# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it.

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
BAD BOY (;

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud.

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
Tornadoes are vertical funnels of rapidly spinning air. Their winds may top 250 miles (400 kilometers) an hour and can clear a pathway a mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and 50 miles (80 kilometers) long.

Twisters are born in thunderstorms and are often accompanied by hail. Giant, persistent thunderstorms called supercells spawn the most destructive tornadoes.

These violent storms occur around the world, but the United States is a major hotspot with about a thousand tornadoes every year.

"Tornado Alley," a region that includes the area in the eastern state of South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, northern Texas, and eastern Colorado, is home to the most powerful and destructive of these storms. U.S. tornadoes cause 80 deaths and more than 1,500 injuries per year.

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
Supercells are the type of thunderstorm that are usually liable for spawning tornadoes.

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
Over two thousands tornadoes occur worldwide each year, with the majority of these tornadoes occurring in the United States, which means 3 out of 4 tornadoes occurring in the United States.

The term tornado alley refers to an area or region that has a high occurrence of tornadoes.

The tornado scale used to measure tornadoes in the U.S. is the Enhanced Fujita Scale, which replaced the original Fujita Scale in 2007.

About 80% of all tornadoes that occur in the United States are EF0 and EF1 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale, less than 1% of all torandoes in the United States are in the violent EF4 or EF5 category.

The most recording breaking tornado in history was the Tri-State Tornado. It traveled for 235 miles and last for over 3 hours before dissipating, with winds reaching near 300 miles per hour.

Tornado warnings have a 70% false alarm rate.

The British were driven out of Washington D.C. on August 25th, 1814 due to a tornado. This was likely what prevented the British from doing any more damage to Washington DC. The day before the tornado struck the British burned the White House and a large part of the city.

While a tornado can occur at any time they most frequently occur between 3:00pm and 9:00pm.

During the Dixie Tornado outbreak a home was completely destroyed in Columbiana, but a kitchen tablet that was in the home remained standing upright and had 36 unbroken eggs on top of it.

Alaska has been struck by tornadoes, but only 2 have been recorded, once in 1950 and once in 2006. Both tornadoes were only F0/EF0 on the tornado scale.

The largest tornado outbreak was in 2011 on April 25th, 26th, 27th and 28th. The National Weather Service reported a total of 355 tornadoes during this 4 day timespan.

A tornado that struck Great Bend, Kansas in 1915 had driven wooden splinters into an iron fire hydrant. Imagine that, wooden splinters driven into a cast iron fire hydrant!

The first tornado ever recorded in Europe was in 1054 in Ireland.

The first tornado ever recorded in North America was in 1521 in Mexico.

Matt Suter holds the record for being carried the longest distance by a tornado and live to tell about it. He was carried 1,300+ feet according to the National Weather Service.

The town of Codell, Kanas was hit by a tornado on the same exact date, three consecutive years in a row; May 20th 1916, 1917 and 1918.

The town of Tanner, Alabama was hit by two F5 tornadoes that occurred only 45 minutes apart.

Popular and dangerous Tornado myths are recirculated by the media every year resulting in unnecessary fatalities each year.

The first undisputed F5/EF5 tornado occurred on June 29th, 1764 in Woldegk, Germany.

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
The deadliest tornado ever recorded  was the Bangladesh killing 1,300 people in the Dhaka Region and destroying 20 villages.

# data[].attributes.body
Dr.fujita created the F scale that ranges from F0 to F12 ,but he did not expect tornadoes to reach F6 because F12 = the speed of mach

# data[].attributes.body
FRICKING TORNADOE
FRICKING TORNADOE
favorite_border
0


Add comment
Most tornadoes i
 Most tornad
oes in the Northern Hemisphere rotate/turn “cyclonically,” counterclockwise. Tornadoes that occur in the Southern Hemisphere still turn “cyclonically” as well, but south of the equator, cyclonic storms rotateclockwise.
favorite_border
0


Add comment

# data[].attributes.body
Most tornadoes only last for a few minutes.

# data[].attributes.body
The damage path of a tornado is usually less than 1,600 feet wide.

Are tornadoes getting stronger? 01:44

Most tornadoes move at less than 35 miles per hour.

Most tornadoes last only a few minutes.

The most destructive and deadly tornadoes occur from supercells, which are rotating thunderstorms with a well-defined radar circulation called a mesocyclone. Supercells can also produce damaging hail, severe non-tornadic winds, unusually frequent lightning, and flash floods.

A tornado over a body of water is called a "waterspout."

The United States has the highest number of tornado occurrences in the world with an average of more than 1,000 tornadoes reported each year.

According to the National Weather Service, in 2016 there were 17 tornado-related deaths in the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
Most tornad
oes in the Northern Hemisphere rotate/turn “cyclonically,” counterclockwise. Tornadoes that occur in the Southern Hemisphere still turn “cyclonically” as well, but south of the equator, cyclonic storms rotateclockwise.

# data[].attributes.body
I LIKE TURTLES !) !) !) !)

# data[].attributes.body
i like tutrtles (::::::::::;

# data[].attributes.body
In 1931 a tornado in Mississippi lifted an 83 ton train and tossed it 80 feet from the track.

# data[].attributes.body
Tornadoes can be up to 50 miles long.

# data[].attributes.body
the fastest wind speeds in a tornado, or on earth, is 302 +- 20 miles per hou

# data[].attributes.body
People can actually survive after being in a tornado

# data[].attributes.body
Tornadoes happen on flat grounds

# data[].attributes.body
Damage paths of tornadoes can be in excess of one mile wide and 50 miles long.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1928, a tornado in Kansas plucked the feathers right off some chickens.

# data[].attributes.body
Hey guys scarce here

# data[].attributes.body
The Fujita Scale is a common way of measuring the strength of tornadoes. The scale ranges from F0 tornadoes that cause minimal damage through to F5 tornadoes which cause massive damage.

Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 100 miles per hour (161 kilometres per hour).

# data[].attributes.body
Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it.

# data[].attributes.body
A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air that extends from the base of a thunderstorm to the earth's surface.

# data[].attributes.body
Tornado winds can reach 300 mph

# data[].attributes.body
2 / 15

VIEW IMAGES

A rare mother ship cloud formation hovers over Childress, Texas. Tornado chasers there spent seven hours and 150 miles (240 kilometers) tracking the supercell thunderstorm that produced this cloud formation. Supercell thunderstorms are known to spawn tornadoes with winds exceeding 200 miles an hour (322 kilometers an hour).PHOTOGRAPH BY CARSTEN PETER, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

One tornado chaser with a camera poses while his partner gets into their truck as a tornado approaches in South Dakota. South Dakota had 35 tornadoes in 2009, and is part of "Tornado Alley," an area of the Midwest United States that sees more tornadoes than the rest of the country.PHOTOGRAPH BY CARSTEN PETER, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

Storm-stained skies hover over the remains of a mobile home demolished by a passing tornado. Tornadoes kill about 60 people in the U.S. every year and cause billions of dollars of property damage.PHOTOGRAPH BY CARSTEN PETER, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

A photographer caught this extreme close-up of a tornado funnel in Manchester, South Dakota. The combination of high winds, flying debris, and loud noise of the tornado would have made this photographer very uncomfortable.PHOTOGRAPH BY CARSTEN PETER, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

Heavy clouds hang low over a dilapidated homestead in the Midwest, foretelling a possible tornado. Tornadoes form when the updrafts of air that supply storms with warm, humid air become a vortex, or high-speed whirlwind.PHOTOGRAPH BY CARSTEN PETER, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

An EF5 tornado threw a van into a hotel in Greensburg, Kansas. An EF5 tornado produces winds greater than 200 miles per hour (322 kilometers per hour), and can pick up and throw vehicles and destroy buildings with ease.PHOTOGRAPH BY MIKE THEISS, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

A waterspout touches down near a boat near Dubrovnik, Croatia, in August 2007. Waterspouts are weak tornadoes that happen over warm water. They can move onto land and become tornadoes.PHOTOGRAPH BY DANIEL PAVLINOVIC, MY SHOT

A thin funnel cloud touches down in a field in northwest Iowa. Funnel clouds become tornadoes once they touch the ground.PHOTOGRAPH BY MELANIE METZ, MY SHOT

A man throws a stuffed animal to his wife as they clean up the debris from their apartment, damaged by a February 2008 tornado over Lafayette, Tennessee.PHOTOGRAPH BY JIM WATSON, AFP/GETTY IMAGES

Several homes in a row were destroyed by a May 2008 tornado in Parkersburg, Iowa. Tornadoes can completely destroy some buildings while leaving others intact, depending on their construction. Mobile homes are notoriously flimsy in tornadoes.PHOTOGRAPH BY STEVE POPE, GETTY IMAGES

A category F3 tornado swirls across a South Dakota prairie. The F (Fujita) scale was used to measure wind speeds based on damage left behind after a tornado, and an F3 tornado had wind speeds between 158 and 206 miles an hour (254 to 332 kilometers an hour). The United States now uses the EF (Enhanced Fujita) scale, which takes more variables into account when assigning wind speeds to a tornado. An EF3 tornado now has wind speeds between 136-165 miles per hour (218-266 kilometers per hour), and the tornado pictured could be an EF3, EF4 or EF5.PHOTOGRAPH BY CARSTEN PETER, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

A woman searches the wreckage of her mother's house in Arkansas after a tornado removed the roof. Forecasters in the United States can give an average warning time of 13 minutes before a tornado hits. The best place to be in a tornado is in a basement or interior room of the lowest floor of a sturdy building.PHOTOGRAPH BY RICK GERSHON, GETTY IMAGES

A Kansas vehicle license plate impaled on a tree after an EF5 tornado struck Greensburg, Kansas. Flying debris is the main cause of injuries and deaths in tornadoes.PHOTOGRAPH BY MIKE THEISS, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

A woman looks through a broken window of a friend's house after a tornado over Atkins, Arkansas. Despite a myth that says otherwise, opening windows to equalize the pressure between the inside and outside of a house during a tornado will not prevent them from breaking. Flying debris is the main cause of broken windows in tornadoes.PHOTOGRAPH BY RICK GERSHON, GETTY IMAGES

A broken safety glass window frames a destroyed house after an EF5 tornado struck Greensburg, Kansas.PHOTOGRAPH BY MIKE THEISS, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

Tornadoes are vertical funnels of rapidly spinning air. Their winds may top 250 miles (400 kilometers) an hour and can clear a pathway a mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and 50 miles (80 kilometers) long.

Twisters are born in thunderstorms and are often accompanied by hail. Giant, persistent thunderstorms called supercells spawn the most destructive tornadoes.

These violent storms occur around the world, but the United States is a major hotspot with about a thousand tornadoes every year.

# data[].attributes.body
1. A tornado is as a rotating, funnel-shaped cloud that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground with whirling winds that can reach 300 mph.

# data[].attributes.body
1.) Each tornado is ranked on a scale of one to five one being the least harmful and five being incredibly deadly.

2.) Moore Oklahoma  is considered one the most unlucky place in the world because it was hit by two Ef-5 tornadoes tornadoes in two years.

3) Tornadoes do not just form on land they also form on water they are the most powerful class of storm.

4) Tornadoes are capable of prying a house off it's foundation and hurling it over 300 feet.

5)

# data[].attributes.body
3 out of every 4 tornadoes in the world happen in the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
The town of Tanner, Alabama was hit by two F5 tornadoes that occurred only 45 minutes apart.

Matt Suter holds the record for being carried the longest distance by a tornado and live to tell about it. He was carried 1,300+ feet according to the National Weather Service.

The town of Codell, Kansas was hit by a tornado on the same exact date, three consecutive years in a row; May 20th 1916, 1917 and 1918.During the Dixie Tornado outbreak a home was completely destroyed in Columbiana, but a kitchen tablet that was in the home remained standing upright and had 36 unbroken eggs on top of it.

Alaska has been struck by tornadoes, but only 2 have been recorded, once in 1950 and once in 2006. Both tornadoes were only F0/EF0 on the tornado scale.

The largest tornado outbreak was in 2011 on April 25th, 26th, 27th and 28th. The National Weather Service reported a total of 355 tornadoes during this 4 day timespan.

The most recording breaking tornado in history was the Tri-State Tornado. It traveled for 235 miles and last for over 3 hours before dissipating, with winds reaching near 300 miles per hour.

Tornado warnings have a 70% false alarm rate.Over two thousands tornadoes occur worldwide each year, with the majority of these tornadoes occurring in the United States, which means 3 out of 4 tornadoes occurring in the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
1. A tornado is as a rotating, funnel-shaped cloud that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground with whirling winds that can reach 300 mph.

2. Damage paths of tornadoes can be in excess of one mile wide and 50 miles long.

3. Tornadoes can accompany tropical storms and hurricanes once on land. Its super important to be prepared for a tornado, so make sure you have a disaster plan for your pets too! Sign up for Save Our Pets.

4. Rotating thunderstorms are the best predictors of tornado activity.They are well defined thunderstorms on radar that may include hail, severe winds, lightning, or flash floods.

5. Tornadoes can occur when a warm front meets a cold front, forming a thunderstorm, which then can spawn 1 or more “twisters."

# data[].attributes.body
There is no safe option when caught in a tornado in a car, just slightly less-dangerous ones. If the tornado is visible, far away, and the traffic is light, you may be able to drive out of its path by moving at right angles to the tornado. Seek shelter in a sturdy building, or underground if possible.

# data[].attributes.body
the Tri-state tornado was the deadliest tornado in US history

# data[].attributes.body
Over two thousands tornadoes occur worldwide each year, with the majority of these tornadoes occurring in the United States, which means 3 out of 4 tornadoes occurring in the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

# data[].attributes.body
 This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected
Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).
For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.
Tornado
April 14, 2012 Marquette, Kansas EF4 tornado.JPG
A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.
Sign	A large spinning/twirling funnel.
Type	Extreme
Cloud of origin	Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.
Effect	Death, injury, and damage.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season Wet season
Storms
Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Gale Sirocco Firestorm Lightning Supercell Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Thundersnow Storm surge Tornado Cyclone Mesocyclone Anticyclone Tropical cyclone (Hurricane) Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Atlantic Hurricane Typhoon Derecho Landspout Dust devil Fire whirl Waterspout Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle) Graupel Hail Ice pellets (Diamond dust) Rain (Freezing rain) Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river Atmospheric convection Air pollution Climate Cloud Fog Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather Weather forecasting
Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Weather portal
v t e
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.

Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.

There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]


A tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.

A tornado near Eads, Colorado.

All tornadoes in the US, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest F-scale on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source NOAA Storm Prediction Center.
Contents  [hide] 
1	Etymology
2	Definitions
2.1	Funnel cloud
2.2	Outbreaks and families
3	Characteristics
3.1	Size and shape
3.2	Appearance
3.3	Rotation
3.4	Sound and seismology
3.5	Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
4	Life cycle
4.1	Supercell relationship
4.2	Formation
4.3	Maturity
4.4	Dissipation
5	Types
5.1	Multiple vortex
5.2	Waterspout
5.3	Landspout
5.4	Similar circulations
5.4.1	Gustnado
5.4.2	Dust devil
5.4.3	Fire whirls
5.4.4	Steam devils
6	Intensity and damage
7	Climatology
7.1	Associations with climate and climate change
8	Detection
8.1	Radar
8.2	Storm spotting
8.3	Visual evidence
9	Extremes
10	Safety
11	Myths and misconceptions
12	Ongoing research
13	Gallery
14	See also
15	References
16	Further reading
17	External links
Etymology
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm". This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder". It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn"); however, this may be a folk etymology.[12][13] A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister", and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.[14][15] The term "cyclone" is used as a synonym for "tornado" in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister" is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister.

Definitions

A tornado near Seymour, Texas 1979
A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud".[16] For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.[5] Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.[17][18]

Funnel cloud
Main article: Funnel cloud

This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.[19]

There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.[20] Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.[5]

Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.[5]

Outbreaks and families
Main articles: Tornado family, tornado outbreak, and tornado outbreak sequence
Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family".[21] Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[16][22][23]

Characteristics
Size and shape

A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.[24] Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes.

Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km/h), the circulation is considered a tornado.[17] A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large single-vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges". The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.[25]


A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh, Oklahoma.
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum.[26] Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.[27]

In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km).[24] However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.[24] On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.[4][28]

In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.[22] In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.[29]

Appearance
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.[24]


Photographs of the Waurika, Oklahoma tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit with the sunlight focused from behind the camera, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.[30]
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back-lit" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.[14][31]

Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free,[32] making them visible.[33] Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.[22] Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.

There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.[34][35][36]

Rotation
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.[37][38] Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.[39]

Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.[40] On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.[41]

Sound and seismology

An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the Earth System Research Laboratory's Infrasound Program
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.

The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".[42]

Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.[43]

Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.[44]

Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.[45] Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.[46]

Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected.[45][47][48] There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.[49] Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena.

Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.[50]

Life cycle
Further information: Tornadogenesis

A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near Dimmitt, Texas, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.
Supercell relationship
See also: Supercell
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1–6 miles (1.6–9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.

Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.[17]

Formation
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.[17][51]

Maturity
Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.[52] Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.[17]

Dissipation
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.[22][30][31] Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.[26]

As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.

Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.[53]

Types
Multiple vortex
Main article: Multiple-vortex tornado

A multiple-vortex tornado outside Dallas, Texas on April 2, 1957.
A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.[5][17] This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.[5]

Waterspout
Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout near the Florida Keys in 1969.
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea.[54][55][56] In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.[57] In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.[5][58]

Landspout
Main article: Landspout
A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.[5][17]

Similar circulations
Gustnado
Main article: Gustnado
A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.[5][59] They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.

Dust devil
Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil in Arizona
A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.[24][60]

Fire whirls
Main article: Fire whirl
Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.[22]

Steam devils
Main article: Steam devil
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.[24]

Intensity and damage
Main article: Tornado intensity and damage
See also: Enhanced Fujita scale, Fujita scale, and TORRO scale
Tornado rating classifications[22][61]
F0
EF0	F1
EF1	F2
EF2	F3
EF3	F4
EF4	F5
EF5
Weak	Strong	Violent
Significant
Intense
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[5][62][63]


A house displaying EF1 damage. The roof and garage door have been damaged, but walls and supporting structures are still intact.
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.[64] In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.[22]

In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[65] Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively.[66]

Climatology
Main article: Tornado climatology

Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.[67] This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east-west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong,[68] while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley.[69] This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone.[70] Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.[5]

The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.[71] NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.[72] The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer[73][74] and cause minor damage.[67]


Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as Tornado Alley.
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.[75] Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.[75][76] Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.[8][77]

Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.[22] Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.[78] Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[79]

Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.[80] Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm.[81][82][83][84][85] Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.[22]

The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world.[86] Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50,[87] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.[88]

Associations with climate and climate change

U. S. Annual January - December Tornado Count 1976–2011 from NOAA National Climatic Data Center
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.[89]

Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña.[90] Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.[91]

Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity,[92] any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.[93]

Detection

Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857
Main article: Convective storm detection
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes.[94] By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away.[95]

Radar
See also: Pulse-Doppler radar and weather radar
Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.[96] Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.[97]


A Doppler on Wheels radar loop of a hook echo and associated mesocyclone in Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.
Storm spotting
In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.

Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS.[98] There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.[99]

In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.[100] In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe[101] and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.[102]

Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes.[103] Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent.[104] The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.[96]

Visual evidence

A rotating wall cloud with rear flank downdraft clear slot evident to its left rear
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.[65]

Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.[17]

Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.[105]

Extremes
Main article: Tornado records

A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)
The most record-breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).[22] The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.[106]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[75] Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world.

The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States–218 of them within a single 24-hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes.

While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people.[107] Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.[3]

Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.[108] Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.[109]

Safety
Main article: Tornado preparedness
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.[110] In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives.[111]

Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.[112]

Myths and misconceptions
Main article: Tornado myths
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.[113] It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado's damage.[114] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[114][115]


The 1999 Salt Lake City tornado disproved several misconceptions, including the idea that tornadoes cannot occur in cities.
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by.[116] However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design.[116] Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.[117] Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.[118] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[112]

An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival.[114][115]

There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[119] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[120] affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.[24][114][115]

Ongoing research

A Doppler on Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.[121] Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones,[122][123] and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.[78]

Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado,[78] in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.[124]

In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.[125]

Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.[126]

Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.[127] Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.[128]

Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.[45] Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation.[103][129] The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.[130]

Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.[131]

Gallery

A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979
 

F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004
 

The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973
 

A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999
 

F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007
 

A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak
 

A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011
See also
icon	Weather portal
Cultural significance of tornadoes
Cyclone
Derecho
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Hurricane
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Secondary flow
Skipping tornado
Space tornado
Tornado preparedness
Tornadoes of 2018
Typhoon
Whirlwind
References
Jump up ^ "merriam-webster.com". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-6155-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hallam Nebraska Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roger Edwards (2006-04-04). "The Online Tornado FAQ". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-03). "15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornado: Global occurrence". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Roger et al. (May 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. pp. 641-653. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
Jump up ^ Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Frederick C Mish (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87779-709-9. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Marshall (2008-11-09). "The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!". The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes". National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2000). Section:T (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Advanced Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Charles A Doswell III (2001-10-01). "What is a tornado?". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
Jump up ^ Nilton O. Renno (2008-07-03). "A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices" (PDF). Tellus A. International Meteorological Institute in Stockholm. 60 (4): 688–99. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2000-06-30). Funnel cloud (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick (2006). "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2003-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Thomas P Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
Jump up ^ Russell S Schneider; Harold E. Brooks & Joseph T. Schaefer (2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walter A Lyons (1997). "Tornadoes". The Handy Weather Answer Book (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink press. pp. 175–200. ISBN 0-7876-1034-8.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Wedge Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". Bible of Weather Forecasting. Singer Press. 1 (4): 57–58.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-18). "Rope Tornado". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ "May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office – Norman, Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Charles A; III Doswell. "The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925 Reanalysis Project". Archived from the original (Powerpoint Presentation) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Edwards (2009). "Public Domain Tornado Images". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). Target: Tornado (Videotape). The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ "The Basics of Storm Spotting". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from the original on 2003-10-11. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). "Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters". Popular Science. New York NY: Times Mirror Magazines. 213 (1): 76–78. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ R. Monastersky (1999-05-15). "Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record". Science News. pp. 308–309. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alonzo A Justice (1930). "Seeing the Inside of a Tornado" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. pp. 205–6.
Jump up ^ Roy S Hall (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". Tornadoes. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0-7377-1473-5.
Jump up ^ Robert Davies-Jones (1984). "Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms". J. Atmos. Sci. 41 (20): 2991–3006. Bibcode:1984JAtS...41.2991D. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Richard Rotunno, Joseph Klemp; Klemp (1985). "On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms". J. Atmos. Sci. 42 (3): 271–92. Bibcode:1985JAtS...42..271R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Louis J. Wicker, Robert B. Wilhelmson; Wilhelmson (1995). "Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm". J. Atmos. Sci. 52 (15): 2675–703. Bibcode:1995JAtS...52.2675W. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes (2006-04-26). "anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi (2003-01-25). "Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
Jump up ^ Abdul Abdullah (April 1966). "The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 94 (4): 213–20. Bibcode:1966MWRv...94..213A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ David K. Hoadley (1983-03-31). "Tornado Sound Experiences". Storm Track. 6 (3): 5–9. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19.
Jump up ^ A. J. Bedard (January 2005). "Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms". Mon. Wea. Rev. 133 (1): 241–63. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133..241B. doi:10.1175/MWR-2851.1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Howard Bluestein (1999). "A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs". Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 558–77. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..558B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Frank Tatom; Kevin R. Knupp & Stanley J. Vitto (1995). "Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal". J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (2): 572–82. Bibcode:1995JApMe..34..572T. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ John R Leeman, E.D. Schmitter; Schmitter (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". Atmos. Res. 92 (2): 277–9. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..92..277L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029.
Jump up ^ Timothy M. Samaras (October 2004). "A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Antony H Perez; Louis J. Wicker & Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Julian J. Lee; Timothy P. Samaras; Carl R. Young (2004-10-07). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Howard, Brian Clark; 11, National Geographic PUBLISHED May. "How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Online Tornado FAQ". www.spa.noaa.gov. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Markowski, Straka, and Rasmussen (2003). "Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations". J. Atmos. Sci. 60 (6): 795–823. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60..795M. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Dave Zittel (2000-05-04). "Tornado Chase 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Golden (2007-11-01). "Waterspouts are tornadoes over water". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis; Dan Flores (2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-8061-3538-7.
Jump up ^ "About Waterspouts". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ No author given (2012-01-02). "European Severe Weather Database definitions".
Jump up ^ "Gustnado". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ Charles H Jones; Charlie A. Liles (1999). "Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico". Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
Jump up ^ David C Lewellen; M I Zimmerman (2008-10-28). Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds (PDF). 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks (2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather Forecast. 19 (2): 310–9. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards, Moller, Purpura; et al. (1998-03-31). "Basic Spotters' Field Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
Jump up ^ Dotzek, Nikolai, Jürgen Grieser, Harold E. Brooks; Grieser; Brooks (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". Atmos. Res. 67: 163–87. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..163D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". Atmos. Res. 67-68: 153. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). "Dryline cross section". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
Jump up ^ "Tornadoes". Prairie Storm Prediction Centre. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from the original on 2001-03-09. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Vettese, Dayna. "Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know". The Weather Network. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". NOAA. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright; Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 130 (598): 1009–21. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Finch (2008-04-02). "Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Michael Graf (2008-06-28). "Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Schaefer, McNulty; et al. (1978). "An Augmented Tornado Climatology" (PDF). Mon. Wea. Rev. 106 (8): 1172–1183. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106.1172K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado: Diurnal patterns". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. p. G.6. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ A.M. Holzer (2000). "Tornado Climatology of Austria". Atmos. Res. 56 (56): 203–11. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..203H. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9. Archived from the original on 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". Atmos. Res. 56: 233–251. Bibcode:2001AtmRe..56..233D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2.
Jump up ^ "South African Tornadoes". South African Weather Service. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Finch; Ashraf M. Dewan (2007-05-23). "Bangladesh Tornado Climatology". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology - National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ "TORRO - Tornado FAQ's". www.torro.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). "UK's 'tornado alley' identified" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards; Steven J. Weiss (1996-02-23). "Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season". 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Ashton Robinson Cook; Joseph T. Schaefer (2008-01-22). "The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". 19th Conf. Probability and Statistics. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "El Niño brings fewer tornados". Nature. 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert J Trapp; NS Diffenbaugh; HE Brooks; ME Baldwin; ED Robinson & JS Pal (2007-12-12). "Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (50): 19719–23. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419719T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705494104.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations". Colorado State University. 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski (April 2002). "Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review". Mon. Wea. Rev. 130 (4): 852–76. Bibcode:2002MWRv..130..852M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b Airbus (2007-03-14). "Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar" (PDF). SKYbrary. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Research tools: Radar". www.nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charles A. Doswell, III, Alan R. Moller, Harold E. Brooks; Moller; Brooks (1999). "Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948" (PDF). Weather Forecast. 14 (4): 544–57. Bibcode:1999WtFor..14..544D. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service (2009-02-06). "What is SKYWARN?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Detection at Environment Canada". Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ European Union (2009-05-31). "Skywarn Europe". Archived from the original on 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Terence Meaden (1985). "A Brief History". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-11-15). "Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger and Elke Edwards (2003). "Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification". Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers about Tornadoes". A Severe Weather Primer. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
Jump up ^ Harold E Brooks; Charles A. Doswell III (2000-10-01). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009
Jump up ^ Thomas P Grazulis (2005-09-20). "Tornado Oddities". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Emily Yahr (2006-02-21). "Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Roger Edwards (2008-07-16). "Tornado Safety". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Storm Shelters" (PDF). National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-23. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original on 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). "Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover—A Tornado Is Coming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tim Marshall (2005-03-15). "Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas P Grazulis (2001). "Tornado Myths". The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office, Dodge City, Kansas. "Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix". Tornado Overpass Information. NOAA. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). "Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
Jump up ^ Chris Cappella (2005-05-17). "Overpasses are tornado death traps". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Kenneth F Dewey (2002-07-11). "Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality". High Plains Regional Climate Center and University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi; Roger Edwards; Greg Stumpf; Daniel Gudgel (2006-09-13). "Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-30). "VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
Jump up ^ Michael H Mogil (2007). Extreme Weather. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-1-57912-743-5.
Jump up ^ Kevin McGrath (1998-11-05). "Mesocyclone Climatology Project". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2010-07-09. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Simon (2001). Tornadoes. New York City: HarperCollins. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-06-443791-2.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Erik (2000-12-31). "Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from the original on April 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). "Tornadoes". Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-3258-7. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2008). "Tornadoes". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries". 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
Further reading
Howard B. Bluestein (1999). Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510552-4.
Marlene Bradford (2001). Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3302-3.
Thomas P. Grazulis (January 1997). Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-04-X.
Pybus, Nani, "'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma," Chronicles of Oklahoma 94 (Spring 2016), 4–31. Heavily illustrated.
External links
Find more about
tornado
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present
European Severe Weather Database
Tornado Detection and Warnings
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide
Tornado History Project - Maps and statistics from 1950 to present
Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
[show] v t e
Natural disasters
[show] v t e
Disasters
Authority control	
LCCN: sh85136123 GND: 4185727-6 NDL: 00572733
Categories: Weather hazardsSevere weather and convectionTornadoTypes of cycloneWindStormSpanish words and phrases
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
ᏣᎳᎩ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewEnable previews
Wikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki