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Cookbooks give readers (mostly) bad advice on food safety

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Cookbooks give readers (mostly) bad advice on food safety

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This article talks about how cookbooks often give little information about the safety of the food that is going to be cooked. The books, even the best selling and high rated in particular, tell the readers not a lot of useful advice about preparation of the food. Sometimes the information given is even incorrect which could be very dangerous or not based on science. This can be a large problem when people trust these well ranked books to give them solid information when cooking. People view them also a food-safety source when they aren't that. The problems come in how different animal products like raw meats or eggs are utilized and prepared. Things like temperature are very important in these circumstances to make sure everything is fully cooked and the whole process is cleanly.

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A recent study finds that bestselling cookbooks offer readers little useful advice about reducing food-safety risks, and that much of the advice they do provide is inaccurate and not based on sound science.

"Cookbooks aren't widely viewed as a primary source of food-safety information, but cookbook sales are strong and they're intended to be instructional," says Ben Chapman, senior author of a paper on the work and an associate professor of agricultural and human sciences at North Carolina State University.

"Cookbooks tell people how to cook, so we wanted to see if cookbooks were providing any food-safety information related to cooking meat, poultry, seafood or eggs, and whether they were telling people to cook in a way that could affect the risk of contracting foodborne illness," Chapman says.

To that end, the researchers evaluated a total 1,497 recipes from 29 cookbooks that appeared on the New York Times best sellers list for food and diet books. All of the recipes included handling raw animal ingredients: meat, poultry, seafood or eggs.

Specifically, the researchers looked at three things:

Does the recipe tell readers to cook the dish to a specific internal temperature?

If it does include a temperature, is that temperature one that has been shown to be "safe"? For example, cooking chicken to 165°F.

Does the recipe perpetuate food-safety myths -- such as saying to cook poultry until the juices "run clear" -- that have been proven unreliable as ways of determining if the dish has reached a safe temperature?

The researchers found that only 123 recipes -- 8 percent of those reviewed -- mentioned cooking the dish to a specific temperature. And not all of the temperatures listed were high enough to reduce the risk of foodborne illness.

"In other words, very few recipes provided relevant food-safety information, and 34 of those 123 recipes gave readers information that wasn't safe," Chapman says. "Put another way, only 89 out of 1,497 recipes gave readers reliable information that they could use to reduce their risk of foodborne illness."

In addition, 99.7 percent of recipes gave readers "subjective indicators" to determine when a dish was done cooking. And none of those indicators were reliable ways to tell if a dish was cooked to a safe temperature.

"The most common indicator was cooking time, which appeared in 44 percent of the recipes," says Katrina Levine, lead author of the paper and an extension associate in NC State's Department of Agricultural and Human Sciences. "And cooking time is particularly unreliable, because so many factors can affect how long it takes to cook something: the size of the dish being cooked, how cold it was before going into the oven, differences in cooking equipment, and so on."

Other common indicators used in the cookbooks included references to the color or texture of the meat, as well as vague language such as "cook until done."

"This is important because cooking meat, poultry, seafood and eggs to a safe internal temperature kills off pathogens that cause foodborne illness," Levine says. "These temperatures were established based on extensive research, targeting the most likely pathogens found in each food."

A list of safe cooking temperatures can be found at https://www.foodsafety.gov/keep/charts/mintemp.html.

"Ideally, cookbooks can help us make food tasty and reduce our risk of getting sick, so we'd like to see recipes include good endpoint cooking temperatures," Chapman says. "A similar study was done 25 years ago and found similar results -- so nothing has changed in the past quarter century. But by talking about these new results, we're hoping to encourage that change."

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foodborne illness; nutrition; medical topics; workplace health; food; food and agriculture; agriculture and food; microbiology

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Cookbooks give readers (mostly) bad advice on food safety

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A recent study finds that bestselling cookbooks offer readers little useful advice about reducing food-safety risks, and that much of the advice they do provide is inaccurate and not based on sound science.

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Seasonal warming leads to smaller animal body sizes

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Seasonal warming leads to smaller animal body sizes

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This article discusses how it has been found that in controlled lab conditions animals were monitored to see changes in size. According to the results body sizes change closely in relation to the conditions provided for the animals in the labs.For example cold blooded species grow differently depending on their temperatures. In warmer conditions it was found that the animals did indeed grow less and were smaller because of the warmer conditions. These findings can mean that climate change could extremely effect certain species. If animals that grow larger in colder environments grow smaller they will struggle greatly and their populations will change a lot. Also oxygen levels are decreasing in the ocean and so aquatic life could be affected as well.

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Changes in the body size of animals measured under controlled laboratory conditions have been shown to closely match changes in body size with seasonal warming in nature, according to research from Queen Mary University of London (QMUL).

Cold-blooded species rely on the temperature of their external environment to dictate their internal body temperature. When these species are reared in warmer conditions in the laboratory they usually develop faster, maturing at a smaller adult size. This biological phenomenon occurs in over 83 per cent of cold-blooded species.

Despite the huge number of environmental factors than can vary seasonally, and the potential limitations of the study, the researchers found a statistically significant match between body size responses to temperature measured in the laboratory and in nature, which suggests that they share common drivers.

The results, published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, are extracted from the largest ever analysis of data from studies on seasonal body size variation in arthropod species from locations around the globe.

Curtis Horne, from QMUL's School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, said: "Understanding how body size varies with temperature is crucial to understanding and predicting how species will cope in a warming world. Changes in the body size of species can impact the ecosystem services we rely on.

"Arthropods are of huge economic and ecological value to humans. For example, they include important species of pollinators, as well as zooplankton species, the most abundant animals in our ocean that form the basis of the food chain for commercially important fish species. It is in our interest to understand how these species will respond to warming."

He added: "Variation between species in the sensitivity of body size to warming can also give us an indication of why this response has evolved."

The findings show some species are likely to face a greater impact from climate warming and shifting seasonality.

In particular, aquatic species including important species of zooplankton, reduce their size much more with seasonal warming compared to species on land such as aphids and butterflies.

With oxygen availability decreasing in areas of the world's oceans there are potential implications for how oxygen and temperature will interact to influence body size in these sensitive aquatic species.

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nature; new species; endangered animals; extinction; global warming; environmental issues; exotic species; environmental awareness

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Seasonal warming leads to smaller animal body sizes

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Changes in the body size of animals measured under controlled laboratory conditions have been shown to closely match changes in body size with seasonal warming in nature, according to research from Queen Mary University of London (QMUL). Cold-blooded species rely on the temperature of their external environment to dictate their internal body temperature.

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Mosquitoes wing it: New research shows how

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Mosquitoes wing it: New research shows how

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This article discusses how new research has been found on mosquitoes in terms of mosquitoes flying. Understanding this information could give scientists and environmentalists information about the future of mosquitoes and more information about their flight. Mosquitoes are able to spread so much disease because of their ability to fly and are a large part of spreading deadly disease in many developing countries. The new research is able to capture and understand how mosquitoes are able to fly.They can track the mosquitoes and they are also able to understand the wing movements of the flies. Using high speed cameras as well as other computer technologies this is able to be done.

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The unique mechanisms involved in mosquito flight have been shared for the first time in a new Oxford University collaboration, which could inform future aerodynamic innovations, including tiny scale flying tech.

Much is known about mosquito behaviour but scientists have long had questions about the aerodynamics of how they manage to fly. In the past technology has not been capable of capturing high speed wing movements, but recent science developments have made it possible to track and understand the wing movements of flies.

In partnership with the Royal Veterinary College and Chiba University, scientists from Oxford's Department of Zoology analysed the insects' every movement to understand how mosquitoes fly. Well known carriers of diseases, mosquitoes' abnormally long, narrow wings and distinctive flight behaviour set them apart from other insects. Not only that, but when flapped, these wings move back and forth approximately 800 times each second -- far faster than any other insect of comparable size. To compensate for these rapid movements, their stroke amplitude (the angle through which the wing sweeps) is less than half that of any other insect measured to date.

Using a combination of high-speed cameras set up in a miniature film studio, designed specifically for the project and computer simulations, the team recorded the mosquitoes' subtle three-dimensional wing movements and mapped their complex aerodynamics. The insects' insects' flight was captured using eight cameras, each recording at 10,000 frames per second.

The equipment used allowed the researchers to observe the insect's subtlest movements and these motions were replicated via computer simulation, to show the airflow produced by their beating wings, revealing that mosquitoes enhance their flight forces using two novel aerodynamic mechanisms that make use of rapid and exquisitely controlled wing rotations.

In addition to generating lift by leading-edge vortices, which are rotational, bubbles of low pressure created along the edge of the wing, mosquitos use two novel aerodynamic mechanisms to make them fly; trailing edge vortices and rotational drag. The trailing-edge vortex is a new form of 'wake capture', where the mosquitoes align their wings with the fluid flows they created during the previous wingbeat, recycling energy that would otherwise be lost to the environment.

'The usual flapping pattern of short, fast sweeps means that mosquitoes cannot rely on conventional aerodynamic mechanisms that most insects and helicopters use." says Dr Richard Bomphrey of the Royal Veterinary College, who led the study, published this week in the journal Nature. "Instead, we predicted that they must make use of clever tricks as the wings reverse their direction at the end of each half-stroke.'

Of the challenges faced during the project, Dr Simon Walker, of the Oxford Animal Flight Group in Oxford's Department of Zoology and co-author of the study said: 'Recording mosquitoes during free-flight represented a huge technical challenge due to their small size, extreme wingbeat frequency, and the presence of large antennae and legs, that can mask the view of their wings.'

These new aerodynamic mechanisms help explain the unusual shape of mosquito wings. 'In most insects, aerodynamic forces increase as you move out along the wing length because the wing tip travels faster than the wing root,' says Dr Toshiyuki Nakata, from Chiba, who ran the computer simulations. 'However, by exploiting aerodynamics that rely on rapid pitching of the wing, the force can be produced along the entire length. Having a long slender wing can therefore increase lift force and simultaneously reduce the cost of flight.'

Understanding the mechanisms that enable mosquitos and other flying insects to fly in their unique way, could support the development of aerodynamic innovations such as tiny scale flying tech, like piezoelectric actuators.

Speaking on how the findings can be built on with future research, Dr Walker said: 'Understanding the genetic make-up and physiology of mosquitos tells us how they are able to fly, but it is also the first step to understanding why. There is still much to learn from flying insects, the more we know about them, the better our chance of understanding their flight behaviour, how they carry disease and eventually how to stop them from doing so.'

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insects (including butterflies); birds; behavioral science; zoology; pests and parasites; animals; extreme survival; trees

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Mosquitoes wing it: New research shows how

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The unique mechanisms involved in mosquito flight have been shared for the first time in a new Oxford University collaboration, which could inform future aerodynamic innovations, including tiny scale flying tech. Much is known about mosquito behaviour but scientists have long had questions about the aerodynamics of how they manage to fly.

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EPA's controlled human exposure studies of air pollution are warranted

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EPA's controlled human exposure studies of air pollution are warranted

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This article discusses how humans have been volunteering to participate in studies that rise question about ethical among the community. In order for studies humans may volunteer in experiments where they exposed to unhealthy air pollution in order to understand how air pollution effects the general human population. The studies would be conducted by allowing the volunteered human to inhale specific pollutants an then be monitored for reactions and results of the study. The risks will be predictably reasonable however they obviously don't know the full effects of the air pollution and what the results could be so it is taking a decently large risk for the volunteers.

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The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) carries out experiments in which volunteer participants agree to be intentionally exposed by inhalation to specific pollutants at restricted concentrations over short periods to obtain important information about the effects of outdoor air pollution on human health. A new report by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine finds these studies are warranted and recommends that they continue under two conditions: when they provide additional knowledge that informs policy decisions and regulation of pollutants that cannot be obtained by other means, and when it is reasonably predictable that the risks for study participants will not exceed biomarker or physiologic responses that are of short duration and reversible.

In controlled human inhalation exposure (CHIE) studies, participants are exposed to one or several common air pollutants usually for a few hours at concentrations that are not expected to produce adverse responses. The goal is to observe temporary and reversible responses without causing clinical effects. The studies are designed to minimize the effects of extraneous factors and focus on the relationship between the experimental exposure conditions and the biologic response being measured, for example, a temporary change in lung function. These experiments are done in order to understand pathways of toxicity by which air-pollutant exposures might lead to illness or premature death to sensitive individuals in the general population.

Results from CHIE studies are used to inform the periodic review of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for common pollutants, such as ozone and particulate matter (PM), and advise other policy decisions. The NAAQS process has broad health importance because it regulates the outdoor air concentrations of those pollutants. The committee that conducted the study and wrote the report examined the contributions of CHIE experiments to the scientific information used for the reviews of NAAQS for ozone and PM. Ozone and PM CHIE studies have enabled investigators to separate the effects of exposure to such individual pollutants from effects associated with exposures to ambient complex mixtures. They have provided unique information on short-term exposure-response relationships that cannot be obtained from animal inhalation studies or epidemiologic studies of people engaged in their normal daily activities.

To assess the level of safety provided by study protocols and the likelihood of participants experiencing any serious health effects with long-term consequences, the committee reviewed eight recent CHIE studies. The committee concluded that the societal benefits of CHIE studies are greater than the risks posed to the participants in the eight studies considered, which are unlikely to be large enough to be of concern. EPA applies a broad set of health-evaluation criteria when selecting participants to determine that there is no reason to believe that their participation in the study will lead to an adverse health response. The health status of subjects is monitored shortly before, during, and immediately after the exposure studies and usually again about 24 hours later.

The biologic responses of the participants in the past studies, as anticipated by the study protocol, dissipated once the exposure to air pollutants stopped and did not result in any serious effects with long-term consequences. Out of the 845 intentional pollutant exposures conducted at EPA's study facility from Jan. 2009 to Oct. 2016, one participant developed an unexpected episode of irregular heart beat during an experimental PM exposure. The individual reverted to a normal heart rate spontaneously, within two hours after the exposure, and was hospitalized overnight for observation. This one hospitalization, which corresponds to 0.1 percent of the experimental pollutant exposures, illustrates that despite substantial efforts to screen potential participants, there is some level of risk in these studies. The committee said it is not possible to definitively say that there was no risk to the subjects in these studies.

"While communicating with potential participants, it's particularly important to appropriately characterize the risks," said Robert Hiatt, professor of epidemiology and biostatistics at University of California, San Francisco, and chair of the committee. "EPA needs to make every effort to ensure that these descriptions are accurate, scientifically grounded, and comprehensible to people."

The report calls for improvements in the way consent information is communicated with potential participants. For example, some of the current consent documents used by EPA are limited by their use of complicated and technical language. The committee recommended that EPA use plain language in presenting risks, provide information on the occurrence of serious adverse events associated with previous CHIE studies, and explain how those events were resolved.

While not all possible risks can be listed in a consent disclosure process, the Academies' report says study consent forms should list all health risks for which there is some credible evidence that harm might occur. Risks likely to be perceived as important by participants should be included even though there is no credible evidence to suggest they are reasonably foreseeable. For example, participation in a PM CHIE study would add little risk of cancer or heart diseases because the extent of exposure during the study is very small compared with the total PM exposures that many people experience in the U.S over many years. In addition, any increase in chronic disease risk resulting from PM exposures in the studies would be vanishingly small, the report says. According to the committee, allowing people to judge risks for themselves and determine if they are willing to assume those risks is essential in respecting the autonomy of participants.

Going forward, the report recommends EPA regularly review and update its risk-profile information on groups that show sensitivity to air-pollutant exposures to inform decisions on who should be included in CHIE studies and who should be excluded. The report also recommends that the EPA convene an external scientific advisory committee of experts on a regular basis to ensure that the most important CHIE study topics are selected in order to maximize the rigor and impact of each study.

Report: https://www.nap.edu/catalog/24618/controlled-human-inhalation-exposure-studies-at-epa

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workplace health; chronic illness; personalized medicine; medical topics; air pollution; air quality; pollution; environmental science

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EPA's controlled human exposure studies of air pollution are warranted: The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) carries out experiments in which volunteer participants agree to be intentionally exposed by inhalation to specific pollutants at restricted concentrations over short periods to obtain important information

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A new report finds these studies are warranted and recommends that they continue under two conditions: when they provide additional knowledge that informs policy decisions and regulation of pollutants that cannot be obtained by other means, and when it is reasonably predictable that the risks for study participants will not exceed biomarker or physiologic responses that are of short duration and reversible.

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Making Cows More Environmentally Friendly

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Making Cows More Environmentally Friendly

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This articles discusses what can happen how when cows aren't getting as good of nutrition. Cows are an extremely crucial component to society and can affect the environment greatly. In terms of society all the dairy products in grocery come from cows as well as all a lot of meat. In terms of environment because of so many cows scientists and environmentalists are always trying to figure out ways to make them more environmentally friendly. The newest finding is that plants growing in warmer conditions could be effecting the nutritional value that gets to the cows which leads to a long chain of things affected. These plants may be tougher and have less nutritional value. They also believe that the cows may be releasing more methane  than they thought before. This is because higher amounts of methane are produced when plants are harder to digest.

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This article discusses how in a new study from the University of Delaware they have found that tree trunks in upland forests do not in fact store methane which we previously had thought. Instead the tree trunks in the forests actually emit the methane into the environment. This means that it could be an important factor in greenhouse gas emission that has been previously overlooked by the science community. Methane is also about 25 percent stronger than carbon dioxide so it poses as a solid threat to the environment. At this time it is very important for environmentalists to find the sources of methane emission because of how possibly threatening it is. Some scientists believe it could even have a higher percentage stronger than carbon dioxide at around 33 times stronger. The test took place in Maryland in a 30-acre

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A new study from the University of Delaware is one of the first in the world to show that tree trunks in upland forests actually emit methane rather than store it, representing a new, previously unaccounted source of this powerful greenhouse gas.

Methane is about 25 times stronger than carbon dioxide, with some estimates as high as 33 times stronger due to its effects when it is in the atmosphere.

Because of methane's global warming potential, identifying the sources and "sinks" or storehouses of this greenhouse gas is critical for measuring and understanding its implications across ecosystems.

Upland forest soils usually take up and store methane, but this effect can be counteracted by methane emissions from tree trunks, the research team from UD's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources found. Their work is published in the scientific journal Ecosystems.

"We believe our work can help fill in some gaps in methane budgets and environmental processes in global ecosystem models," said the study's leader, Rodrigo Vargas, assistant professor in the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences in UD's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.

Shreeram Inamdar, professor of watershed hydrology and biogeochemistry, is co-investigator on the project with Vargas, and doctoral student Daniel Warner is the lead author of the paper. The research was funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, with additional support from Delaware's Federal Research and Development Matching Grant Program.
Maryland study site
In a 30-acre area of upland forest at Fair Hill Natural Resources Management Area in nearby Cecil County, Maryland, the researchers tested a cluster of trees, soil and coarse woody debris (CWD) -- dead wood lying on the forest floor in various stages of decomposition -- to measure fluxes of methane and carbon dioxide.

The researchers used a state-of-the-art greenhouse gas analyzer based on laser absorption technology, called Off-Axis Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy (OA-ICOS), which looks similar to a proton pack from the movie "Ghostbusters."

Warner visited the site over the course of one growing season, April to December, and measured the carbon dioxide and methane fluxes of the soil, tree trunks and CWD to determine whether those three components were sources or sinks of these greenhouse gases.
Soils and CWD fluxes
In terms of carbon dioxide, research on the fluxes of tree trunks, known as stem respiration, and soil, known as soil respiration, has been done for decades, but research to determine the importance of carbon fluxes with regard to CWD still lags behind.

For methane, however, it's a different story. While studies have been done on methane fluxes in connection to soils, which usually consume the methane and are considered methane sinks, there are very few that deal with CWD and tree trunks in upland soils.

"What research has been done is generally lab incubations of wood where they measure how much methane is released over time. What we've found in this study is that some coarse woody debris acts kind of like the soil and consumes methane while other pieces of coarse woody debris emit small amounts of methane, which is also what we saw with living tree trunks," said Warner.

To understand the differences between the actions of the CWD, Warner and colleagues found that fresher CWD has a positive methane flux, which is similar to how a living tree behaves.

"When a tree falls over, it's still functionally the same in terms of methane emissions. Over time, as it decays, my theory is that it gets colonized by soil bacteria that consume methane and it shifts to behave more like the soil, resulting in a methane sink," said Warner.

The researchers also found that CWD had a high rate of variability when it came to methane emissions.

"As it decays it becomes a lot more variable. Some of the super-decayed wood was still releasing methane but a lot of it was consuming methane," said Warner. "If you have a CWD pool with less diversity regarding the degree of decomposition, you can expect it to play a more uniform role in terms of methane emissions or sinks."
Tree trunks and methane fluxes
While tree trunks have been known to release carbon dioxide, this research showed that they were also releasing methane.

"The tree trunks constantly have low but detectable emissions of methane. Soils are providing an environmental service of sequestering this potent greenhouse gas, but the trunks are releasing methane equivalent to 4 percent of what could be captured by CWD and soils at the ecosystem scale," said Vargas.

Overall, the tree trunks acted as a source of carbon dioxide and as a small source of methane, but the magnitude of gases emitted varied with the species.

Tulip poplar was one species that released a lot of methane and carbon dioxide, whereas beech trees released the most methane within the forest but emitted very little carbon dioxide.

"It might be some species-specific trait that's controlling the flux," said Warner.
Temperature threshold
Temperature also played a key role in regulating the magnitude of the fluxes.

"Methane in soils seem to follow a temperature gradient where higher temperatures are related to higher uptake of methane but that's not necessarily the case for CWD or for tree trunks," said Vargas.

Warner said it's hard to develop a temperature relationship with methane because there are two processes that oppose each other.

"You have things in the soil producing methane -- known as methanogenesis -- things consuming it -- known as methanotrophy -- and so as you warm up, it's more kind of like a shot gun where the magnitudes of methane scatter out more as it gets warmer; suggesting that other factors beyond temperature regulate methane emissions," said Warner.

They found that beyond a threshold of 17 degrees Celsius for soil temperature, the variability of methane consumption expands dramatically.

"Under 17 degrees, temperature is a key driver of methane flux but above 17 degrees, there are other drivers that will influence methane production," said Vargas.
Soil hot spots
As for where the methane originated, Warner said it's still a science frontier, but this study provides enough clues to give the researchers some theories.

The first one is that methane is produced in hot spots in the soil.

"By hot spot, we mean a place where conditions are conducive to methane production and then that methane is sucked up by the tree roots, transported through its vascular system and released out of its trunk," said Warner. "We know that happens in wetlands but in uplands, maybe it happens in one specific spot and nowhere else."

The other mechanism that could be causing methane fluxes from trunks is internal rotting or infection inside the tree, which produces an environment where methanogenic bacteria can survive and then methane diffuses out of the tree.

"At this moment, the mechanisms of methane production in upland forests are not clear. Methane can be either transported from the soils upward inside the stem and diffused to the atmosphere or produced inside the stem by fungi or archaea -- single-celled microorganisms," said Vargas.
Next steps
Both Warner and Vargas agreed that the next steps should be to test the generality of these observations across different forests, and identify the mechanisms of methane production and transport in tree trunks. Finally, they suggest that global and ecosystem models should take into account methane produced from tree trunks as a new source of methane to the atmosphere.

"When people develop ecosystem to global scale methane budgets, there's always a chunk in which it is uncertain from where that methane is coming. Methane emissions by vegetation and tree trunks are seen as a newly-considered source that might bring that budget closer in to our estimates. It's good to keep chipping away at that," said Warner.

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trees; soil types; nature; botany; global warming; climate; forest; renewable energy

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Methane emissions from trees: Tree trunks act as methane source in upland forests

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A new study from the University of Delaware is one of the first in the world to show that tree trunks in upland forests actually emit methane rather than store it, representing a new, previously unaccounted source of this powerful greenhouse gas.