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Da sistemare, organizzare meglio, vi siete concentrate sulla teoria del colore, bene, aggiungere opere di op art che la investigano. Uno dei video ha un inglese incomprensibile

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Da sistemare, organizzare meglio, vi siete concentrate sulla teoria del colore, bene, aggiungere opere di op art che la investigano. Uno dei video ha un inglese incomprensibile

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modern discovery in colors

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Scientists have identified an invisible eighth colour in the rainbow, a discovery that could have wide-ranging implications on the nature of military camouflage and modern espionage.

It's after noon... so check the date

The discovery of the new 'basic' colour in the spectrum of light was made by physicists at the Randall Monroe University in West Virginia, who were investigating the properties of 'slow light'; packets of photons that are fired through a cloud of ultracold sodium atoms, colliding with the light and slowing it to roughly 17mph.

This light was then funnelled through a series of carbon nanotubes in which the angle of incidence (the measure of how far the light beam deviates from aiming 'straight on') was enough to bounce the photos back on themselves, effectively 'bunching' the light waves together.

"Really, all it took was a bit of lateral thinking," said Dr Flora Padyolis, a professor in elementary wave physics at the institution and a lead author on the new study. "If you imagine the spectrum of visible light as analogous to sound waves with each named colour corresponding to a musical note, then what we've done is to approach the problem from an entirely new angle, taking what people previously thought was a C natural and listening to it like a B sharp," she said.

Experts say the colour, which has yet to be named, can be thought of as the first addition to the traditional spectrum since Isaac Newton first successfully split white light using a triangular prism in 1671.

The team from West Virginia are quick to point out this new colour "won't be appearing as a crayon" any time soon, and that the shade is best thought of in similar terms to 'grue' and 'bleen'; the portmanteau words used by linguists to convey the difficulty some languages have differentiating between blue and green.

Online, speculation focused on the supposition this new colour could be the key breakthrough necessary in the invention of a "invisibility cloak".

While current designs rely on physically bending light around an object or shielding it from a small portion of the spectrum, scientists suggest that simply bathing the target in this previously unseen colour could have dramatic results.

"If we haven't seen this colour before, how will other people see things we paint it with?" said Dr Padyolis.

The relative simplicity of the new technology could also impact on the consumer market, as researchers claim accessing the colour does not cost "extortionate" amounts. The fashion world is said to be particularly excited.

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Scientists discover invisible eighth colour of the rainbow

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Scientists have identified an invisible eighth colour in the rainbow, a discovery that could have wide-ranging implications on the nature of military camouflage and modern espionage. It's after noon...

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experiment of newton

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Our modern understanding of light and color begins with Isaac Newton (1642-1726) and a series of experiments that he publishes in 1672. He is the first to understand the rainbow - he refracts white light with a prism, resolving it into its component colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet.

In the late 1660s, Newton starts experimenting with his 'celebrated phenomenon of colors.' At the time, people thought that color was a mixture of light and darkness, and that prisms colored light. Hooke was a proponent of this theory of color, and had a scale that went from brilliant red, which was pure white light with the least amount of darkness added, to dull blue, the last step before black, which was the complete extinction of light by darkness. Newton realizes this theory was false.

Newton set up a prism near his window, and projected a beautiful spectrum 22 feet onto the far wall. Further, to prove that the prism was not coloring the light, he refracted the light back together.

Artists were fascinated by Newton's clear demonstration that light alone was responsible for color. His most useful idea for artists was his conceptual arrangement of colors around the circumference of a circle (right), which allowed the painters' primaries (red, yellow, blue) to be arranged opposite their complementary colors (e.g. red opposite green), as a way of denoting that each complementary would enhance the other's effect through optical contrast.

This circular diagram became the model for many color systems of the 18th and 19th centuries. Claude Boutet's painter's circle of 1708 was probably the first to be based on Newton's circle.

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Our modern understanding of light and color begins with Isaac Newton (1642-1726) and a series of experiments that he publishes in 1672. He is the first to understand the rainbow - he refracts white light with a prism, resolving it into its component colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet.

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color theory in physics

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INTRODUCTION.
Color is one of the principle elements of the visual arts. It is useful for artists to understand how colors are formed as well as how they are perceived. For the purposes of this class we will look first at color theory and then use this knowledge to explore why one chemical compound will give one color while a second compound generates another color. We will also look briefly at spectroscopy, a means of looking at the variations of intensities in light of different wavelengths across the whole spectrum of visible light. Here we will pay particular attention to the wavelengths of light that have been removed from the overall spectrum by interaction with matter. Chemists can use this technique as a way of determining which compounds are present, as a way of investigating the structure of compounds that are present, or as a means to determine how much of a particular compound is present. This technique can and will be used by us to look at a variety of pigments in egg tempera paints when we make color wheels in our class-wide experiment.
COLOR AND LIGHT
We begin by asking, "What happens when we see? What physics events are involved?" These are a ancient questions which philosophers such as Aristotle, Ptolemy and Galen tried to addressed. The common viewpoint passed down to European thinkers by medival times held that rays of came out of the viewer's eye, and when these rays hit an object, they would send back the image to the viewer's eye. But Europe was far behind the Islamic World in scintific thought and technology.
The 10th Century Arab scientist-philosopher Al Hazen found that the common view, the one one held in Europe, was preposterous. He developed an alternative theory in which light traveled in straight lines and that the light emanated from sources such as the sun or a candle instead of the viewer's eye. When this light hit an object the reflected rays carried its image to the viewer's eye. When these rays entered the pupils of the eye, they are focused as the point of a visual cone. This idea was adopted in the Renaissance by artists such as Brunellschi who developed the principles of perspective. More importantly for our discussion of color, Al Hazen investigated the origins of the rainbow using glass spheres filled with water. He found that as the light was refracted by the water, the angle of refraction of separate rays of various components of the light were different. Rays of red light were bent least and blue rays of light were bent most. Thus a "spectrum" of different colored lights that matched the rainbow was produced.

NEWTON'S EXPERIMENT AND HIS COLOR WHEEL
We'll jump ahead a few centuries. At the age of 23, Isaac Newton reinvestigated this same dispersion of white sunlight into a rainbow of colors. Newton had quarantined himself in his rooms to avoid the plague that was raging through England at the time. When he held a prism of glass in the path of a beam of sunlight coming through a hole in the blind of his darkened room, he observed that the white sunlight was split into red, orange, yellow, green, cyan and blue light. But Newton observed something no one else had because he extended the experiment. Using prisms and mirrors, he discovered that when the light from three separate parts of his rainbow, the red, green, and blue regions, were recombined they would regenerate white light. He called these the primary colors. When any two of these were combined, secondary colors were formed. When he combined blue and green light, he observed light the color of cyan. Green and red light mixed to give yellow light. In both of these cases, Newton apparently regenerated light in another portion of the natural spectrum. But when he combined red and blue light from his prisms, Newton observed a colored light, magenta, that was not found in the natural visible spectrum. Newton organized his findings in a color wheel showing the three "primary colors" -- red, green, and blue -- separated by the three "secondary colors" -- yellow, cyan, and magenta. Since magenta was a non-spectral color of light, its origins posed a mystery.

THE MAGENTA QUESTION AND HUMAN VISION
In 1802, Thomas Young, an English physician who had a burning desire to understand the nature of light, made progress in solving this magenta puzzle. Young first demonstrated that he could generate any colors that could be seen by mixing differing proportions of the three primary colors of light. For example, you could mix two parts of red light with one part of green light to get an orange color. Using more green light than red light, you saw a yellow-green light. Young took his observations a step further: he hypothesized that the human eye perceives only Newton's three primary colors, red, green, and blue, and that the eye perceived all of the variations in color by combining these internally. When the both red and blue light but no green light enters your eye, you "see" magenta even though the light is not magenta. A combination of red and green, gives the perception of yellow while our eyes turn blue and green light into cyan.
Young's work had the form of a hypothesis. It remained for the physiological psychologist Hermann von Helmholtz a century later to postulate the existence of three types of color receptors, called cones, in the human eye that are stimulated by broad regions of the visible spectrum. Red light in one of these regions stimulated one type of cone, green light from the middle region could stimulate a second type of cone, and blue light in the final region stimulated the remaining cone. The relative degree of stimulation of these cones gives us perception of all of the colors that we see. We perceive sunlight as "white" because radiate from each of the three of the parts of the visible spectrum (red, green, and blue) stimulate the three cones in our eyes. If an object reflects red and green light but not blue light, my eyes will see it as yellow. If a second object reflects just red and blue light, my eyes will see it as magenta. Yet another object reflecting just blue and green light appears cyan colored.

RGB COMPUTER MONITORS
We can observe how this works if we look closely at a computer monitor or a color television. The inside of the screen is coated with dots of chemical compounds called phosphors that will emit red, green, and blue light when they are stimulated by electrons fired in focused beams from three separate "guns" at the back of the tube. When you see a patch of yellow on the computer screen, the red and green phosphors at a cluster of these dots are excited and emit light while the blue phosphor in the cluster remains unstimulated. We see the combination of red and green light as yellow light. If you use a magnifying glass to look at the colored regions below, you will see the individual phosphors lit up. NOTE AGAIN THAT FROM A DISTANCE THE INDIVIDUAL POINTS OF LIGHT BLEND TOGETHER -- THE LIGHTS ARE MIXED IN THE SAME ADDITIVE WAY THAT NEWTON MIXED HIS COLORED LIGHT.
If you've been reading this skeptically, a good habit in reading, you may be wondering how this can possibly make sense in light of what you learned about colors in kindergarten. At an early age, most of us did a lot of coloring with crayons. We were taught, and soon verified for ourselves, that the primary colors were red, blue, and yellow. Using our crayons, we could combine any two of these to make the secondary colors: blue and red made purple, blue and yellow made green, and red and yellow made orange. The color wheel that we could make with crayons is quite different than Newton's color wheel. The primary colors that we learned in school, were red, blue, and yellow (NOT GREEN).

A CRAYON COLOR WHEEL

This wheel was made in a similar way to that which we are going to construct our egg tempera color wheels: I used only three pigments. These, when used alone, produced the "primary" colors: red (top), blue (lower left), and yellow (lower right). Each of the "secondary colors", green, orange, and purple, were produced by coloring the same wedge with two different crayons. If you look at the wheel critically you'll notice that something is a bit off: the purple wedge appears very "muddy" -- not a nice purple at all -- and the orange wedge is slightly "muddy" as well. (We are going to spend some time considering why some pigments work well together and why others don't. By the end of the class you should be able to explain this to just about anyone.)

The idea embodied in our grade-school color wheel is important. Artists have known for a long time that they could prepare a paint of a third color by mixing paints of two pigments. This is useful only if the results are predictable. And our color wheel does just that. It predicts that mixing blue and yellow gives green. In this particular case, it also tells us that the blue and red crayons in my box don't give an especially vibrant purple. Through experience, painters develop a keen sense of which pigments mix well to produce certain colors, which will give muddy colors or bright colors. In our class project, I want you to get some of the experience of being the painter who uses his eyes to tell him which mixtures of pigments will give useful colors for making paint. I also want you to be the chemist, who can use a conceptual model to explain why some new colors in our wheels are muddy and others aren't. Ultimately, we would like to be able to predict the color that would result from mixing two pigments.

Let's consider for a moment the notion that the colors we see most of the time are the result of some sort of filters subtracting portions of the spectrum. If we had something that would take all of the RED out of WHITE LIGHT, the only two types of cones that would be stimulated in our eyes would be theose sensitive to the green and blue regions and we would see cyan. A cartoon of the three ideal subtractive filters that remove just the red or just the blue or just the green are shown at the right.

What would happen if, there were two filters in sequence?
Site Map / Syllabus

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Color is one of the principle elements of the visual arts. It is useful for artists to understand how colors are formed as well as how they are perceived. For the purposes of this class we will look first at color theory and then use this knowledge to explore why one chemical compound will give one color while a second compound generates another color.

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one of the most famous painter of the movement

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'No painter, dead or alive, has ever made us more aware of our eyes than Bridget Riley.' Robert Melville, 1971

To see examples of Bridget Riley's art visit the Bridget Riley gallery.

Early Life - 1931 - 46

Bridget Riley was born in Norwood, South London in 1931. Her father, John Fisher Riley, originally from Yorkshire, was a printer, as was his father before him. In 1938, her father relocated the printing business to Lincolnshire and the family moved with it.

The family were not to spend long in Lincolnshire. In 1939, when war broke out her father was drafted into the armed services. Bridget, along with her sister, mother and aunt went to live in Cornwall away from the dangers of the blitz.

In Cornwall, Riley had great freedom as a child and spent a lot of her time playing on the cliffs and beaches near Padstow where she lived. She spent hours watching the changing light, colour and cloud formations and stored away what she saw in memory. She has later said that these early memories have had a big impact on her visual awareness throughout her life.

School and University - 1946-55

Drawing and painting became the centre of Bridget Riley's life from an early age and, after her school years at Cheltenham Ladies College (1946-49) she studied at Goldsmiths College, London (1949-52) and later at the Royal College of Art (1952-55).

Her studies were centred round life drawing and she worked mostly in black and white. The image to the right is a very early Bridget Riley, "Nude", which was drawn in conte and pastels around 1951-1952 either whilst still at Goldsmiths or at the start of her time at the Royal College.

Riley's time at the Royal College was confusing and difficult and she found the teaching and direction unrewarding. She was reaching the point where she wanted to establish her own style and express herself in her own way but found herself unable to do so in an institutional framework.

Difficult Years - The Mid- 1950s

Beginning the Recovery - 1957-58

In 1956 Bridget Riley saw an exhibition in London that had a significant impact and helped shape her creative thinking and sense of direction - an exhibition of American Abstract Expressionist painters at the Tate Gallery, the first exhibition of its kind in the country.

Riley moved into teaching and from 1957-1958 she taught art to girls aged 8-18 at the Convent of the Sacred Heart, Harrow, introducing them to the sequences of shape, line and groups of colour, hoping to release their truly creative impulses and to discourage blind copying of the real world.

Bridget started to paint again during this period in a more exploratory style - the main influences being Matisse and Bonnard and she started to visit exhibitions again and renew contact with the art world.

Maurice de Sausmarez - 1958-60

Bridget Riley in Italy - 1960

In the summer of 1960 Bridget Riley travelled, painted and visited galleries in Italy with de Sausmarez and was enchanted by the black and white Romanesque buildings of Pisa and the churches of Ravenna. She also refers to seeing and admiring the work of the Italian Futurist painters Boccioni and Balla.

She was encouraged by her teacher, Maurice de Sausmarez (d 1970), to study the art of Georges-Pierre Seurat. Bridget Riley's "Pink Landscape" (shown to the right) completed in 1960 clearly shows the influence Seurat had on her.

On her return, she took a part-time teaching post Hornsey College of Art (1960-61), under the direction of de Sausmarez. The following year Riley moved to Croydon School of Art (1961-64). She also continued to work part time at J. Walter Thompson (a position she also left in 1964).

The Rise to Success - 1960-65

The Responsive Eye - 1965

Bridget Riley's paintings came to International notice when she exhibited along with Victor Vasarely and others in the Museum of Modern Art in New York at an exhibition called "The Responsive Eye" in 1965. It was one of Riley's paintings that was featured on the cover to the exhibition catalogue.

"The Responsive Eye" was a huge hit with the public but proved to be less popular with the critics, who dismissed the works as trompe l'oeil (literally 'tricks of the eye'). A short film - 'The Responsive Eye' - documenting the opening night of the exhibition was made by Brian de Palma.

Despite the critics, Riley held another wildly popular exhibition at this time in the US, at the Richard Feigen Gallery in New York. Tickets sold out on the first day that they went on sale - a remarkable achievement for an artist who was still in her early thirties.

"Op Art" - 1965

It was around this time that the term 'Op Art' entered the public consciousness. Op Art captured the imagination of the public and became part of the swinging sixties. The fashion, design and advertising industries fell in love with its graphic, sign-like patterns and decorative value. Op Art was cool, and Bridget Riley became Great Britain's number one art celebrity.

The basis of the Op Art movement was a form of geometric abstraction, which was in a way impersonal and not obviously related to the real world. "I couldn't get near what I wanted through seeing, recognizing and recreating, so I stood the problem on its head. I started studying squares, rectangles, triangles and the sensations they give rise to... It is untrue that my work depends on any literary impulse or has any illustrative intention. The marks on the canvas are sole and essential agents in a series of relationships which form the structure of the painting." (Bridget Riley)

The Emergence of Colour - 1967

"The music of colour, that's what I want" (Bridget Riley)

Riley's introduction of colour to her work was something she was cautious of. The black and white paintings depended on the disruption of stable elements. No such stable basis could be found for colour as the perception of colour is relative - each colour affects and is affected by the colours next to it. Over time, she began to accept this inherent instability and made it the basis of her work.

From 1967 onwards Riley increasingly began to use colour. She also started to use more stabilised forms - often simple vertical straight or wavy lines. It was the positioning of the colour itself that produced the feel of movement she wanted to convey. The colour groupings affected the spaces between them to produce fleeting glimpses of other colours and hence the illusion of movement.

Colour in Action - The 1970s

The Egyptian Connection - 1981

In 1981 she visited Egypt and was enchanted by the colours used by ancient Egyptian art. 'The colours are purer and more brilliant than any I had used before,' she wrote.

In the 'life-giving arrangement of colours' the Egyptians had used for over 3000 years Riley had found a group of colours which worked perfectly as a colour scheme. They retained their individual brilliance and still generated new colours and light effects in the spaces between the colour groups. With these colours she felt she had found the intensity of colour and the shimmer of light she had always searched for.

Prior to this point the use of colour in Riley's work was ordered and its progression could be followed across the canvas. The 'Egyptian' paintings mark the beginnings of free colour organisation, something that she uses to the current day.

Bridget Riley - Work outside of the Studio - 1982-83

The Lozenge Paintings - The Mid- 1980s and 1990s

The mid- 1980s saw Bridget Riley's work move progressively away from a build up of sensation giving rise to a perceptual response, and instead towards an art of pure visual sensation, treating form and colour as 'ultimate identities', as things in themselves. Units of colour were arranged according to principles of relation and chromatic interaction, but increasingly were connected to the implication of rhythm, space and depth.

Riley began to incorporate diagonal 'lozenge' elements rising from left to right which cut across the verticals, shattering the picture plane. Planes of colour alternately advance and recede, giving rise to contrasts in colour, tone, density and direction.

Of this period Riley said: "I try to take sensation as the guiding line and build, with the relationships it demands, a plastic fabric which has no other raison d'etre except to accommodate the sensation its solicits."

Late period - 2000 to date

Bridget Riley in the Studio - How she works

Bridget Riley's major paintings are very large and may take six to nine months to develop, almost to evolve. She begins by making small colour studies in gouache. Riley hand mixes all of the paints as the exact hue and intensity is vital and must be kept constant.

Successful studies lead to a full size paper and gouache cartoon which prefigures the final work. These are then enlarged, ruled up, under-painted with acrylic and over-painted in oils. Everything is painted by hand - no rulers, masking tape or mechanical means are used when actually applying the paints. Riley has worked with assistants since the 1960s because of the large scale and the need for great precision.

Bridget Riley CBE is a trustee of the National Gallery in London.

Bridget Riley on Rhythm and Repetition

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'No painter, dead or alive, has ever made us more aware of our eyes than Bridget Riley.' Robert Melville, 1971 To see examples of Bridget Riley's art visit the Bridget Riley gallery. Early Life - 1931 - 46 Bridget Riley was born in Norwood, South London in 1931.

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color theory of optical art

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Generically optical art

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Synopsis

Artists have been intrigued by the nature of perception and by optical effects and illusions for many centuries. They have often been a central concern of art, just as much as themes drawn from history or literature. But in the 1950s these preoccupations, allied to new interests in technology and psychology, blossomed into a movement. Op, or Optical, art typically employs abstract patterns composed with a stark contrast of foreground and background - often in black and white for maximum contrast - to produce effects that confuse and excite the eye. Initially, Op shared the field with Kinetic art - Op artists being drawn to virtual movement, Kinetic artists attracted by the possibility of real motion. Both styles were launched with Le Mouvement, a group exhibition at Galerie Denise Rene in 1955. It attracted a wide international following, and after it was celebrated with a survey exhibition in 1965, The Responsive Eye, at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, it caught the public's imagination and led to a craze for Op designs in fashion and the media. To many, it seemed the perfect style for an age defined by the onward march of science, by advances in computing, aerospace, and television. But art critics were never so supportive of it, attacking its effects as gimmicks, and today it remains tainted by those dismissals.

Key Ideas

The Op art movement was driven by artists who were interested in investigating various perceptual effects. Some did so out of sheer enthusiasm for research and experiment, some with the distant hope that the effects they mastered might find a wide public and hence integrate modern art into society in new ways. Rather like the geometric art from which it had sprung, Op art seemed to supply a style that was highly appropriate to modern society.

Although Op can be seen as the successor to geometric abstraction, its stress on illusion and perception suggests that it might also have older ancestors. It may descend from effects that were once popular with Old Masters, such as trompe l'oeil (French: "deceive the eye"). Or indeed from anamorphosis, the effect by which images are contorted so that objects are only fully recognizable when viewed from an oblique angle. Or, equally, Op may simply be a child of modern decoration.

During its years of greatest success in the mid-1960s, the movement was sometimes said to encompass a wide range of artists whose interests in abstraction had little to do with perception. Some, such as Joseph Albers, who were often labeled as Op artists, dismissed it. Yet the fact that the label could seem to apply to so many artists demonstrates how important the nuances of vision have been throughout modern art.

Long after Op art's demise, its reputation continues to hang in the balance. Some critics continue to characterize its designs as "retinal titillations." But others have recently argued that the style represented a kind of abstract Pop art, one which emulated the dazzle of consumer society but which refused, unlike Pop artists like Andy Warhol, to celebrate its icons.

Most Important Art

Read More ...

Op Art Artworks in Focus:

Op Art Overview Continues Below

Beginnings

The term "Op art" may have been first used by artist and writer Donald Judd, in a review of an exhibition of "Optical Paintings" by Julian Stanczak. But it was made popular by its use in a 1964 Time magazine article, and its origins date back many years. One could see its roots in 19th century art and color theory, in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's writings on color, and particularly in the Neo-impressionist paintings of Georges Seurat.

However, the style we now know as Op emerged from the work of Victor Vasarely, who first explored unusual perceptual effects in some designs from the 1930s. It was given a further boost by the group show Le Mouvement at Galerie Denise Rene in Paris in 1955, and later by a series of international exhibitions exploring what was known for a time as the "New Tendency." Vasarely's work soon attracted followers across the world: Bridget Riley, who, like Vasarely, had worked in advertising, took up the style (soon achieving even more prominence than Vasarely) and many South American artists, mainly residing in Paris, also worked in an Op mode.

The pinnacle of the movement's success was 1965, when the Museum of Modern Art embraced the style with the exhibition The Responsive Eye, which showcased 123 paintings and sculptures by artists such as Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley, Frank Stella, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Jesus Rafael Soto, and Josef Albers. Many museum attendees were intrigued by the collision of art and science, but critics such as Clement Greenberg were vehemently opposed to the movement. The breadth of exhibitions such as The Responsive Eye also cast doubt on the movement, since by including artists such as Frank Stella, whose interests were so different from those of Vasarely, the label seemed almost too broad to be useful or plausible.

Concepts and Styles

Op artists were typically concerned with the behavior of the eye, and they developed abstract compositions to explore a variety of optical phenomena. After-images, moire effects, dazzling, and all kinds of other effects resulting from the eye's struggle to read an image were of interest to them. The movement never produced a coherent body of ideas, and the range and scope of its artists' interests made the Op art label seem very flexible. Yet the fact that the label could embrace them shows how important vision and its effects have been throughout modern art.

Typically, Op artists used only black and white in order to produce the greatest contrast in their designs, since this contrast causes the greatest confusion for the eye, which struggles to discern which element of the composition is in the foreground and which in the background. But color was also a focus of attention at times, as in Vasarely's Plastic Alphabet series (1960-1980). The ways in which color suggests space, and the ways colors contrast with one another, proved fertile areas for experiment.

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Op Art Overview Continues

Later Developments

Although the highly complex perceptual effects created by Op artists were embraced by the general public, many art critics considered the phenomena to be a fleeting and somewhat gimmicky trend. Commercial success may have led to the decline of the movement, in particular after some artists discovered that their work designs were borrowed by American clothing manufacturers. Op art elements were also translated into posters, t-shirts and book illustrations. Audiences who initially embraced the movement later denounced it as nothing more than tricks of the eye. Although the movement lost popularity by 1968, the systematic optical effects continue to be explored in visual art and architecture.

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Op Art Movement, Artists and Major Works

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Artists have been intrigued by the nature of perception and by optical effects and illusions for many centuries. They have often been a central concern of art, just as much as themes drawn from history or literature. But in the 1950s these preoccupations, allied to new interests in technology and psychology, blossomed into a movement.