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The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older, European texts. The Ottoman empire acquired considerable territory in the Balkans, which it ruled for the next 300 years as well as areas of Hungary, Poland and Greece. Ottoman expansion into Europe began as the Christian reconquest of Spain ended, producing what has been described as a "wave like movement" - as Muslims lost territory in the West they gained territory in the East. In Europe, many people saw the series of epic battles as a struggle between two rival faiths, each competing for world supremacy. Conflict was regarded as inevitable. When, on several occasions, the Ottomans reached the gates of Vienna, considered a cultural capital of Europe, it seemed that the devil himself was threatening the very survival of Europe and of its dominant religion.

Yet confrontation is not the only option. Borders zones, where most of the clashes between Europe and the Ottomans took place, can also become bridges. That they serve to buttress the two larger communities against each other, or to keep them apart, is not inevitable. Their spaces can be manipulated either way; International relations can be conceived in cooperative instead of in combative terms depending on the choice people make. The fact that great battles took place between the Ottomans and Europeans is a fact of history. However, in an increasingly inter-dependent world with new awareness of a common human responsibility towards each other and towards the planet itself, perpetuating what has described as "amnesia" about moments of convivencia does little to create the conditions for mutual cooperation, respect and co-existence. In remembering the epochal battles, the fact that relations on the ground in the zone of conflict were often harmonious must not be forgotten.

Rise (1299-1453)

After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (it is disputed that the year may have been 1358 due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see Suleyman Pasha) which provided it a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the fourteenth century. Its first significant opponent was the young Serbian Empire, which was worn down by a series of campaigns, notably in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, in which the leaders of both armies were killed, and which gained a central role in Serbian folklore as an epic battle and beginning of bad luck for Serbia. The Ottoman Empire proceeded to conquer the lands of the Second Bulgarian Empire-the Southern half (Thrace) in 1371 (Battle of Maritsa), Sofia in 1382, the then capital Tarnovgrad in 1393, the northern rest after the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, except Vidin, which fell in 1422; Albania in 1385 (Battle of Savra) and again in 1480; Constantinople in 1453 after the Battle of Varna and Second Battle of Kosovo; Greece in 1460; Serbia by 1459 and (after partial Hungarian reconquest in 1480) again by 1499; Bosnia in 1463 (the Northwestern part only by 1527) and Herzegovina in 1482.

Growth (1453-1683)

The defeat in 1456 at the Siege of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) held up Ottoman expansion into Catholic Europe for 70 years, though for one year (1480-1481) the Italian port of Otranto was taken, and in 1493 the Ottoman army successfully raided Croatia and Styria.

Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans

The weaknesses of the fragmented Balkan states following the death of Stefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia in 1355 opened wide the door to the conquest of the Balkan Peninsula by the Ottoman Turks. The Balkan states proved no match for those militantly expansive and highly motivated Islamic invaders, who conquered most of the Balkans (except for its extreme northwestern corner) by the mid-sixteenth century. Its conquest was accomplished in two stages, separated by a decade-long interregnum in the early fifteenth century. The first stage spanned the second half of the fourteenth century, during which Thrace, Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Thessaly were acquired outright and Byzantium, Serbia, Wallachia, and much of Morea were reduced to vassal clientage. The second stage, which extended over most of the fifteenth century, accomplished the destruction of Byzantium and the conquest of Constantinople; the total annexation of Serbia and Morea; the outright acquisition of Epiros, Albania, Bosnia, Hercegovina, and much of Croatia; and the imposition of vassal clientage on Moldavia. The Battle of Kosovo (1389) took on particular significance in Balkan memory as an iconic moment of resistance to the Ottoman advance, and although the Serbs were defeated it took another 70 years before Serbia was finally subdued.

Albanian resistance

The Ottomans faced fierce resistance from Albanian highlanders who gathered around their leader, Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the offspring of a feudal nobleman, and managed to fend off Ottoman attacks for more than 30 years. The Albanian struggle was one of the two remaining bastions of anti-Ottoman resistance in Eastern Europe after the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. It has been argued that their resilience halted the Ottoman advance along the Eastern flank of the Western Civilization, saving the Italian peninsula from Ottoman conquest. Sultan Mehmet II died in 1481, merely two years after the collapse of the Albanian resistance and one year after he launched the Italian campaign.

Occupation of Hungary

The Kingdom of Hungary, which at the time spanned the area from Croatia in the west to Transylvania in the east, was also gravely impacted by Ottoman conquest. The origins of such a deterioration can be traced back to the fall of the Árpád ruling dynasty and their subsequent replacement with the Angevin and Jagiellonian kings. After a series of inconclusive wars over the course of 176 years, the kingdom finally crumbled in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, after which most of it was either occupied or brought under Ottoman suzerainty. (The 150-year Turkish Occupation, as it is called in Hungary, lasted until the late 1600s but parts of the Hungarian Kingdom were occupied from 1421 and until 1718.)

1423-1503: wars with Venice

The Ottoman Empire started sea campaigns as early as 1423, when it waged a seven-year war with the Venetian Republic over maritime control of the Aegean Sea and the Adriatic Sea. The wars with Venice resumed in 1463, until a favorable peace treaty was signed in 1479. In 1480, now no longer hampered by the Venetian fleet, the Ottomans besieged Rhodes and captured Otranto. War with Venice resumed from 1499 to 1503. In 1500, a Spanish-Venetian army commanded by Gonzalo de Córdoba took Kefalonia, temporarily stopping the Ottoman offensive on eastern Venetian territories.

1462-1483: European campaigns

In 1462, Mehmed II was driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula at the Night Attack. However, the latter was imprisoned by Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus. This caused outrage among many influential Hungarian figures and Western admirers of Vlad's success in the battle against the Ottoman Empire (and his early recognition of the threat it posed), including high-ranking members of the Vatican. Because of this, Matthias granted him the status of distinguished prisoner. Eventually, Dracula was freed in late 1475 and was sent with an army of Hungarian and Serbian soldiers to recover Bosnia from the Ottomans. He defeated Ottoman Forces and he gained his first victory against the Ottoman Empire. Upon this victory, Ottoman Forces entered Bogdan in 1476 under the command of Mehmed II. During the war, Vlad was killed and, according to some sources, his head was sent to Constantinople to discourage the other rebellions.

In 1482, Bosnia was completely added to Ottoman Lands. Bosnians did not complain about being under Ottoman Sovereignty because there was already a sectarian conflict going in Bosnia, and because Mehmed II did not force Bosnians to convert to Islam.

1526-1566: Attack on Habsburg Empire

After the Battle of Mohács, only the southwestern part of the Hungarian Kingdom was actually conquered, but the Ottoman campaign continued with small campaigns and major summer invasions (troops returned south of the Balkan Mountains before winter) through the land between 1526 and 1556. In 1529, they mounted their first major attack on the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy (with up to 300,000 troops in earlier accounts, 100,000 according to newer research, attempting to conquer the city of Vienna ( Siege of Vienna) (1529), considered an epic moment in the history of Ottoman-European relations. In 1532, another attack on Vienna with 60,000 troops in the main army was held up by the small fort (800 defenders of Kőszeg in western Hungary, fighting a suicidal battle. The invading troops were held up until winter was close and the Habsburg Empire had assembled a force of 80,000 at Vienna. The Ottoman troops returned home through Styria, laying waste to the country. Martin Luther wrote his tract On War Against the Turks in 1529 as a response to the Siege of Vienna. He described Islam as a "patchwork of Jewish, Christian, and heathen beliefs," and saw the work of the devil behind this.. The Turks, however, were God's scourge on European unbelief, "God's rod and the devil's servant." Before fighting the Turks, repentance was a prerequisite..

In the meantime, in 1538, the Ottoman Empire invaded Moldavia. In 1541, another campaign in Hungary took Buda and Pest (which today together form the Hungarian capital Budapest) with a largely bloodless trick: after concluding peace talks with an agreement, troops stormed the open gates of Buda in the night. In retaliation for a failed Austrian counter-attack in 1542, the conquest of the western half of central Hungary was finished in the 1543 campaign that took both the most important royal ex-capital, Székesfehérvár, and the ex-seat of the cardinal, Esztergom. However, the army of 35-40,000 men was not enough for Suleiman to mount another attack on Vienna. A temporary truce was signed between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires in 1547, which was soon disregarded by the Habsburgs.

In the major but moderately successful campaign of 1552, two armies took the eastern part of central Hungary, pushing the borders of the Ottoman Empire to the second (inner) line of northern végvárs (border castles), which Hungary originally built as defense against an expected second Mongol invasion-hence, afterwards, borders on this front changed little. For Hungarians, the 1552 campaign was a series of tragic losses and some heroic (but pyrrhic) victories, which entered folklore-most notably the fall of Drégely (a small fort defended to the last man by just 146 men), and the Siege of Eger. The latter was a major végvár with more than 2000 men, but in poor shape and without outside help. They faced two Ottoman armies (150,000 troops by earlier accounts, 60-75,000 men according to newer research, which were unable to take the castle within five weeks. (The fort was later taken in 1596.) Finally, the 1556 campaign secured Ottoman influence over Transylvania (which had fallen under Habsburg control for a time), while failing to gain any ground on the western front, being tied down in the second (after 1555) unsuccessful siege of the southwestern Hungarian border castle of Szigetvár.

The Ottoman Empire conducted another major war against the Habsburgs and their Hungarian territories between 1566 and 1568. The 1566 Battle of Szigetvar, the third siege in which the fort was finally taken, but the aged Sultan died, deterring that year's push for Vienna.

1522-1573: Rhodes, Malta and the Holy League

Ottoman forces invaded and captured the island of Rhodes in 1522, after two previous failed attempts. The Knights of Rhodes were banished to Malta, which was in turn besieged in 1565.

After three months of intense fighting, pitting an Ottoman army of around 65,000 against 2,000 Maltese and 500 Knights, the Ottomans failed to conquer Malta, sustaining very heavy losses, including one of the greatest Muslim corsair generals of the time, Dragut and were repulsed. Had Malta fallen, Sicily and mainland Italy would have fallen under the threat of an Ottoman Invasion. The victory of Malta during this event, which is nowadays known as the Great Siege of Malta, turned the tide and stopped the westward expansion of the Ottoman Empire. It also marked the importance of the Knights of Saint John and their relevant presence in Malta to aid Christendom in its defense against the Muslim onslaught.

Malta was the first defeat of two suffered by Suleiman the Magnificent, the greatest Sultan of the Ottomans. The Siege is another iconic moment in the relations between Europe and the Ottomans.

The Ottoman naval victories of this period were in the Battle of Preveza (1538) and the Battle of Djerba (1560).

The Mediterranean campaign, which lasted from 1570 to 1573, ended with the Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), but occupation of Cyprus from 1570. A Holy League of Venice, the Papal States, Spain, the Knights of Saint John in Malta and initially Portugal opposed the Ottoman Empire during this period.

1593-1669: Austria and Venice

Long War (15-Year War with Austria, 1593-1606) ends with status quo. War with Venice 1645-1669 and the conquest of Crete.

1620-1621: Poland

Polish army advances into Moldavia and is defeated in Battle of Ţuţora. Next year, Poles repel Turkish invasion in Battle of Khotyn. Another conflict starts in 1633 but is soon settled.

1657-1683 Conclusion of Wars with Habsburgs

In 1657, Transylvania, the Eastern part of the former Hungarian Kingdom that after 1526 gained semi-independence while paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire, felt strong enough to attack the Tatars (then the Empire's vassals) to the East, and later the Ottoman Empire itself, that came to the Tatar's defense. The war lasted until 1662, ending in defeat for the Hungarians. The Western part of the Hungarian Kingdom (Partium) was annexed and placed under direct Ottoman control, marking the greatest territorial extent of Ottoman rule in the former Hungarian Kingdom. At the same time, there was another campaign against Austria between 1663 and 1664. However, the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Saint Gotthard on August 1, 1664 by Raimondo Montecuccoli, forcing them to enter the Peace of Vasvár with Austria, which held until 1683.

A year after Poland beat back a Tatar invasion, war with Poland 1672-1676, Jan Sobieski distinguishes himself and becomes the King of Poland.

1683-1699: Great Turkish War - Loss of Hungary and the Morea

The Great Turkish War started in 1683, with a grand invasion force of 140,000 men marching on Vienna, supported by Hungarian noblemen rebelling against Habsburg rule. To stop the invasion, another Holy League was formed, composed of Austria and Poland (notably in the Battle of Vienna), Venetians and the Russian Empire. After winning the Battle of Vienna, the Holy League gained the upper hand, and conducted the re-conquest of Hungary (Buda and Pest were retaken in 1686, the former under the command of a Swiss-born convert to Islam). At the same time, the Venetians launched an expedition into Greece, which conquered the Peloponnese. During the 1687 Venetian attack on the city of Athens (occupied by the Ottomans), the Ottomans turned the ancient Parthenon into an ammunitions storehouse. A Venetian mortar hit the Parthenon, detonating the Ottoman gunpowder stored inside and partially destroying it.

The war ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Prince Eugene of Savoy first distinguished himself in 1683 and remained the most important Austrian commander until 1718.

Stagnation (1699-1827)

Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire (1683-1827) was a period after the territorial expansion of the Empire reached its maximum. During stagnation the empire continued to have military might. The next period would be shaped by the decline of their military power which followed the loss of huge territories. The Battle of Vienna of 1683 marked the greatest extent of the empire in Europe and from a socioeconomic perspective it is accepted as the beginning of the Empire's decline. This period began with the reign of Mustafa II (1695-1703) and ended with that of Mahmud II (1801-1839).

Second war with the Russians 1710-1711 near Prut. The Russians were severely beaten but not annihilated. Another war with Austria and Venice started in 1714. Austria conquered the remaining areas of the former Hungarian Kingdom, ending with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.

Another war with Russia started in 1735. The Austrians joined in 1737; the war ended in 1739 with the Treaty of Belgrade (with Austria) and the Treaty of Nissa (with Russia).

The fourth Russo-Turkish war started in 1768 and ended in 1774 with the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji.

Yet another war with Russia and Austria started in 1787; it ended by Austria with the 1791 Treaty of Sistova, and with the 1792 Treaty of Jassy with Russia.

An invasion of Egypt and Syria by Napoleon I of France took place in 1798-1799, but ended due to British intervention.

Napoleon's capture of Malta on his way to Egypt resulted in the unusual alliance of Russia and the Ottomans resulting in a joint naval expedition to the Ionian Islands. Their successful capture of these islands led to the setting up of the Septinsular Republic.

The sixth Russo-Turkish War began in 1806 and ended in 1812 due to Napoleon's invasion of Russia.

The First Serbian Uprising took place in 1804, followed by the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815; Serbia was fully liberated by 1877.

Moldavian-Wallachian (Romanian) Uprising (starting simultaneously with the Greek Revolution 1821-1824.

Decline (1828-1908)

The Greek War of Independence, taking place from 1821 to 1832, in which the Great Powers intervened from 1827, including Russia (Seventh Russo-Turkish war, 1828-1829), achieved independence for Greece; the Treaty of Adrianople ended the war.

The following wars featured in the period of decline as independence movements, such as the Serbian revolution re-asserted a national identity and consciousness across the Balkans, over and against the Turks, often stressing their Christian legacy.

Wars took place with Bosnia 1831-1836, 1836-1837, 1841, with Montenegro 1852-1853 and again in 1858-1859. War with Montenegro, Bosnia and Serbia erupted in 1862. The Cretan Uprising occurred in 1866.

From 1853-1856 the Eighth Russo-Turkish war, known as the Crimean War took place, in which the United Kingdom and France joined the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Ended with the Treaty of Paris. The failed Bulgarian Rebellion of 1876 encouraged Russia to intervene in the area in the ninth and final Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Romania then declared its independence and waged war on Turkey, joined by Serbians and Bulgarians and finally the Russians. Bosnia was occupied by Austria in 1878. The Russians and the Ottomans signed the Treaty of San Stefano in early 1878. After deliberations at the Congress of Berlin, which was attended by all the Great Powers of the time, the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 recognized several territorial changes.

Eastern Rumelia was granted some autonomy in 1878, rebelled in 1885 and joined Bulgaria in 1886. Thessalia ceded to Greece in 1881, but after Greece attacked the Ottoman Empire to help the Second Cretan Uprising in 1897, Greece was defeated in Thessalia. In 1878, when European powers met in Berlin to settle what they saw as the Ottoman problem, namely, that the Empire was hugely indebted to them, one result was ceding Bosnia to Austria-Hungary. While an international commission was entrusted with oversight of Ottoman finances, most of its territory remained intact. The exceptions were: Cyprus, which was ceded to Britain to help her look after her interests in the Suez; Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria which were granted independence; and Bosnia which went to Austria-Hungary as a type of protectorate, since they had missed out on the European scramble for Empire). In 1909, Austria-Hungary formally annexed the province.

Dissolution (1908-1922)

1912-1913: Balkan Wars

Two Balkan Wars, in 1912 and 1913, involved further action against the Ottoman Empire in Europe. The Balkan League first conquered Macedonia and most of Thrace from the Ottoman Empire, and then fell out over the division of the spoils. This reduced Turkey's possessions in Europe (Rumelia) to their present borders in Eastern Thrace.

The Ottoman Empire suffered a defeat in World War I. However, the Empire did not allow the British Navy, under command of Winston Churchill, to pass to Istanbul in the famous Battle of Gallipoli; Turkey temporarily lost most of the rest of what it had left in Europe. After the war, all non-Turkish possessions were either granted independence or placed under League of Nations mandates.

Apostolov points out that the extent and length of conflict along what became the European-Ottoman border has no equivalent elsewhere in human history, impacting the lives of "millions of people, and deeply affecting group identities in the zone of contact". He also points out, however, that points out that, where borders exist, and communities mix and mingle and "shade off" into each other, just as Christians and Muslims have historically done in various border-zones such as in the Balkans under Ottoman rule, these spaces have the potential to be either "barriers' or 'bridges." Political borders are marked, patrolled and guarded but civilizational ones are more malleable, and they can be imagined either as "a bridge, or a supporting wall in the edifice of world society".

The centuries of conflict between the Ottomans and Europe represented by the narrative of the Ottoman wars in Europe has often been characterized as a civilizational clash. The eventual recovery of all Ottoman territory, and the birth of nations based on ancient entities such as the Serbian Empire and the Bulgarian Empire in the nineteenth century, can be regarded as victory for European civilization, itself often identified as Christian. Often, the national epics and stories of the Balkan states depict the Turks as cruel, as destroyers of culture and as having oppressed the non-Muslim population for over three hundred years. Others point out that when Jews fled from persecution elsewhere, usually in the Christian world, they found refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Many settled in the Balkans.

The Balkan experience can be differently constructed depending on the agenda; it can demonize Muslims and suggest that Muslims are a threat to European identity, therefore their migration into European space should not be encouraged and those who are already there should be regarded with suspicion. Or, the narrative can be constructed in a way that stresses that Muslims, Christians and Jews often, though not always, enjoyed harmonious relations. According to this narrative, instead of perceiving the Balkans-where so many epochal battles took place-as a buttress against the Muslim world, they can be understood as a bridge, as Sells suggests for Bosnia. In his analysis of the Bosnian conflict, Sells comments that in a world where some sort of geo-political war or conflict between the "increasingly polarized spheres of East and West" seems likely, drawing on its heritage of cross-cultural and inter-religious harmony, "Bosnia-Herzegovina could be a bridge between the majority Christian world and the majority Islamic world."

Referring to the ebb and flow of epic confrontation between the two sides, Stephen O'Shea comments that another story can also be told:

scholars, translators, merchants and clerics wandered about the world and contributed to its halcyon moments of cultural exchange. A continuum of cooperation, audible as a kind of ground tone upon which the more martial music of narrative history must be played, convivencia informed the entire medieval millennium, even those epochs that opened or closed with battle ... by combing the epochal battles with the eras of convivencia, a clearer picture of the complex encounter of Christianity and Islam emerges.

References

Apostolov, Mario. 2003. The Christian-Muslim Frontier: a zone of contact, conflict or cooperation. London, UK; New York, NY: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 9780415302814.

Colin, Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0333613864.

Inalcik, Halil. 1970. "Emergence of the Ottomans." in P.M. Holt, Ann K.D. Lambton and Bernard Lewis, eds. The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521076012, 263-291.

Inalcik, Halil. 1970. "Rise of the Ottoman Empire." in P.M. Holt, Ann K.D. Lambton and Bernard Lewis eds. The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521076012, 295-323.

Jelavich, Barbara. 1983. History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521252490.

Luther, Martin. "On War Against the Turks," 155-205 in Robert C. Schultz, trans. 1967. Luther's Works, Volume 46 (American Edition). Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press. ISBN 9780800603465.

Matthias, John, and Vladeta Vuckovic. 1988. The Battle of Kosovo. Athens, OH: Swallow Press. ISBN 0804008973.

O'Shea, Stephen. 2006. Sea of faith: Islam and Christianity in the medieval Mediterranean world. New York, NY: Walker. ISBN 9780802714985.

Sells, Michael. 1998. The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 9780585130279.

Vazov, Ivan and Raymond Hansen ed. 2005. Under the Yoke. Sofia, BG: Pax Publishing. ISBN 9549403017.

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The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older, European texts. The Ottoman empire acquired considerable territory in the Balkans, which it ruled for the next 300 years as well as areas of Hungary, Poland and Greece.

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This site has lots of pictures and bullet points.

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The Janissaries were the military elite of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. Dedicated fighting machine loyal only to Sultan. Learn about Janissary armor, weapons, battles, and revolts.

Janissary Elite warriors (Source: Pinterest/Artstation)

During Turkish raids, small boys were especially coveted plunder. Turkish warriors kidnapped young Christian boys and gave them as a gift to the sultan. Sultan brainwashed them and converted them into Islam. These boys became Janissaries.

They were not allowed to marry, nor to father children. Their life was dedicated to constant drilling and exercise. Slaves, loyal only to the sultan, they were brought up with a single purpose only. To kill and maintain the power of the Ottoman empire.

The Janissaries were the sultan's personal bodyguard. Since they were taken from abroad, they didn't sympathize with ordinary Turkish people.

Later, the Janissaries, aware of their power, forced the sultan to give them more privileges. They were allowed to marry. They were allowed to conduct business. Their ranks became hereditary.

They became similar to the Pretorian Guard in the Roman empire. Raising sultans to power or dethroning them. Sultans were outraged at becoming "subject to their own slaves".

Janissaries' power was also a source of their demise. Strongly holding to their rights and controlling sultans, they resisted any reform. Indulging in the ordinary life of married ones and conducting businesses instead of training caused their military prowess to vain.

Eventually, they became a burden to the Ottoman Empire. In mid 19th century sultan carefully orchestrated their destruction. Once formidable military force was destroyed. The Janissaries simply haven't adapted to new circumstances.

Janissaries in battle, 17th century (Source:deadliestfiction.wikia.com)

Sultan Murad I, ruled the Ottoman empire from 1362 until 1389. He started a blood tax system known as , or "gathering," for Christian territories conquered by the Ottoman Empire.

Every 5 years Turkish officials would travel to Balkans and took one boy aged between 6 and 10 years from every 40 houses. Since only 1 out of every 40 houses were taken, those boys had no friends. Another way to gather young boys was to buy them from slave traders or kidnap them during raiding.

Young boys were taken to central Anatolia and given to Turkish families to be raised in Islam and get familiar with Turkish customs. After 7 years of work at farms, they were taken back to the capital and tested. Based on their physical strength, intelligence and looks were assigned to different branches of the military, ranging from artillery, navy to infantry. But in general, they were infantry troops.

Young boys trained for over 6 years. During this time they were drilled and trained to use a variety of weapons, including bows, muskets, javelins, and swords. Ony after, they became yeniçeri (new soldiers).

Janissaries in battle (Source:Pinterest/@pinturasdeguerra)

The Janissaries played a decisive role in the capture of Constantinople in 1453. They defeated Egyptian Mamluks in 1486 and in 1516 and Iranian Safavids in 1514. The greatest moment of Janissary victory was at the battle of Mohacs in 1526, where Jannisaries destroyed Hungarian cavalry with swift gunfire attacks.

According to some of the sources, the Janissaries were superb marksmen who could aim accurately and also maintain a fast rate of firing, even in bad light conditions. They were famous for their discipline and silent movement.

After a while, poor Turkish families started to bribe officials to take their sons in as Jannisary recruits and thus enabling them a decent life. Their numbers grew from approximately 20,000 men in the 16th century to well over 100,000 by the 19th century

Food played a key role in the daily life of janissary. Each division was called a hearth (Ocak). High-rank officers were called soup makers (çorbacı). Other military ranks were designated by culinary terms: Aşçıbaşı, the chef; karakullukçu, the scullion; çörekçi, the baker; gözlemeci, the griddle bread maker. As a symbol of his rank, the soup maker carried a large ladle.

Battle of Belgrade - Elite Janissary corps in action (Source:Instagram/@picsabouthistory)

Important decisions were taken around the cauldron, where soup was cooked. In case of the coup the cauldron would be overturned, the soup spilled and the cauldron would be used as a huge drum banging with the beat of the ladle. Sultans were scared to death to the sound of ladles on the cauldron.

Jannisarries were slaves, however, they had many privileges. They held important positions in the Ottoman government, some of them rising to the position of vizier. Viziers answered only to the sultan himself.

Janissaries quickly adopted gunfire and through discipline, fanatism and advanced armament played a key role in the expansion of the Ottoman empire. After a while, they became the warrior elite of the Ottoman Empire.

Typical Janissary weapons (Source: Alberto Malagugini, Artstation)

They were shock troops, therefore were swift and agile. They wore only light armor and a small round shield. The main weapon of choice for Janissaries was the bow and Turkish yatagan swords and later on when they really started to become powerful, the musket. They wore plain uniforms.

After a defeat against Poland in 1622, Osman II decided to curb Janissary excesses and angry at becoming "subject to his own slaves" tried to disband the corps. However, the Janissaries revolted and murdered teenage sultan in the notorious Seven Towers.

In 1807 Janissaries revolted again and deposed Sultan Selim III, who had tried to modernize the army. His successor Sultan Mahmud II stroke compromise with Janissaries to stay in power. Aware of Janissary's threat, the sultan diligently planned the destruction of Janissaries.

By 1826 plot was ready and the sultan ordered janissaries to be disbanded. As expected, they revolted, therefore sultan used force and had more than 6,000 Janissaries executed.

Janissary in 16th century (Source:Pinterest/Norman Miller)

As for the Ottoman Empire goes, it was already too late. In mid of 19th century, the empire was known as a "Sick man of Europe". Slowly waiting for its end.

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The Janissaries - The Elite Soldiers of the Turkish Empire

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During Turkish raids, small boys were especially coveted plunder. Turkish warriors kidnapped young Christian boys and gave them as a gift to the sultan. Sultan brainwashed them and converted them into Islam. These boys became Janissaries. They were not allowed to marry, nor to father children.

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This site is by the New Zealand government and contains a lot of information. This page isn't the only relevant page so I can look at other sites as well and it is very reputable

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In the decade up to 1914 the Ottoman government invested heavily in the modernisation of its army's weapons and equipment. This programme concentrated on buying material directly from foreign companies rather than building domestic industrial capacity. As part of this modernisation process the Ottoman government invited a German military mission to advise the army on its choice of modern weapons and how best to use them. Under the influence of these advisers most of the pre-war military contracts went to large German arms manufacturers, including Krupp, Mauser and Rheinmetall.

Unfortunately for the Ottoman Empire, many of the arms purchased recently were lost in the Balkan Wars of 1912-13. The Ottoman Army went to war in 1914 with significant gaps in its arsenal, particularly machine guns and field artillery. When neutral Bulgaria and Greece closed their borders and the Russian, British and French navies imposed a blockade on maritime trade, the Ottoman Empire was cut off from its German arms suppliers.

This isolation prevented the Ottoman Army fully replacing the losses in artillery it had suffered during the Balkan Wars. Stocks of artillery shells also fell to dangerously low levels. The Ottoman field armies had to fight their battles without the intensive use of artillery fire that the armies of the other Great Powers came to rely on. The situation was improved somewhat by Bulgaria's entry into the war on the side of the Central Powers in October 1915. The invasion and conquest of Serbia a month later opened a direct land route to Germany and restored the Ottoman Empire's access to German arms and munitions factories. From then to the war's end the Turks received considerable military aid and assistance from Germany. But this was never enough to completely make good both the original shortfalls in weapons and equipment and the continuing losses as the war went on.

Small arms (rifles, carbines and handguns)

The Ottoman Army's most modern rifle - as good as any used by the other Great Powers - was the 7.65-mm M1903 Mauser bolt-action rifle. This German-designed and manufactured weapon used a five-round removable box magazine and had an effective range of up to 600 m. It was issued to the Ottoman Army's best front-line infantry units. Just over 200,000 were received before the war. Previous versions of the Mauser design had been adopted from the early 1890s and these weapons - the 7.65-mm Mauser M1890 and M1893 bolt-action rifles - continued to be used. In 1914 the Ottoman Army had almost 800,000 7.65-mm Mauser bolt-action rifles and carbines (shortened versions made especially for use by cavalry). Obsolete weapons like the 9.5-mm Mauser M1887 rifle and the single-shot Peabody-Martini 11.43-mm M1874 rifle were issued to second-line units, Kurdish and Arab auxiliaries and the paramilitary Jardama. The standard handguns used by officers and specialist branches (such as military policemen) were 7.63-mm Mauser C96 and 9-mm FN-Browning M1903 pistols. Older revolvers were used by second-tier army and Jardarma units. Officers were allowed to purchase their own handguns and possessed a great variety of European makes and models.

Machine guns

In 1908 the German arms manufacturer Deutsche Waffen-und-Munitionsfabriken was licensed to produce the British-designed Maxim machine gun. As well as making a 7.9-mm version for the German Army - the MG08 - the company also produced a 7.65-mm export version, the MG09, which was sold to Bulgaria, China, Romania and the Ottoman Empire. Although many were lost in the Balkan Wars, the MG09 was the machine gun used against the New Zealanders and other Allied troops at Gallipoli. The Ottoman Army received large quantities of MG08s once German military aid was resumed in 1916, and both types of machine gun were used by the Turks in the Sinai and Palestine campaigns. Both German Maxims had an effective range of 2000 m and fired at a rate of 300 rounds per minute.

Field artillery

The most common types of Ottoman field artillery encountered by New Zealand forces during the First World War were German-designed and manufactured 75-mm and 77-mm field guns, grouped in four-gun batteries. Each Ottoman infantry division was supposed to be supported by six batteries of field guns, but in reality they had to make do with three or four at most. The 75-mm Krupp M03 L/30 Field Gun had a range of 6000 m; 648 were purchased from Germany in the period before the First World War, although many were lost in the Balkan Wars. After 1916 Germany supplied the Turks with both types of the standard German Army field gun: the 77-mm Krupp M96 L/27 nA (range 7800 m) and the 77-mm Rheinmetall M16 L/35 (range 9000 m). Desperately short of field artillery, the Ottoman Army also used many older and obsolescent field guns, some dating back to the 1870s, as well as captured Russian and British guns. The latter were of a different calibre to the German guns and could be used only while stocks of captured artillery shells lasted.

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JANISSARY. The Janissaries (from yenieri, meaning 'new soldier' in Turkish) were an elite standing force of infantrymen, first formed by the Ottoman Sultan Murad I around 1380. Legally slaves (kul ) of the sultan, they served over the centuries as bowmen, crossbowmen, and musketeers. The Janissaries were distinguished from the main body of the army, which was made up of cavalrymen (sipahis) drawn from the freeborn retinues of provincial officials and notables. Janissary recruits were chosen from groups of boys who were taken into Ottoman service in periodic levies on Christian peasant families, predominantly those in the Balkans. The boys were brought to Istanbul, converted to Islam, despite Islamic prohibitions against the forcible conversion of Christians, and then trained for military service.

ORGANIZATION AND TACTICS

The Janissary corps was originally organized in the late fourteenth century when a group of prisoners of war were converted to Islam and personally attached to the sultan. It grew from approximately 20,000 men in the late sixteenth century to well over 100,000 by the early nineteenth century, even though it came to include many non-combatants in later years.

The organization became an important Ottoman military force soon after it was established because the Janissaries were perceived to be the sultan's most trustworthy soldiers as well as disciplined troops with particular small arms skill. They received special privileges and benefits to secure their sole allegiance to the ruler, with their group solidarity reinforced by the way they were organized into small companies of celibate warriors living in barracks and receiving constant military training.

The colonel of each company was called the orbaci ('soup cook') and wore a soup ladle as his rank insignia to symbolize humility before the sultan although he never actually served food himself. The head of the whole Janissary force was the agha, one of the most important officials in the realm. He served on the Imperial Divan, ranking just below the main Ottoman viziers (ministers) but above other military commanders. The Janissaries lived together in large barracks within the cities in which they were stationed. They were forbidden to marry until they retired from active duty. Several Ottoman grand viziers and admirals had served as members of the Janissary corps during their careers.

The Janissaries' military technique was to rush very quickly into battle after a breach had been made in fortress walls or to outflank an enemy cavalry force that had already charged first. They would then attack with handguns or rifles as appropriate. In peacetime, Janissaries served as guards in fortresses and towns and as firefighters in major Ottoman cities. Although Janissaries were principally a land force, there were naval Janissaries who helped man Ottoman ships.

The Janissaries were famous for their distinctive marching style and headgear. Their special military bands are believed to have inspired military bands all over Europe. The Janissary corps was closely connected with Bektashi dervishes, a popular mystical order regarded by many Muslims as heterodox. To commemorate the Islamic millennium in 15911592, the sultan allowed the master of the Bektashi order and eight dervishes to become part of the Janissaries.

JANISSARIES IN WAR

The Janissaries made significant contributions to many important Ottoman victories, among them the conquest of Constantinople in the spring of 1453, the battle against the Iranian Safavids at Chaldiran in 1514, and the defeat of the Mamluk armies at Marj Dabik in 1516. In all these confrontations, the Janissaries administered the final decisive blow after a series of preliminary assaults, usually in swift gunfire attacks. Each of these encounters fueled European perceptions of the Janissary corps as a kind of Ottoman "secret weapon" able to use firearms more effectively than any adversary. Perhaps the greatest moment of Janissary victory was at the battle of Mohacs in 1526, when Janissaries were able to mow down scores of Hungarian cavalry with precise rifle volleys. Many contemporary observers believed that the quality of the Janissary corps diminished in the late sixteenth century when the sons of Janissaries, and freeborn Muslims generally, were permitted to join, and the corps' slave discipline was compromised. This assessment, however, is belied by subsequent Janissary victories in the seventeenth century. Many strains weighed on this group, including inflation and the continual devaluation of Ottoman money, which substantially lowered salary values.

JANISSARIES IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

In the early seventeenth century, when economic and social unrest threatened the stability in the empire, the Janissaries became more deeply involved in royal politics. The young sultan in 1621, Osman II, blamed the Janissaries for the Polish defeat of the Ottomans at Khotin. Osman did not trust their loyalty since he associated them with his uncle and rival, the previous sultan Mustafa I, who had just been deposed. Within a year, Mustafa became Sultan again (with his mother behind the throne), and the Janissaries killed Osman II. Many of the regicides were hunted down and executed in retribution for Osman's death, but the Janissaries' kingmaker role was in no way diminished.

Throughout the seventeenth century, the Janissaries had a fearsome reputation for fomenting unrest instead of fighting in combat. The distinction between the urban craft guilds and the Janissaries had already started to blur, a development that reduced unit cohesion and undermined the Janissaries' fighting capacity. The Janissaries came to be blamed for a series of military defeats, beginning with unsuccessful Ottoman campaigns against the Habsburgs in the 1690s that led to the Treaty of Carlowitz, the first permanent Ottoman surrender of territory to European powers.

The "Tulip Era" of the 1720s was a time when European ideas and fashions became extremely popular in the Ottoman Empire, challenging the traditional system in the wake of a string of Ottoman military failures. This era of social change, combined with the financial weakness and inept administration of the government at that time, produced tensions that culminated in a popular revolt to overthrow Sultan Ahmed III (17031730). Patrona Halil, a noncombatant, illiterate Janissary, led this uprising.

JANISSARIES IN THE ERA OF OTTOMAN MILITARY REFORM

Count Alexandre de Bonneval was assigned in the 1730s to modernize the Janissaries. Despite slight improvements in their military capabilities, the Janissaries still had great difficulties adapting to modern warfare and did not receive adequate funding. Further disasters were in store, such as Janissary mismanagement of naval forces that led to a terrible defeat at Chesme in 1770 during the Russo-Ottoman War.

The Ottomans then turned to another European adviser, Baron de Tott, to begin modernizing the military by establishing a naval engineering school in the 1790s. This began an educational transformation in the Ottoman military that totally left out the Janissaries. New army units with no connection to them were organized under Sultan Selim III (ruled 17891807) in a military and financial program called the Nizam-i Cedid (' New Order').

By the late eighteenth century, though, the Janissaries would prove difficult to dislodge. As their importance as soldiers waned, they had developed considerable economic and coercive power in major Ottoman cities and were able to thwart reformers' direct assaults on their status for several decades. When they were ordered in 1807, for example, to wear European-style uniforms, the Janissaries staged a revolt and put a new sultan, Mustafa IV, on the throne.

However, general reform trends worked against them. Another sultan, Mahmud II, took power in 1808, and gradually developed strong alliances with advocates of change that resulted in drastic action against the Janissaries eighteen years later. During the so-called "Auspicious Event" in 1826, Mahmud carried out a secret plan to surround the Janissary barracks with artillery and kill everyone inside. The Bektashi order, so closely associated with the Janissaries, was outlawed in the Ottoman Empire in December 1826. This incident, which occurred as enemies with more modern armies were trouncing the Ottomans, ushered in the era of profound military and social reform that extended over the next few decades.

See also Islam in the Ottoman Empire ; Ottoman Dynasty ; Ottoman Empire ; Sultan ; Tulip Era (Ottoman Empire) ; Vizier .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Goodwin, Godfrey. The Janissaries. London, 1997.

Inalcik, Halil. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 13001600. Translated by Norman Itzkowitz and Colin Imber. New York, 1973.

Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. Chicago, 1972.

Ernest Tucker

Military corps in the Ottoman Empire's army from the late fourteenth century to 1826.

The term janissary is the anglicized form of the Turkish (new troops). The Janissary corps was established in the late fourteenth century. The Janissaries' first recruits were from the ranks of young Christian prisoners of war; they were converted to Islam, taught Turkish, and given a rigorous military training. At the end of the sixteenth century, the Janissary corps began to admit untrained, mostly Muslim-born, recruits. The admission of untrained recruits marked the beginning of the janissaries' decline as a fighting force and their growing corruption. The basic regulations that had preserved the special character of the corps for some two centuries were treated with growing laxity, until they were abandoned altogether. The janissaries were allowed to marry and have families; then, in order to support their dependents, they were permitted to engage in gainful activities. Over the years, an ever-increasing number of janissaries gave up the practice of living at the barracks and training regularly, and the corps became largely a poorly trained and undisciplined militia. Commissions were sold to the highest bidders, and numerous civilians seeking to enjoy tax exemptions and other privileges bought their way into the corps. Consequently, the number of janissaries steadily increased from 12,000 in the early sixteenth century to 140,000 around 1820. The great majority of these men were not soldiers, but shopkeepers, artisans, porters, and followers of other trades, who rarely performed any military duties but zealously defended their privileged position. Identified with large segments of the urban population, they became a powerful caste resisting change.

The janissaries consistently opposed attempts to introduce military reforms because those required training and submission to discipline. They also objected to any attempts to create a new military force that might replace them or threaten their privileged position. In the last decade of the eighteenth century, Selim III (r. 17891807) hesitatingly introduced a new infantry corps known as the Nizam-i Cedit. The janissaries objected to the new force, and they eventually led a coalition of conservative forces that overthrew Selim and abolished his reforms (May 1807). An attempt by the grand vizier, Bayrakdar (Alemdar) Mustafa Paa, to reintroduce the Nizam-i Cedit also was foiled by the janissaries, and Bayrakdar himself was killed (November 1808).

Following Bayrakdar's death, Mahmud II (r. 18081839) concluded a pact with the janissaries, known as Sened-i Ita'at (Deed of Obedience), promising not to introduce military reforms in return for a janissary commitment not to intervene in political affairs. However, the Greek war of independence that broke out in 1821 (and lasted until 1830) confronted the Ottoman Empire with new and dangerous challenges, including the possibility of European intervention. The janissaries proved ineffective against the Greek insurgents, and the sultan was forced to enlist the support of his governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, who had a new, European-style, modern army. The contrast between the ineffectual janissaries and the disciplined, successful Egyptian troops softened public opinion toward military reform. Capitalizing on this new mood, early in 1826 Mahmud proposed a plan (the Ekinci/Ekenci project) to reform a small segment of the Janissary corps, transforming it into a regular, modern, European-style force. Although most of the senior officers approved the plan, soon after its implementation the janissaries once again rose in rebellion. The sultan, however, had taken precautions against such a threat. With the support of the ulama (body of Islamic scholars) and the general public, loyal forces including artillery and naval units quickly suppressed the rebellion with considerable bloodshed (15 June 1826). Mahmud seized the opportunity to abolish completely the Janissary corps and the Bektashi sufi order affiliated with it.

Thus ended an institution that had existed for almost five centuries and that had become a hallmark of Ottoman power, in both its greatness and decline. The suppression of the janissaries, which became known in Ottoman history as the Beneficial Event (Vaka-i Hayriye), made a great impression on
contemporaries in the Ottoman Empire and abroad. It also cleared the way for comprehensive, European-style military and administrative reforms that, in the long run, affected every aspect of society, and extended the life of the Ottoman Empire into the twentieth century.

see also bayrakdar, mustafa; vaka-i hayriye.

Bibliography

Levy, Avigdor. "The Ekenci Project: An Ottoman Attempt at Gradual Reform (1826)." Abr-Nahrain 14 (1974): 3239.

Shaw, Stanford J., and Shaw, Ezel Kural. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 18081975. New York and Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

avigdor levy
updated by eric hooglund

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JANISSARY. The Janissaries (from yenieri, meaning 'new soldier' in Turkish) were an elite standing force of infantrymen, first formed by the Ottoman Sultan Murad I around 1380. Legally slaves (kul ) of the sultan, they served over the centuries as bowmen, crossbowmen, and musketeers.

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1494-1566, Ottoman Sultan Suleiman was the longest-reigning Ottoman sultan and led his army on thirteen campaigns starting with the... lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetuer adipiscing elit proin risus praesent lectus vestibulum quam sapien varius ut blandit non interdum in ante vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia curae duis faucibus accumsan odio curabitur convallis duis consequat dui nec nisi volutpat eleifend donec ut dolor morbi vel lectus in quam fringilla rhoncus mauris enim leo rhoncus sed vestibulum sit amet cursus id turpis integer aliquet massa id lobortis convallis tortor risus dapibus augue vel accumsan tellus nisi eu orci mauris lacinia sapien quis libero nullam sit amet turpis elementum ligula vehicula consequat morbi a ipsum integer a nibh in quis justo maecenas rhoncus aliquam lacus morbi quis tortor id nulla ultrices aliquet maecenas leo odio condimentum id luctus nec molestie sed justo pellentesque viverra pede ac diam cras pellentesque volutpat dui maecenas tristique est et tempus semper est quam pharetra magna ac consequat metus sapien ut nunc vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia curae mauris viverra diam vitae quam suspendisse potenti nullam porttitor lacus at turpis donec posuere metus vitae ipsum aliquam non mauris morbi non lectus aliquam sit amet diam in magna bibendum imperdiet nullam orci pede venenatis non sodales sed tincidunt eu felis fusce posuere felis sed lacus morbi sem mauris laoreet ut rhoncus aliquet pulvinar sed nisl nunc rhoncus dui vel sem sed sagittis nam congue risus semper porta volutpat quam

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