and neurological knowledge of the Renaissance, the invention of this instrument would likely not be possible. The advancements in neurosurgery during the Renaissance are crucial to the development of modern day neurosurgery.

Source (1):
N;, Signorelli F;Montano. “Use and Efficacy of Hemostats in Neurosurgery.” Surgical Technology International, U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32944921/.

Source (2):
Splavski, Bruno, et al. “Ambroise Paré: His Contribution to the Future Advancement of Neurosurgery and the Hardships of His Times Affecting His Life and Brilliant Career.” World Neurosurgery, vol. 134, 2020, pp. 233–239., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2019.10.187.

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This is the jousting helmet of Henry II, the king of France (1547-1559) who suffered a traumatic head injury and was assessed by two of the most renowned surgeons of the time: Andreas Vesalius and Ambroise Paré¹. While participating in a jousting tournament, Henry II was stabbed in the eye by a spear that entered through the opening of his visor. Vesalius and Paré decided not to trepanate, a common practice at the time, due to their beliefs that it would not heal¹. This decision is important because it demonstrates that trepanation was becoming less desirable due to a higher level of anatomical understanding and advancing medical practices. Henry II died days later; however, an autopsy was reported by Paré. In this autopsy, Paré explained Henry II likely died from a subdural hematoma, concussion, and an associated injury¹. These were remarkable diagnoses for the time, and Paré's written observations of the injuries would contribute to further advancements in neurosurgical techniques. Henry's wife, Catherine de Medici attempted to contribute to the treatment of Henry II's condition by ordering the stabbing of 4 subjects in an identical manner of Henry's injury: in their right orbits¹. However, Henry died soon after and these acts of violence became arbitrary.

Source (1):
Dowling, Kamilah A., and James Tait Goodrich. “Two Cases of 16th Century Head Injuries Managed in Royal European Families.” Neurosurgical Focus, vol. 41, no. 1, 2016, https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.4.focus15119.

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The forerunner of neurosurgery: Ambroise Paré

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The forerunner of neurosurgery: Ambroise Paré

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The image above is a depiction of a groundbreaking surgical instrument developed by a 16th century anatomist and surgeon that revolutionized medicine and paved the way for the development of many modern neurosurgical techniques: Ambroise Paré¹. One of the ways Paré contributed to the advancement of neurosurgical techniques was through his experiences as a barber-surgeon in the military. Like Berengario da Carpi, Paré was witness to many head traumas due to his occupation as a battlefield physician. In particular, Paré acknowledged the severity of gunshot wounds which were commonly wounds to the head¹. His familiarity with gunshot wounds influenced his development of the “bec de corbin” (depicted in the image above) which would become a vital instrument in surgery due to its less damaging nature than the most common technique of using hot iron to cauterize blood vessels¹. Throughout his career, Pare developed many successful surgery techniques as well such as treatments of hematomas, concussions, and even a surgery to relieve migraine headaches¹. Pare also heavily contributed to the discipline of neuroscience through his observations of phantom pain that are published in his writing Treatise on Surgery (1564)¹.

Source (1):
Splavski, Bruno, et al. “Ambroise Paré: His Contribution to the Future Advancement of Neurosurgery and the Hardships of His Times Affecting His Life and Brilliant Career.” World Neurosurgery, vol. 134, 2020, pp. 233–239., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2019.10.187.

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The miraculous recovery of Lorenzo de Medici

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The miraculous recovery of Lorenzo de Medici

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This is the skull of a member of one of the most powerful families in the Renaissance: the Medici family. Specifically, it is the skull of Lorenzo de Medici, ruler of the Florence Republic (1492-1519). The groove that can be observed is the result of a battle wound that fractured the occipital region of the skull, directly adjacent to the transverse sinus. Although unlikely, Lorenzo de Medici survived this typically fatal blow through the surgical techniques of Berengario da Carpi. Lorenzo was initially treated on the battle field with a routine trephination by a physician on site. However, the royal family called for Berengario da Carpi to finish Lorenzo's treatment once he was out of the battlefield. Upon assessment, da Carpi expressed his disapproval of the trephination but did not explain why. This likely due to da Carpi's vast knowledge of anatomy that allowed him to immediately recognize that the injury was in a high risk region, although this is unclear. Nevertheless, da Carpi performed another surgery in which he removed several more fractured segments. Contemporary analysis of the skull shows that Berengario da Carpi's technique allowed for the bone to heal much easier, likely saving the life of Lorenzo de Medici.

Source (1):
Dowling, Kamilah A., and James Tait Goodrich. “Two Cases of 16th Century Head Injuries Managed in Royal European Families.” Neurosurgical Focus, vol. 41, no. 1, 2016, https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.4.focus15119.

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Revolutionary publications in neurosurgery: Berengario da Carpi

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Revolutionary publications in neurosurgery: Berengario da Carpi

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The image above includes pages from Berengario da Carpi's revolutionary publication Tractatus De Fractura Calvae Sive Cranei (1518)¹. This work was extraordinary because it was the first ever journal written entirely about the surgical techniques for the treatment of head trauma¹. Berengario da Carpi was one of the most skilled and experienced surgeons of the 16th century. He became well-known for his successful clinical techniques and was often called to treat individuals of high status¹. This specific page of da Carpi's work explains the different uses of craniotomy instruments; a common procedure of the era. However, Tractatus De Fractura Calvae Sive Cranei provided more knowledge of neurology than just trepanation techniques. Berengario da Carpi was incredibly thorough when describing the symptomology of head trauma from battle wounds¹. The recurring wars in Italy at the time became useful for neurosurgeons such as Berengario da Carpi because of the frequent head traumas that could be studied and experimentally treated¹. This constant access to study head trauma allowed for Berengario da Carpi to recognize the localization of many deficits and begin to revolutionize treatments of ailments such as skull fractures, hematomas, and concussions¹.

Source (1):
Parent, André. “Berengario Da Carpi and the Renaissance of Brain Anatomy.” Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, vol. 13, 2019, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2019.00011.

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The cross hatched section at the top represents the rete mirabile in Vesalius' Tabulæ III of Tabulæ Anatomicæ Sex (1538) 

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The plagiarisms of Vesalius and the stubborn legacy of Galen

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The plagiarisms of Vesalius and the stubborn legacy of Galen

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This image1 is taken from a page of a prominent work of Flemish anatomist Andreas Vesalius. The cross hatched spherical section at the top of the image represents a very widely debated (at the time) anatomical structure: the rete mirabile. The rete mirabile was believed to be the host of spirits in the body as described by Galen; this belief carried on for hundreds of years. Vesalius is most notably accredited for disproving the existence of this brain structure in humans; however, Vesalius was a firm believer of this structure for years, which is evident in his work Tabulæ III of Tabulæ Anatomicæ Sex (1538)¹. It was not until 5 years later that Vesalius voiced his disbelief in the rete mirabile in his work De humani corporis fabrica (1543)¹.
The major advancements in neurosurgical techniques during the Renaissance would not be possible without the disapproval of Galenic teachings; however, this would prove to be very difficult due to the refusal of many scientists to discredit Galen¹. This is evident in the plagiarisms of the illustrations of Vesalius. Once Vesalius recognized the mistakes of Galen in the existence of the rete mirabile, he included an illustration of the structure with an explanation of why it was false¹. Unfortunately, this illustration was plagiarized many times out of context to teach the opposite of Vesalius' explanation. Vesalius' resilience is remarkable considering the vast amount of backlash he received; however, this resilience would go on to change the discipline of neuroscience forever.

Source (1):
Douglas J. Lanska (2022) Evolution of the myth of the human rete mirabile traced through text and illustrations in printed books: The case of Vesalius and his plagiarists, Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, DOI: 10.1080/0964704X.2021.2024406