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The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was enacted by the federal government to ensure that all children with disabilities are provided with "equality of [educational] opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency."

Originally adopted in 1975 and amended in 2004, the IDEA aims to curb educational problems associated with low expectations and insufficient focus on alternative research, teaching methods, and tools. Following are the six major principles of the IDEA, focusing on students' rights and the responsibilities of public schools to children with disabilities.

1. Free Appropriate Public Education

Under the IDEA, every child with a disability is entitled to a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE). The IDEA emphasizes special education and related services, which should be designed to meet a child's "unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living."

Furthermore, courts have held that the IDEA requires schools to prepare Individualized Education Plans, which confer "meaningful educational benefit" to children with disabilities. The "meaningful educational benefit" requirement includes a focus on raised student expectations, appropriate progress, and transition into postsecondary education and independent living.

Public schools and local school boards are responsible for ensuring that every child with a disability receives a FAPE.

2. Appropriate Evaluation

The IDEA requires that schools conduct "appropriate evaluations"of students who are suspected of having a disability. An appropriate evaluation must be implemented by a team of knowledgeable and trained evaluators, must utilize sound evaluation materials and procedures, and must be administered on a non-discriminatory basis.

Children should not be subjected to unnecessary assessments or testing, and evaluations must be geared toward planning for the child's education and future instruction. Finally, an appropriate evaluation must determine and make recommendations regarding a child's eligibility for special education services in a timely manner.

3. Individualized Education Plan

The Individualized Education Plan (IEP) was established by the IDEA to help ensure every child's access to a Free Appropriate Public Education. The IEP is a written document, developed by an IEP team, which draws upon existing evaluation information in order to meet a student's unique educational needs.

Under the IDEA, an IEP must include information regarding a student's present levels of educational performance, annual goals and benchmarking objectives, services and supplementary aids to be received, and a detailed explanation of instances where a student is not participating in the general classroom and why.

An IEP is also required to include information regarding consistent reporting on student progress as well as "transition" to adult life. Finally, it is required that an IEP account for the planning concerns of the parents and child, the strengths of a particular child, and the specific "academic, developmental, and functional needs" of the child.

4. Least Restrictive Environment

The IDEA places a strong emphasis on placement in a general education setting. Under the IDEA, a student is guaranteed placement in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) possible. Therefore, an IEP team must explore a number of alternatives for enabling a student to participate in the general education classroom. These may include: classroom modifications, supplemental aids and services, alternative instructional methods, etc.

If an IEP team determines that a student cannot be satisfactorily educated in a general education setting, then the team must make responsible efforts to determine the LRE for that student outside of the general classroom.

5. Parent Participation

The IDEA has a special provision for "parent participation in placement decisions." Under this provision, state educational agencies and local school boards must ensure that the parents of a child with a disability are members of any group that makes decisions regarding the placement and LRE of that child.

Parents have the right to equal participation in this process, and are entitled to notification of a planned evaluation, access to planning and evaluation materials, and involvement in all meetings regarding their child's placement. Additionally, parents retain the right to refuse further evaluation of their child. Both students and parents must be invited to IEP meetings, and the IDEA explicitly establishes a role for the parent as equal participant and decision maker.

6. Procedural Safeguards

Finally, the IDEA establishes procedural safeguards to help parents and students enforce their rights under federal law. The primary purpose of this requirement is twofold: safeguards protect parental access to information pertaining to placement and transition planning; and procedures are put in place to resolve disagreements between parents and schools regarding the placement of a student.

Under the IDEA procedural safeguards, parents have a right to review all educational records pertaining to their child, receive notice prior to meetings about their child's evaluation, placement, or identification, and to obtain an Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE) for consideration at such meetings.

If disagreements arise, parents have the right to request mediation or due process hearings with state-level education agencies, and beyond that may appeal the decision in state or federal court.
Matthew Saleh is a Research Fellow at Cornell University's Employment and Disability Institute and a Research Associate at the Campaign for Educational Equity at Teachers College, Columbia University. He received his J.D. from the Syracuse University College of Law and is currently a doctoral candidate at Columbia University.
Related Smart Kids Topics

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Your Child's Rights: 6 Principles of IDEA

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The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was enacted by the federal government to ensure that all children with disabilities are provided with "equality of [educational] opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency."

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2-Identify the thirteen disability categories recognized by the federal government.

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2-Identify the thirteen disability categories recognized by the federal government.

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IDEA Disability Categories

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At a glance

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide special education services to eligible students.

IDEA covers 13 disability categories.

Not every student who struggles in school qualifies.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide special education and related services to eligible students. But not every child who struggles in school qualifies. To be covered, a child's school performance must be "adversely affected" by a disability in one of the 13 categories below.

1. Specific learning disability (SLD)

The "specific learning disability" (SLD) category covers a specific group of learning challenges. These conditions affect a child's ability to read, write, listen, speak, reason, or do math. Here are some examples of what could fall into this category:

SLD is the most common category under IDEA. In the 2018-19 school year, around 33 percent of students who qualified did so under this category.

2. Other health impairment

The "other health impairment" category covers conditions that limit a child's strength, energy, or alertness. One example is ADHD, which impacts attention and executive function.

3. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

ASD is a developmental disability. It involves a wide range of symptoms, but it mainly affects a child's social and communication skills. It can also impact behavior.

Various mental health issues can fall under the "emotional disturbance" category. They may include anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression. (Some of these may also be covered under "other health impairment.")

5. Speech or language impairment

This category covers difficulties with speech or language. A common example is stuttering. Other examples are trouble pronouncing words or making sounds with the voice. It also covers language problems that make it hard for kids to understand words or express themselves.

6. Visual impairment, including blindness

A child who has eyesight problems is considered to have a visual impairment. This category includes both partial sight and blindness. If eyewear can correct a vision problem, then it doesn't qualify.

Kids with a diagnosis of deafness fall under this category. These are kids who can't hear most or all sounds, even with a hearing aid.

The term "hearing impairment" refers to a hearing loss not covered by the definition of deafness. This type of loss can change over time. Being hard of hearing is not the same thing as having trouble with auditory or language processing.

Kids with a diagnosis of deaf-blindness have both severe hearing and vision loss. Their communication and other needs are so unique that programs for just the deaf or blind can't meet them.

10. Orthopedic impairment

An orthopedic impairment is when kids lack function or ability in their bodies. An example is cerebral palsy.

11. Intellectual disability

Kids with this type of disability have below-average intellectual ability. They may also have poor communication, self-care, and social skills. Down syndrome is one example of a condition that involves an intellectual disability.

12. Traumatic brain injury

This is a brain injury caused by an accident or some kind of physical force.

13. Multiple disabilities

A child with multiple disabilities has more than one condition covered by IDEA. Having multiple issues creates educational needs that can't be met in a program designed for any one disability.

Having a disability is not enough to qualify for special education. The disability has to have an "adverse effect" on a child's education.

Key takeaways

Each of the 13 disability categories in IDEA can cover a range of difficulties.

Dyslexia, dyscalculia, and written expression disorder fall under the "specific learning disability" category.

"Other health impairment" can cover ADHD.

About the author

About the author

Andrew M.I. Lee, JD is an editor and attorney who strives to help people understand complex legal, education, and parenting issues.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Rayma Griffin, MA, MEd has spent 40 years working with children with learning and thinking differences in the classroom and as an administrator.

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See a list of the 13 IDEA disability categories. Find out which disabilities can qualify kids for special education.

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ARD/IEP Committee Decision Making Process – Partners Resource Network

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Contents of the IEP – Partners Resource Network

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3.3 Accommodations versus Modifications 

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3.3 Accommodations versus Modifications 

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Accommodations Vs Modifications | Texas Project FIRST

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en Español * Share *
Resources:
Accommodation Central - A search tool from Region 13 helps you find accommodations based on the student's academic or functional needs. There is also a Learning Library.

Center for Parent Information and Resources:
Region 10 Dyslexia Accommodations National Center on Accessible Educational Materials (AEM) National Center on Universal Design For Learning
Texas Education Agency:

Texas Project FIRST Technology Resources

Understood.org Accommodations vs Modifications

College Board Accommodations & Ensuring Accommodations on SAT/ACT

Educational Testing Services - Test Takers with Disabilities (How to request, common accommodations)

Heath Resource Center - Accommodations in College

In order to access accommodations in college/university - it is necessary for the student to register with the Office of Disability Services. It is best to visit with the Office of Disability Services BEFORE a student makes a decision about a particular college/university. Each university has different requirements to receive accommodations and students will need to know what is required BEFORE they start classes.

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en Español * Share * Resources: Accommodation Central - A search tool from Region 13 helps you find accommodations based on the student's academic or functional needs. There is also a Learning Library.

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TITLE 14 - CHAPTER 31. Exceptional Children - Subchapter I. Definitions

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Free Public Schools

CHAPTER 31. Exceptional Children

Subchapter I. Definitions

§ 3101 Definitions.

The following words, terms and phrases, when used in this chapter shall have the meanings ascribed to them except when the context clearly indicates a different meaning:

(1) "Child" means a person of 3 years of age, or an earlier age if otherwise provided in this title, until the receipt of a regular high school diploma or the end of the school year in which the person attains the age of 21, whichever occurs first.

(2) "Child with a disability" means a child who because of mental, physical, emotional, developmental, speech or learning disability problems, as defined by the Department of Education rules and regulations approved by the State Board of Education, requires special education and related services in order to develop that person's own capabilities. A child with a disability is eligible for services beginning on the child's third birthday, or earlier if otherwise provided in this title.

(3) "Disruptive child" means a child who continually exhibits behavior that does not meet minimal standards of conduct established by the school authorities and that are required in the school and classrooms; whose behavior is in defiance of school personnel, disrupts the school instructional program and is antagonistic to other students and the purpose of the school.

(4) "Exceptional child" means a child with a disability or a gifted and talented child, as defined herein.

(5) "Free appropriate public education" means special education that is specially designed instruction including classroom instruction, instruction in physical education, home instruction and instruction in hospitals and institutions, and related services as defined by Department of Education rules and regulations approved by the State Board of Education and as may be required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from an education that:

a. Is provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction and without charge in the public school system;

b. Meets the standards of the Department of Education as set forth in this title or in the rules and regulations of the Department as approved by the State Board;

c. Includes elementary, secondary or vocational education in the State;

d. Is individualized to meet the unique needs of the child with a disability;

e. Provides significant learning to the child with a disability; and

f. Confers meaningful benefit on the child with a disability that is gauged to the child with a disability's potential.

No court, administrative tribunal, school district, or school shall use a definition of "free appropriate public education" that states or implies that the term encompasses a lesser educational program than enumerated in this definition. Courts, administrative, tribunals, and schools may use a definition of "free appropriate public education" that states or implies that the term encompasses a more enhanced educational program than described in this definition, if consistent with a decision of the United States Third Circuit Court of Appeals or the United States Supreme Court.

The related services to be provided shall be based upon a program for each child as approved by the Department; provided, that the State Board may review any objection to the Department's decision. Funds for such services are to be paid from the Educational Contingency Fund of the Department of Education.

(6) "Gifted or talented child" means a child in the chronological age group 4 through the end of the school year in which the child attains the age of 21 or until receipt of a regular high school diploma, whichever occurs first, who by virtue of certain outstanding abilities is capable of a high performance in an identified field. Such an individual, identified by professionally qualified persons, may require differentiated educational programs or services beyond those normally provided by the regular school program in order to realize that individual's full contribution to self and society. A child capable of high performance as herein defined includes one with demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability in any of the following areas, singularly or in combination:

a. General intellectual ability;

b. Specific academic aptitude;

c. Creative or productive thinking;

d. Leadership ability;

e. Visual and performing arts ability;

f. Psychomotor ability.

(7) "Parent"means a biological or natural parent of a child with a disability, or, as appropriate, a stepparent, guardian, educational surrogate parent, appointed educational representative, relative caregiver or custodian. The identity and authority of a person qualifying as a parent is subject to modification by Family Court or Court of Chancery order. Subject to § 3132 of this title, if a child with a disability has reached that child's own eighteenth birthday, and no guardian of the person has been appointed, all rights and entitlements accorded to parents by this chapter shall be deemed accorded directly to the child with a disability.

(8) [Repealed.]

48 Del. Laws, c. 194, § 2; 14 Del. C. 1953, § 3101; 49 Del. Laws, c. 410, § 2; 51 Del. Laws, c. 287, § 2; 55 Del. Laws, c. 198, § 2; 57 Del. Laws, c. 237, § 2; 60 Del. Laws, c. 571, § 4; 61 Del. Laws, c. 190, §§ 4, 7; 62 Del. Laws, c. 411, § 1; 63 Del. Laws, c. 410, § 1; 64 Del. Laws, c. 63, § 2; 65 Del. Laws, c. 381, § 2; 68 Del. Laws, c. 84, §§ 214, 215; 68 Del. Laws, c. 126, §§ 10, 11; 70 Del. Laws, c. 186, § 1; 71 Del. Laws, c. 180, § 145; 77 Del. Laws, c. 301, § 1; 77 Del. Laws, c. 424, §§ 2-7; 80 Del. Laws, c. 252, § 1.;

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§ 3101 Definitions. The following words, terms and phrases, when used in this chapter shall have the meanings ascribed to them except when the context clearly indicates a different meaning: (1) "Child" means a person of 3 years of age, or an earlier age if otherwise provided in this title, until the receipt of a regular high school diploma or the end of the school year in which the person attains the age of 21, whichever occurs first.

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The Difference Between Handicapped and Disabled Difference Between | Difference Between

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Handicap and disability are closely related terms which are often used concerning people with special needs. As they are very close synonyms, they are usually interchangeably used. In both situations, social stigma, low self-esteem, and support system issues may be experienced by the individuals.

What is Handicap?

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a handicapped person to have a loss or limited opportunities in being involved in activities as compared to the majority of the population. A handicap is the effect of a disability. It focuses on an obstacle experienced by a person due to a restriction in the environment.
Origin of the Term Handicap
For many, handicap may seem as an odd word. In fact, it was only linked to the essence of physical disability in 1915 even if the word was already used centuries back. The following accounts are related to the origin of the term:

The word "handicap" is said to have originated in 1504 when King Henry VII proclaimed that disabled veterans can legally beg. With their "cap in hand", people with disabilities went to the streets; hence, "hand-in-cap". However, several authors claim that this is a false origin of the term.

Most sources claim that the origin is a lottery game called "hand-in-cap" which was played in the 1600s. Basically, the barter game involved putting forfeit money into a cap and the owner of the less valuable item has to pay up. The term then evolved to "hand i'cap" which became "handicap".

Overtime, "handicap" was linked to equity as it was commonly used in sports to make a certain competition fairer. For instance, faster horses were made to carry weights so they could be more on par with the slower ones.

The term became widely understood as a way or condition to limit or impede.

In 1915, "handicap" was first employed in connection with disability when it pertained to children with mobility impairments.

In the 1950s, "handicap" was also applied to adults as well as those with intellectual disabilities.

In the 1970's, "handicapped" had been the legal term concerning social services.

What is Disability?

WHO defines a disabled individual to have any lack of ability in carrying out an activity in the means viewed as normal by the community. A disability is a reduced capacity to specifically perform a movement, detect certain sensory information, or execute a cognitive function. It is generally a lifelong condition such as blindness, intellectual disability, and cerebral palsy. For instance, a person who was born blind will likely experience restrictions in reading, navigating, and other related activities in his lifetime.
How "Disabled" Replaced the Term "Handicapped"
As the term "handicap" was associated with begging, a number of groups felt that it was not appropriate. In 1990, the American with Disabilities Act was passed and "handicapped" became passé. The activists who fought for the act chose the term "disability" as an acceptable euphemism.

Difference between Handicapped and Disabled

Definition of Handicapped and Disabled

According to Merriam-Webster, the definition of "handicap" is "a disadvantage that makes achievement usually difficult" while "disability" is defined as "a physical, mental, cognitive, or developmental condition that impairs, interferes with, or limits a person's ability to engage in certain tasks..."

Internal/External of Handicapped and Disabled

Being handicapped denotes an external source as it is focused on the obstacle in education, communication, occupation, and other kinds of environment. On the other hand, being disabled is internal as it is centered on an individual's reduced capacity to perform certain activities which is mainly attributed to illness, accidents, trauma, heredity, and other related conditions.

Ability of Handicapped and Disabled

As compared to being handicapped, being disabled is more centered on the lack or restriction of ability to accomplish an activity.

Lack of Opportunities for Handicapped and Disabled

As compared to being disabled, being handicapped is more focused on the loss or limitation of opportunities.

Challenges for Handicapped and Disabled

Generally, being disabled may face more challenges than being handicapped as the former concerns "inability" while the latter deals with "difficulty". Hence, a handicapped situation reflects partial disability while a disabled condition communicates helplessness.

A loss of function of a body part is more closely associated with handicap than disability. This may be also due to its well-known wheel chair symbol.

Sports of Handicapped and Disabled

Handicap is more often associated with sports as it covers having a disadvantage in professional sport such as tennis handicap, golf handicap, and the like.

Diplomatic Terms for Handicapped and Disabled

As compared to "handicap", "disability" is more politically correct. Many feel that the term "handicap" is condescending. In fact, some dictionaries define "handicap" as "sometimes offensive" as it is associated with begging.

Handicap is the consequence of disability as it is the experienced disadvantage. On the other hand, disability is the condition of having a reduced capacity to perform.

Handicap as a term has a longer history as records show that it was first used in the 1500s-1600s. On the other hand, "disability" has a shorter history as it only replaced "handicap" in 1990.

Handicapped vs Disabled

Summary of Handicapped verses Disabled

Since the difference is very subtle, handicap and disability are often used interchangeably.

Handicap is having the loss or limited opportunities in being involved in activities as compared to the majority of the population.

Disability is the lack of ability in carrying out an activity in the means viewed as normal by the community.

Handicap is defined as a disadvantage and a difficulty while disability is defined as a condition and inability.

As compared to being "disabled", "handicapped" is more offensive.

As a term, "handicap" has a longer history as compared to "disability".

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The Difference Between Handicapped and Disabled

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Handicap and disability are closely related terms which are often used concerning people with special needs. As they are very close synonyms, they are usually interchangeably used. In both situations, social stigma, low self-esteem, and support system issues may be experienced by the individuals.

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Facts About Developmental Disabilities | CDC

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Facts About Developmental Disabilities | CDC

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Developmental disabilities are a group of conditions due to an impairment in physical, learning, language, or behavior areas. Learn more.

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Who Are At-Risk Students? How Do We Help Them?

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Who Are At-Risk Students? How Do We Help Them?

Identifying at-risk students can be a difficult task for instructors and administrators alike. Since the typical class size per teacher continues to grow, it is hard for any instructor to truly "know" their students. Also, many legal issues and battles make teachers quite wary of knowing their students on a personal level for fear of accusations of misconduct.

If that is the case, what does it take to identify at-risk students? There are a few simple ways to measure at-risk student behavior in a quantifiable manner. It may not work every time, but it can be as simple as tracking a few numbers and behaviors and keeping some good notes.

The first and most obvious metric to observe when looking for at-risk students is grades. What students have started out the semester with low scores? For the students who score low in the beginning, having a conversation with them may be the only help they need. Maybe they just needed motivation, or they might need assistance with study skills, writing skills, etc.

Also, keep track of student grades and see which students begin to have decline in scores. This is often a sign of issues outside of the classroom that are affecting the student's work. Again, a conversation might help, or this might be a good time to either alert the administration or to contact the student counselor for assistance. The administration or counselor may have already heard other concerns about that student and have a better understanding of what interventions might be necessary.

Another at-risk student behavior that can be easily tracked is tardiness or absenteeism. If a student continues to either be late for class or simply is not attending, this is another opportunity to alert either the administration or the counselor.

Finally, disruptive behavior is a sign of an at-risk student that can be easily monitored. If a student is being regularly disruptive, this is probably a time when that student should be forced to see the administration for either discipline or an intervention of some kind, as attempting to intervene in the classroom can cause more disruption for other students.

Once the administration or a counselor is alerted about an at-risk student, how can they help? Public schools would be wise to learn from the current trend in institutions of higher education. Many colleges and universities now have what is often called a "risk assessment team" that meets and confidentially discusses the complaints and concerns that teachers, staff, or other students have expressed about particular students. Having such a team allows schools to get a full picture of what might be happening with a student and allows for multiple perspectives on how to proceed.

While these strategies are not foolproof and some students might still be at risk without exhibiting such behaviors, using these tactics can give teachers a quantifiable plan of action on how to intervene when attempting to indentify at-risk students. Also, a risk-assessment team can help schools to develop better pictures of the students that might be at risk while working out detailed plans of action.

The success of a student is a teacher's ultimate goal. Providing a safe learning environment, surrounded by peers and caring educators, is important for a student to reach their full potential. However, what happens when these conditions are not enough for certain students to excel? At-risk students have many things in common. Which also means that there are always similar ways to help them. Here are three tips for teachers to help struggling students:

Absenteeism

When a student is absent a lot from school, it's only normal for teachers to be concerned and wonder what is going on. The best thing to do when this happens is to call home and speak to the student's parents. Find out why the child is missing so much school, and arrange plans to help the child make up their missed work.

Poor Grades

When a student is not academically doing well, the first thing you should do is talk to the student and find out what is going on. You, as a teacher, have the ability to make a change. Don't ignore a student's cry for help. Offer your help after school or suggest an online study session. You may need to call home and talk to the student's parents and schedule a parent-teacher conference.

Risky Behavior

You can tell a lot about a student in regards to how they demonstrate themselves in the classroom. Poor behavior can be determined through talking out in class, being rude to others, and refusing to follow the rules. When this happens, take the student aside and talk about things. You may need to make a phone call to their parents and let them know what is going on with their child.

It's important to not ignore the signs of a struggling student. Sometimes all they need is a helping hand and some guidance.

More Information On At-Risk Students
Alternative Education

1. At-Risk Students Must Believe

2. Bureau For At-Risk Youth

3. Tools for Schools: School Reform Models supported by the National Institute on the Education of At-Risk Students

4. The Summer Institute for At-Risk Migrant Students

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Who Are At-Risk Students? How Do We Help Them?

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Identifying at-risk students can be a difficult task for instructors and administrators alike. Since the typical class size per teacher continues to grow, it is hard for any instructor to truly "know" their students. Also, many legal issues and battles make teachers quite wary of knowing their students on a personal level for fear of accusations of misconduct.

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What Is Special Education? | OSPI

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Special education is specially designed instruction that addresses the unique needs of a student eligible to receive special education services. Special education is provided at no cost to parents and includes the related services a student needs to access her/his educational program.

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Specifying Related Services in the IEP | Center for Parent Information and Resources

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Current as of November 2017
This info in Spanish | Esta información en español

The IEP must contain a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child. We've split up the discussion of each of these important elements, because there is so much to say about each. This article focuses on related services.

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IDEA's exact words (Keep scrolling)
Related services, in brief Related services, in detail
IDEA's Exact Words

Let's start with IDEA's full requirement for specifying a child's related services in his or her IEP. This appears at §300.320(a)(4) and stipulates that each child's IEP must contain:

(4) A statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services, based on peer-reviewed research to the extent practicable, to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child, and a statement of the program modifications or supports for school personnel that will be provided to enable the child-

(i) To advance appropriately toward attaining the annual goals;

(ii) To be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum in accordance with paragraph (a)(1) of this section, and to participate in extracurricular and other nonacademic activities; and

(iii) To be educated and participate with other children with disabilities and nondisabled children in the activities described in this section... [§300.320(a)(4)]

We've bolded the part of IDEA's regulation that specifically mentions related services, because it's important to see the context in which this term is used. It is that context, and IDEA's own definition of related services, that will guide how a child's IEP team considers what related services the child needs and the detail with which the team specifies them in the IEP.

Related Services, in Brief

Related services help children with disabilities benefit from their special education by providing extra help and support in needed areas, such as speaking or moving. Related services can include, but are not limited to, any of the following:

speech-language pathology and audiology services

interpreting services

psychological services

physical and occupational therapy

recreation, including therapeutic recreation

early identification and assessment of disabilities in children

counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling

orientation and mobility services

medical services for diagnostic or evaluation purposes

school health services and school nurse services

social work services in schools

parent counseling and training

Beginning with Evaluation

IDEA requires that a child be assessed in all areas related to his or her suspected disability. This evaluation must be sufficiently comprehensive so as to identify all of the child's special education and related services needs, whether or not those needs are commonly linked to the disability category in which he or she has been classified.

Determining What Related Services a Student Needs

It is the IEP team's responsibility to review all of the evaluation information, to identify any related services the child needs, and to include them in the IEP. Goals can be written for a related service just as they are for other special education services. The IEP must also specify with respect to each service:

when the service will begin;

how often it will be provided and for what amount of time; and

where it will be provided. [§300.320(a)(7)]

Each child with a disability may not require all of the related services listed above. Furthermore, the list of related services is not exhaustive and may include other developmental, corrective, or supportive services if they are required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education. Examples include artistic and cultural programs, art, music, and dance therapy.

The IEP is a written commitment for the delivery of services to meet a student's educational needs. A school district must ensure that all of the related services specified in the IEP, including the amount, are provided to a student.

Changes in the amount of services listed in the IEP cannot be made without holding another IEP meeting. However, if there is no change in the overall amount of service, some adjustments in the scheduling of services may be possible without the necessity of another IEP meeting.

Related Services Personnel on the IEP Team

IDEA does not expressly require that the IEP team include related services personnel. However, if a particular related service is going to be discussed in an IEP meeting, it would be appropriate for such personnel to be included or otherwise involved in developing the IEP. IDEA states that, at the discretion of the parent or the public agency, "other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services personnel as appropriate" may be part of a child's IEP team.

Do Parents Have to Pay for the Related Services Their Child Receives?

No. School districts may not charge parents of eligible students with disabilities for the costs of related services that have been included on the child's IEP. Just as special and regular education must be provided to an eligible student with a disability at no cost to the parent or guardian, so, too, must related services when the IEP team has determined that such services are required in order for the child to benefit from his or her education.

Related Services, in Detail

To add detail to the "short story" above, let's begin with the very first part of IDEA's definition of related services at §300.34.
§300.34 Related services.
(a) General. Related services means transportation and such developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as are required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education, and includes...

This beginning represents the core of how IDEA defines related services. The term related services is typically spoken in the same breath as special education (similar to how "peas and carrots" and "ham and eggs" go together) and, when used in IDEA, will always have the same meaning, including the part of the definition we haven't shown you yet, which picks up where the beginning leaves off...

...and includes speech-language pathology and audiology services, interpreting services, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy, recreation, including therapeutic recreation, early identification and assessment of disabilities in children, counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling, orientation and mobility services, and medical services for diagnostic or evaluation purposes. Related services also include school health services and school nurse services, social work services in schools, and parent counseling and training.

Clearly, the list of related services is long-and, as already mentioned, the list is not exhaustive. These are just the services that IDEA specifically mentions. As states respond to the requirements of federal law, many have legislated their own related service requirements, which may include services beyond those specified in IDEA.

What's Excluded as a Related Service
IDEA makes a specific exception to the list of related services: surgically implanted devices, including cochlear implants.
This exception is new with IDEA 2004 and shows the advance of time and technology. A relatively new technological development, the cochlear implant is a "small, complex electronic device that can help to provide a sense of sound to a person who is profoundly deaf or severely hard-of-hearing." (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2017). While an implant does not restore normal hearing, it can give the recipient "a useful representation of sounds in the environment and help him or her to understand speech" ( Id.).

Cochlear implants are not the only surgically implanted devices. Others include: insulin pump, baclofen pump, pacemaker, G-tube, and vagus nerve stimulator device.

The exception. If a child has a surgically implanted device, the scope of the public agency's responsibility to provide supportive related services in relation to that device is covered in IDEA's provisions at §300.34(b), its exception. Public agencies are not responsible for optimizing these devices, maintaining them, or replacing them. Public agencies are responsible for "routine checking to determine if the external component of a surgically implanted device is turned on and working" (71 Fed. Reg. 46570) and for providing other types of services the child needs, as determined by the IEP team, including:

assistive technology (e.g., FM system);

proper classroom acoustical modifications;

educational support services (e.g., educational interpreters); and

receiving the related services (e.g., speech and language services) that are necessary for the child to benefit from special education services. (Id.)

While public agencies are not responsible for mapping a cochlear implant, they do have a role to play in providing services and supports to help children with cochlear implants. As the Department observes:

Particularly with younger children or children who have recently obtained implants, teachers and related services personnel frequently are the first to notice changes in the child's perception of sounds that the child may be missing. This may manifest as a lack of attention or understanding on the part of the child or frustration in communicating. The changes may indicate a need for remapping, and we would expect that school personnel would communicate with the child's parents about these issues. To the extent that adjustments to the devices are required, a specially trained professional would provide the remapping, which is not considered the responsibility of the public agency. (71 Fed. Reg. at 46570-1)

In many ways, the Department points out, there is no substantive difference between serving a child with a cochlear implant in a school setting and serving a child with a hearing aid. A "public agency is responsible for the routine checking of the external components of a surgically implanted device in much the same manner as a public agency is responsible for the proper functioning of hearing aids" (71 Fed. Reg. at 46571). What distinguishes a service covered under the Act and one that is excluded is, in large measure, "the level of expertise required" ( Id.). Maintaining and monitoring a surgically implanted device require the expertise of a licensed physician or an individual with specialized technical expertise beyond that typically available from school personnel. On the other hand:

Teachers and related services providers can be taught to first check the externally worn speech processor to make sure it is turned on, the volume and sensitivity settings are correct, and the cable is connected, in much the same manner as they are taught to make sure a hearing aid is properly functioning. To allow a child to sit in a classroom when the child's hearing aid or cochlear implant is not functioning is to effectively exclude the child from receiving an appropriate education. ( Id.)

You'll note that the exception in IDEA is carefully crafted to ensure that public agencies remain aware of, and responsible for, monitoring and maintaining "medical devices that are needed to maintain the health and safety of the child, including breathing, nutrition, or operation of other bodily functions, while the child is transported to and from school or is at school" (§300.34(b)(2)(ii)]. This clearly aligns with a public agency's responsibility for the health-related services (see discussion of Medical Services and School Health Services and School Nurse Services further below).

The Individual Services, Defined

IDEA's definition of related services also goes on to define each individual service. If you wish to delve into individual related services, the following discussion may be helpful. It's drawn from our training curriculum Building the Legacy (see Module 1, which includes brief summaries of each related service). The services are discussed below in alphabetical order.
Audiology
The definition of audiology as a related service appears at §300.34(c)(1) and reads:

(i) Identification of children with hearing loss;

(ii) Determination of the range, nature, and degree of hearing loss, including referral for medical or other professional attention for the habilitation of hearing;

(iii) Provision of habilitative activities, such as language habilitation, auditory training, speech reading (lip-reading), hearing evaluation, and speech conservation;

(iv) Creation and administration of programs for prevention of hearing loss;

(v) Counseling and guidance of children, parents, and teachers regarding hearing loss; and

(vi) Determination of children's needs for group and individual amplification, selecting and fitting an appropriate aid, and evaluating the effectiveness of amplification. [§300.34(c)(1)]

Audiology is primarily provided to support the needs of children with hearing loss and includes (but is not limited to) key services such as determining the range, nature, and degree of a child's hearing loss and both group and individual needs for amplification. More than 77,000 children, ages 3-21, were served in the U.S. in 2013-2014 under IDEA's category of hearing impairments (U.S. Department of Education, 2016).

The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (2016) estimates that about 2 to 3 out of every 1,000 children in the United States are born with a detectable level of hearing loss in one or both ears. Because it's so important to identify and address childhood hearing loss as early as possible, universal newborn hearing screening programs currently operate in all U.S. states and most U.S. territories (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2017). With help from the federal government, every state has established an Early Hearing Detection and Intervention program. Find your state's contact for this program at: http://infanthearing.org/status/cnhs.php

Some schools have hearing screening programs and staff trained to conduct audiology screenings of children. Others may participate in regional cooperatives or other arrangements that provide audiology services. Those school districts that do not have diagnostic facilities to evaluate children for hearing loss and related communication problems or central auditory processing disorders may refer children to a clinical setting, such as a hospital or audiology clinic, or make other contractual arrangements.
Counseling Services
IDEA defines counseling services as follows:

(2) Counseling services means services provided by qualified social workers, psychologists, guidance counselors, or other qualified personnel. [§300.34(c)(2)]

According to the American School Counselor Association (n.d.), counseling services are intended to help all children in the areas of academic achievement, personal/social development and career development. This can include helping children with personal and social concerns such as developing self-knowledge, making effective decisions, learning health choices, and improving responsibility. Counselors may also help children with future planning related to setting and reaching academic goals, developing a positive attitude toward learning, and recognizing and utilizing academic strengths.

Note that IDEA's list of related services includes other counseling services-parent counseling and training; and rehabilitation counseling (that is, counseling specific to career development and employment preparation). These are defined separately in IDEA and are clearly different from counseling services (which are also not to be confused with psychological services).
Early Identification and Assessment of Disabilities in Children
This related service is defined at §300.34(c)(3) as follows:

(3) Early identification and assessment of disabilities in children means the implementation of a formal plan for identifying a disability as early as possible in a child's life.

The disability and medical fields are full of information about early identification of disabilities in children as well as assessing the scope and impact of a child's disability. This literature is focused on system-level issues such as setting up screening programs for specific disabilities (e.g., autism, speech-language impairment, visual and hearing impairments) and establishing mechanisms within the educational system by which children at risk of learning problems are quickly identified and their learning issues addressed.

As a related service, however, early identification and assessment of disability in children represents an individual service for one child. If a child's IEP team determines that identifying and assessing the nature of a child's disability is necessary in order for the child to benefit from his or her special education, then this related service must be listed in the child's IEP and provided to the child by the public agency at no cost to the parents. A formal plan would be written to establish the process and procedures by which the child's disability will be identified.

This may seem strange-identifying the disability? Isn't that one of the purposes of evaluation? True. But disability can elude diagnosis, even as it adversely affects academic and functional performance in clear and measurable ways. Permitting states to adopt the term "developmental delay" acknowledges that it's not always possible to say what's causing a learning or other problem, but that intervention is still necessary. Early identification and assessment of disability in children, as a related service, acknowledges that continuing to search for and identify the disability as early as possible in a child's life may be necessary if the child is going to derive benefit from special education.
Interpreting Services
Interpreting services were added to IDEA's list of related services in the 2004 reauthorization and are defined at §300.34(c)(4) as follows:

(4) Interpreting services includes-

(i) The following, when used with respect to children who are deaf or hard of hearing: Oral transliteration services, cued language transliteration services, sign language transliteration and interpreting services, and transcription services, such as communication access real-time translation (CART), C-Print, and TypeWell; and

(ii) Special interpreting services for children who are deaf-blind. [§300.34(c)(4)]

Interpreting services may be new to IDEA's definition of related services, but they are been provided over the years to many children who are deaf or hard of hearing, as part of providing them with access to instruction. The definition of interpreting services indicates a range of possible such services (e.g., oral transliteration, cued language), all of which refer to specific communication systems used within the deaf and hard-of-hearing community.
Medical Services
Medical services are considered a related service only under specific condition s: when they are provided (a) by a licensed physician, and (b) for diagnostic or evaluation purposes only. This is clear from the definition at §300.34(c)(5):

(5) Medical services means services provided by a licensed physician to determine a child's medically related disability that results in the child's need for special education and related services.

This related service has a long and interesting history that has only gotten more interesting as medical science has advanced and children with diverse medical conditions are being educated in increasing numbers in general education classrooms. The support that many such children need in order to attend school, school districts have argued, is medical in nature, complex and continual, and is not the responsibility of public agencies because IDEA clearly states that medical services are allowable related services only when provided for diagnostic or evaluation purposes.

The case of Cedar Rapids Community School District v. Garret F., which took place in 1999, turned the gray line about the provision of related services to children with complex medical needs into a "bright line" ("Supreme Court adopts," 1999). The U.S. Supreme Court found that, if a related service is required to enable a qualified child with a disability to remain in school, it must be provided as long as it is not a purely "medical" service. What is considered "medical," as IDEA's definition amply indicates, are those services that can only be provided by a licensed physician (and only for the purposes of diagnosis or evaluation). If a non-physician can deliver the services, then the service must be provided by public agencies, regardless of the staffing or fiscal burdens they may impose. Health care services that can be provided by a non-physician are not provided under the category of medical services, however. Today they would be as considered school health services and school nurse services. Examples of such services include bladder catheterization, tracheostomy tube suctioning, positioning, and monitoring of ventilator settings, to name a few.
Occupational Therapy
The term occupational therapy (OT) is defined in IDEA at §300.34(c)(6) as follows:

(6) Occupational therapy -

(i) Means services provided by a qualified occupational therapist; and

(ii) Includes-

(A) Improving, developing, or restoring functions impaired or lost through illness, injury, or deprivation;

(B) Improving ability to perform tasks for independent functioning if functions are impaired or lost; and

(C) Preventing, through early intervention, initial or further impairment or loss of function.

OT services can enhance a child's ability to function in an educational program and may include such services as:

self-help skills or adaptive living (e.g., eating, dressing);

functional mobility (e.g., moving safely through school);

positioning (e.g., sitting appropriately in class);

sensory-motor processing (e.g., using the senses and muscles);

fine motor (e.g., writing, cutting) and gross motor performance (e.g., walking, athletic skills);

life skills training/vocational skills; and

psychosocial adaptation.

Orientation and Mobility Services
We're getting there! Almost through with the O's!

Orientation and mobility services (O&M) became part of IDEA's list of related services with IDEA '97. They are defined at §300.34(c)(7) and even a brief read makes it clear that O&M services are intended for children who are blind or visually impaired, with the purpose of teaching them how to orient themselves in a range of environments (school, home, community) and to move safely within those environments.

(7) Orientation and mobility services -

(i) Means services provided to blind or visually impaired children by qualified personnel to enable those students to attain systematic orientation to and safe movement within their environments in school, home, and community; and

(ii) Includes teaching children the following, as appropriate:

(A) Spatial and environmental concepts and use of information received by the senses (such as sound, temperature and vibrations) to establish, maintain, or regain orientation and line of travel (e.g., using sound at a traffic light to cross the street);

(B) To use the long cane or a service animal to supplement visual travel skills or as a tool for safely negotiating the environment for children with no available travel vision;

(C) To understand and use remaining vision and distance low vision aids; and

(D) Other concepts, techniques, and tools. [§300.34(c)(7)]

O&M services are not intended for children with disabilities other than visual impairments. If such a child needs to learn how to safely navigate a variety of settings, that child would generally not receive O&M services but, rather, travel training. Travel training is included in the definition of special education and means providing instruction to children with significant cognitive disabilities, and any other children with disabilities who require this instruction, to enable them to develop an awareness of the environment in which they live and learn the skills necessary to move effectively and safely from place to place [§300.39(b)(4)].
Parent Counseling and Training
Parent counseling and training is an important related service that can help parents enhance the vital role they play in the lives of their children. Its definition is found at §300.34(c)(8) and reads:

(8)(i) Parent counseling and training means assisting parents in understanding the special needs of their child;

(ii) Providing parents with information about child development; and

(iii) Helping parents to acquire the necessary skills that will allow them to support the implementation of their child's IEP or IFSP.

The first two parts of this definition are longstanding in IDEA. The last part-regarding helping parents acquire the necessary skills that will allow them to support the implementation of their child's IEP or IFSP-was added in IDEA '97 "to recognize the more active role of parents as participants in the education of their children" (71 Fed. Reg. at 46573) and is retained in IDEA 2004. As with all related services, parent counseling and training would only be provided to parents "if a child's IEP team determines that it is necessary for the child to receive FAPE" (Id.).
Physical Therapy
IDEA defines physical therapy as "services provided by a qualified physical therapist" [§300.34(c)(9)]. These services generally address a child's posture, muscle strength, mobility, and organization of movement in educational environments. Physical therapy may be provided to prevent the onset or progression of impairment, functional limitation, disability, or changes in physical function or health resulting from injury, disease, or other causes.
Psychological Services
Now here comes a longish definition! IDEA defines psychological services at §300.34(c)(10) as follows:

(10) Psychological services includes-

(i) Administering psychological and educational tests, and other assessment procedures;

(ii) Interpreting assessment results;

(iii) Obtaining, integrating, and interpreting information about child behavior and conditions relating to learning;

(iv) Consulting with other staff members in planning school programs to meet the special educational needs of children as indicated by psychological tests, interviews, direct observation, and behavioral evaluations;

(v) Planning and managing a program of psychological services, including psychological counseling for children and parents; and

(vi) Assisting in developing positive behavioral intervention strategies.

Psychological services are delivered as a related service when necessary to help eligible children with disabilities benefit from their special education. In some schools, these services are provided by a school psychologist, but some services are also appropriately provided by other trained personnel, including school social workers and counselors.

You may notice that counseling is mentioned in the definition of this related service, and is also mentioned in IDEA's definition of social work services (specifically, group and individual counseling with the child and family). In response to public comments questioning this, the Department clarified:

Including counseling in the definition of social work services in schools in §300.34(c)(14) is intended to indicate the types of personnel who assist in this activity and is not intended either to imply that school social workers are automatically qualified to perform counseling or to prohibit other qualified personnel from providing counseling, consistent with State requirements. (71 Fed. Reg. at 46573-4]

Further, the definition of psychological services uses the phrase "planning and managing a program of psychological services"-which includes "psychological counseling for children and parents." The more administrative nature of "planning and managing" is a telling difference in how counseling is included in the definitions of these two related services.

IDEA's definition of psychological services also specifically mentions positive behavioral intervention strategies, often referred to as PBS or PBIS. Behavior is an area of great concern these days, and it's useful to know that many of IDEA's provisions support taking a proactive approach to addressing behavior that interferes with a child's learning or the learning of others. For such a child, the IEP team must consider, if appropriate, strategies (including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports) to address that behavior [§300.324(2)(i)].

The fact that psychological services can include "assisting in developing positive behavioral intervention strategies" does not mean that only the professionals who provide psychological services may provide such assistance or that they are even necessarily qualified to do so. As the Department states:

There are many professionals who might also play a role in developing and delivering positive behavioral intervention strategies. The standards for personnel who assist in developing and delivering positive behavioral intervention strategies will vary depending on the requirements of the State. Including the development and delivery of positive behavioral intervention strategies in the definition of psychological services is not intended to imply that school psychologists are automatically qualified to perform these duties or to prohibit other qualified personnel from providing these services, consistent with State requirements. (71 Fed. Reg. at 46574)
Recreation
We're to the R's, making slow but sure progress through IDEA's list of related services. Recreation as a related service is defined at §300.34(c)(11) and reads:

(11) Recreation includes-

(i) Assessment of leisure function;

(ii) Therapeutic recreation services;

(iii) Recreation programs in schools and community agencies; and

(iv) Leisure education.

Recreation services generally are intended to help children with disabilities learn how to use their leisure and recreation time constructively. Through these services, children can learn appropriate and functional recreation and leisure skills. Recreational activities may be provided during the school day or in after-school programs in a school or a community environment. Some school districts have made collaborative arrangements with the local parks and recreation programs or local youth development programs to provide recreational services.

As part of providing this related service, persons qualified to provide recreation carry out activities such as:

assessing a child's leisure interests and preferences, capacities, functions, skills, and needs;

improving physical functioning, including using activities to develop locomotor skills, balance, coordination, motor planning, strength and endurance, object control skills, and eye/hand coordination;

improving cognitive functioning with therapeutic activities that improve attention span, problem solving, decision making skills, and creative expression;

improving behavioral functioning with therapeutic activities that improve anger/frustration control, respect for others and self, trust issues, stress management, relaxation training, and team building skills; and

providing instruction in leisure education to develop the skills necessary for independence in recreational participation. (American Therapeutic Recreation Association, n.d.)

Rehabilitation Counseling
And here is another related service that specifically mentions counseling. Rehabilitation counseling, however, uses such key terms as employment, career, and independence, which narrows the focus of the counseling and the purpose for which it is provided. The definition reads:

(12) Rehabilitation counseling services means services provided by qualified personnel in individual or group sessions that focus specifically on career development, employment preparation, achieving independence, and integration in the workplace and community of a student with a disability. The term also includes vocational rehabilitation services provided to a student with a disability by vocational rehabilitation programs funded under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, 29 U.S.C. 701 et seq. [§300.34(c)(12)]

Wondering about the reference to vocational rehabilitation (VR)? VR is a nationwide federal-state program for assisting eligible people with disabilities to define a suitable employment goal and become employed. Each state has a central VR Agency, and there are local offices in most states. VR provides medical, therapeutic, counseling, education, training, and other services needed to prepare people with disabilities for work. VR is an excellent place for a youth or adult with a disability to begin exploring available training and support service options. For more information on VR programs funded under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and where the central VR office is located in your state, visit the Job Accommodation Network, at: https://askjan.org/cgi-win/TypeQuery.exe?902
School Health Services and School Nurse Services
School health services have long been a part of IDEA's related services definition. In IDEA 2004, the term has been changed to school health services and school nurse services, with the following definition at §300.34(c)(13):

(13) School health services and school nurse services means health services that are designed to enable a child with a disability to receive FAPE as described in the child's IEP. School nurse services are services provided by a qualified school nurse. School health services are services that may be provided by either a qualified school nurse or other qualified person.

Returning to an issue that was raised under Medical Services, many children with disabilities, especially those who are medically fragile, could not attend school without the supportive services of school nurses and other qualified people. Over the years, the extent of the health-related services that are provided in schools has grown, as might be expected when you consider medical advances in the last decade alone. In Cedar Rapids Community School District v. Garret F., the question of whether or not public agencies are responsible for providing health-related supports that are complex or continuous was settled. They are, "only to the extent that the services allow a child to benefit from special education and enable a child with a disability to receive FAPE" (71 Fed. Reg. at 46574-5). What was previously called "school health services" in IDEA has been expanded to distinguish between services that are provided by a qualified nurse and those that may be provided by other qualified individuals.

States and local school districts often have guidelines that address school health services and school nurse services. These may include providing such health-related support as:

special feedings;

clean intermittent catheterization;

suctioning;

the management of a tracheostomy;

administering and/or dispensing medications;

planning for the safety of a child in school;

ensuring that care is given while at school and at school functions to prevent injury (e.g., changing a child's position frequently to prevent pressure sores);

chronic disease management; and

conducting and/or promoting education and skills training for all (including the child) who serve as caregivers in the school setting.

Social Work Services in Schools
Issues or problems at home or in the community can adversely affect a child's performance at school, as can a child's attitude or behavior in school. Social work services in schools may become necessary in order to help a child benefit from his or her educational program. They are also a familiar related service, included in IDEA from its early days, and are currently defined at §300.34(c)(14) as follows:

(14) Social work services in schools includes-

(i) Preparing a social or developmental history on a child with a disability;

(ii) Group and individual counseling with the child and family;

(iii) Working in partnership with parents and others on those problems in a child's living situation (home, school, and community) that affect the child's adjustment in school;

(iv) Mobilizing school and community resources to enable the child to learn as effectively as possible in his or her educational program; and

(v) Assisting in developing positive behavioral intervention strategies. [§300.34(c)(14)]
Speech-Language Pathology
Speech-language pathology services are provided by speech-language professionals and speech-language assistants, in accordance with state regulations, to address the needs of children and youth with disabilities affecting either speech or language. IDEA defines this related service at §300.34(c)(15) as:

(15) Speech-language pathology services includes-

(i) Identification of children with speech or language impairments;

(ii) Diagnosis and appraisal of specific speech or language impairments;

(iii) Referral for medical or other professional attention necessary for the habilitation of speech or language impairments;

(iv) Provision of speech and language services for the habilitation or prevention of communicative impairments; and

(v) Counseling and guidance of parents, children, and teachers regarding speech and language impairments.

Speech-language pathology services are longstanding related services in IDEA. They are also crucial in the education of many children with disabilities. More than 1.3 million children were served under the disability category of "speech or language impairments" in the school year 2013-14 (U.S. Department of Education, 2016).
Transportation
Transportation is included in an eligible child's IEP if the IEP team determines that such a service is needed in order for the child to benefit from his or her special education. The term has a specific meaning. IDEA defines transportation as:

travel to and from school and between schools;

travel in and around school buildings; and

specialized equipment (such as special or adapted buses, lifts, and ramps), if required to provide special transportation for a child with a disability. [§300.34(c)(17)]

The last bullet isn't just talking about a separate bus that only children with disabilities ride to school. The Department of Education states, "It is assumed that most children with disabilities will receive the same transportation provided to nondisabled children" (Id.), in keeping with LRE requirements. Thus, transportation as a related services may also mean providing modifications and supports so that a child may ride the regular school bus transporting children without disabilities. (71 Fed. Reg. at 46576).

As part of longstanding OSEP policy and numerous written policy letters, memos, and summaries, public school districts must provide transportation to children with disabilities in two situations. These are:

if a district provides transportation to and from school for the general student population, then it must provide transportation for a child with a disability; and

if a school district does not provide transportation for the general student population, then the issue of transportation for children with disabilities must be decided on a case-by-case basis if the IEP Team has determined that transportation is needed by the child and has included it on his or her IEP.

Not all children with disabilities are eligible to receive transportation as a related service. A child's need for transportation as a related service and the type of transportation to be provided must be discussed and decided by the IEP team. If the team determines that the child needs this related service to benefit from her or her special education, a statement to that effect must be included in the IEP, along with relevant details and arrangements.

In Conclusion

That was quite a list, wasn't it? You no doubt now have a very good sense of how extensive, well-thought-out, and important related services actually are for children with disabilities who need them. It's no wonder the term so often appears with its buddy, special education.

References

American School Counselor Association. (n.d.). Role of the school counselor. Alexandria, VA: Author. Retrieved November 1, 2017 from: https://www.schoolcounselor.org/administrators/role-of-the-school-counselor.aspx

American Therapeutic Recreation Association. (n.d.). Information sheet: Recreational therapy and school systems. Hattiesburg, MS: Author. Available online at: https://www.atra-online.com/assets/pdf/Info_Schools.pdf

Cedar Rapids Community School District v. Garrett F, 526 U.S. 66 (1999). Available online at: www.wrightslaw.com/law/caselaw/case_Cedar_Rapids_SupCt_990303.htm

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2016). Quick statistics about hearing. Bethesda, MD: Author. Available online at: https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/quick-statistics-hearing

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2017, March). Cochlear implants (NIH Publication No. 00-4798). Bethesda, MD: Author. Available online at:
https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/cochlear-implants

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2017, June). Your baby's hearing screening (NIH Publication No. 11-4968). Bethesda, MD: Author. Available online at: https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/your-babys-hearing-screening

Supreme Court adopts bright-line test in medical services case. (1999, March 12). The Special Educator, 14(15), 1, 6-7.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Fast facts: Students with disabilities Washington, DC: Author. Available online at:
https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=64

**Highly Rated Resource! This resource was reviewed by 3-member panels of Parent Center staff working independently from one another to rate the quality, relevance, and usefulness of CPIR resources. This resource was found to be of "High Quality, High Relevance, High Usefulness" to Parent Centers.
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Would you like to read about another component of the IEP?

If so, use the links below to jump there quickly.
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Present Levels
How is the child currently doing in school? How does the disability affect his or her performance in class? This type of information is captured in the "present levels" statement in the IEP.

Annual Goals
Once a child's needs are identified, the IEP team works to develop appropriate goals to address those needs. Annual goal describe what the child is expected to do or learn within a 12-month period.

Related Services
To help a child with a disability benefit from special education, he or she may also need extra help in one area or another, such as speaking or moving. This additional help is called related services. Find out all about these critical services here.

Accommodations in Assessment
IDEA requires that students with disabilities take part in state or districtwide assessments. The IEP team must decide if the student needs accommodations in testing or another type of assessment entirely. In this component of the IEP, the team documents how the student will participate.

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Current as of November 2017 This info in Spanish | Esta información en español The IEP must contain a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child.

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What Does Mainstreaming Mean? – Masters in Special Education Degree Program Guide

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The federal IDEA mandate requires Mainstreaming of students with special needs, but what does this mean? There are other terms, like inclusion, that seem to be used interchangeably with this concept, too. What do they mean for my special needs child, or for my "normal" child in a classroom with special needs children?

Definition of The Term

Mainstreaming means that a school is putting children with special needs into classrooms with their peers who have no disabilities. According to Wikipedia, this is done during specific times of the day based on their skills. At other times, the special needs child may be studying in a resource room or "self-contained classroom." In that environment the student has access to more one-on-one time with special education teachers and aides.

Resource: Top 20 Online Master's in Special Education Degree Programs

Why Do Schools Implement this Practice?

The main reason mainstreaming is done is that the federal government mandates it. In the IDEA program, which is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, schools are charged with a concept called "LRE" or Least Restrictive Environment. In short, according to an Education.com article, students must not be discriminated against because of disabilities; they have the right to be educated with the general education population.

Another term, inclusion, has approximately the same intent, but obligates the school to place special needs students in regular classrooms even more of the time. The criteria for deciding how much time is appropriate are subjective and depend upon teacher and education specialist observations. The Least Restrictive Environment is deemed to be placement in close enough proximity to ensure that the students can interact and communicate with one another. Sometimes, though, putting special needs children in the mainstream hinders their learning and, when that happens, the mainstream agenda falls to second place against the primary goal of education.

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Including Special Needs Children in the Regular Classroom?

One study noted that students with disabilities had higher academic achievement when they divided their time between the resource room and the regular classroom. The special needs students also had higher self-esteem and developed better social skills. The non-disability peers became more tolerant and accepting.

There are some disadvantages as well. Special needs children may need more assistance from aides and teachers, taking time from the general student population. The general education teacher may not have the necessary training needed to work with the disabilities of special students. In addition, there may be social problems like rejection that arise from being included in the general student body. These students may become the target of bullying. Another disadvantage of the program is the cost of maintaining the special needs child with the general student population.

In general, the IDEA program says that schools must make every effort to maintain special needs students in the general classroom with the aid of supplemental services like teacher aides. It is only when educational goals are not being met that schools can consider removing children to special resource rooms. There are many benefits to these children spending some time in these resource rooms where they get individualized attention, but studies have shown that special needs students profit from time spent in a regular classroom with their peers. The goal of Mainstreaming is to achieve that balance between specialized education and regular class time which best serves the special needs student.

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The federal IDEA mandate requires Mainstreaming of students with special needs, but what does this mean? There are other terms, like inclusion, that seem to be used interchangeably with this concept, too. What do they mean for my special needs child, or for my "normal" child in a classroom with special needs children?

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUtR75sMBOc

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https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/at/cresource/q1/p02/

https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/at/cresource/q1/p02/#content-mobile

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGQ_7K35ysA

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What is Universal Design for Learning (UDL)?

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHZqHcBTJQM

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Intellectual disability in children signs causes and cures

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Assessment/Assessment Accommodations | Special Connections

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Assessment Accommodations
[ Teacher Tools] [ Case Studies]

Including All Students in State and District Assessments
Assessments for accountability are required by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, and participation in assessments, with accommodations as necessary, is required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997. The purpose of these assessments is to show the progress of a school toward proficiency on state academic content standards. In order to give an accurate picture of the achievement of students in a school, all of the students need to have an opportunity to take the tests and all of their scores need to count. In the past, some schools reported doing very well, only to find that they just tested a small percentage of their highest achieving students! More importantly, a picture of the assessment results for all of the students in a school shows where there is strength and where improvement is needed. An emphasis on improvement might not take place without illuminating where students are having the most difficulty.

For students with disabilities to be successful on these assessments, the first thing they need is instruction in the standards-based content covered by the assessments. Assuming they have had this instruction, with support provided through special education services and strategies described in the instruction part of this website, they need an opportunity to show what they have learned on a test - with access that is equal to the access provided to students without disabilities. For some students, this access can be increased through the use of assessment accommodations.

Defining Assessment Accommodations
One of the ways to make sure students can show what they know on tests (one kind of assessment) is by using testing accommodations. Accommodations are changes in the way a student takes a test, without changing the actual test itself. Using accommodations can be complicated - the goal is to find a balance that gives students equal access to the test, but does not make the test content easier. For example, allowing a student to mark answers to multiple choice test questions in the test booklet rather than on a separate answer sheet may make the test more accessible to that student but does not make the content any easier. On the other hand, using any of the accommodations like those commonly seen on "Who Wants to be a Millionaire"- call a friend (get help), or cut out 2 of the answers (change the test), definitely make a test easier and do not really give students an equal chance to show what they know.

Accommodations are typically categorized according to whether they are changes in presentation (e.g., directions or items read aloud), response (e.g., mark answer in the test booklet), setting (e.g., use of a study carrel), or timing/scheduling (e.g., frequent breaks). Here is a brief description of each of these categories. Clicking on any of the titles in the next section will open a page of more detailed information.

1. Presentation Accommodations allow students to access test directions or content in ways that do not require them to visually decode standard print. Students with print disabilities (defined as an inability to visually decode standard print because of a physical, sensory, or cognitive disability) may require alternate visual, tactile, or auditory formats.

2. Response Accommodations allow students to record responses to test questions in alternate ways or to solve or organize a response using some type of material or device.

3. Timing/Scheduling Accommodations change the allowable length of testing time and may also change the way the time is organized.

4. Setting Accommodations change the location in which an assessment is given or the conditions of the assessment setting.

Classifying Accommodations as "Okay" or "Not Okay"
When choosing assessment accommodations with a particular student, it is important to look at state policy to determine whether the accommodations are considered "okay" or "not okay" to use. Distinctions between "okay" and "not okay" accommodations terminology has really evolved over time. In state policies, a variety of terms are used to indicate whether a change in test materials or procedures is considered to be "okay" or "not okay" - i.e., to produce "valid" or "not valid" scores. "Not okay" accommodations are commonly referred to as modifications, adaptations, alterations, and nonstandard, nonallowable, or nonapproved accommodations (Thurlow & Wiener, 2000). The terminology can be confusing and terms may have different meanings in various contexts.

For many years, terminology used to indicate testing changes has been variable from one place to the next and often contradictory in meaning. An analysis of the terminology used in 2001 policies to distinguish between test changes that produce "okay" and "not okay" scores reveals that terminology is changing (Thurlow, Lazarus, Thompson, & Robey, 2002). For example, only one state continues to use the term "modification" to indicate a test change that produces valid scores. Most states' policies distinguish between test changes that are viewed as "okay" and those that are viewed as "not okay." The terms that states used to reflect this distinction include:

accommodation vs. modification

allowed vs. not allowed

standard vs. non-standard

permitted/permissible vs. not permitted/non-permissible

reportable vs. not reportable

Familiarity with state policy on accommodations is essential. It is important to know that some accommodations are considered nonstandard or nonallowable. These kinds of accommodations may have consequences attached. For example, in some states, using a "not okay" accommodation results in a test score that is not counted, or it might even affect the kind of diploma that is awarded (if the test counts toward earning a diploma). Each state has guidelines for the use of accommodations for accountability assessments. To find the guidelines for your state, click here: http://education.umn.edu/nceo/TopicAreas/Accommodations/StatesAccomm.htm and then click on the name of your state.

You may need to contact someone in the assessment unit of your state education department to check on the use of a particularly unique accommodation. Obtaining this information may be the job of your school or district assessment administrator. Take the time to find out what your state considers valid or "okay" - it may be different from what you think, and you could be taking the chance of having a student's score not count.

Some accommodations are really conditions that are available to everyone and not questioned. For example, any student can wear eyeglasses or hearing aids while taking a test.

The size of a group in which a student is tested also varies from the school's auditorium, cafeteria, or library to a small classroom or even a study carrel.

On the other hand, some changes are rarely or never considered "okay." For example, helping students in any way does not give a true picture of what students know. Helping includes coaching, editing student work, answering questions, or giving cues in any way, including gestures, facial expressions, or encouragement to change an answer. It is important to simply encourage students to do their best. Changing the content of a test to make it easier for students who have not learned the content being tested also invalidates a test, especially if the test is designed to be used for accountability. These changes might include allowing a student to answer fewer questions, reducing the number of responses required, or changing the content by paraphrasing or offering additional information.

Using Accommodations in the Classroom
Students need to have opportunities to learn to use accommodations in classroom settings, and they also need to be able to practice taking tests using accommodations. The accommodations described in this section also apply to classroom tests. The testing conditions for classroom tests should be as close as possible to those of district or state testing situations to increase a student's comfort level and allow for the best possible performance. Once again, the goal of accommodations is not to make a test easier, it is simply to improve access, giving students a better opportunity to show what they know and can do. There is a whole section in the instructional area of this website devoted to instructional accommodations.

Deciding Which Accommodations to Use
Decisions about which accommodations to use are very individualized and should be made for each student by the student's IEP team. That's why it is vital for every member of each student's IEP team to be well informed about accommodations for both assessment and instruction.

One of the first steps in deciding which assessment accommodations to use involves consideration of the accommodations used by a student for classroom instruction. Consider accommodations in light of each test and how a student's disability may interfere with access. It is important to get each student's input about familiar and comfortable accommodations and ask what would be most helpful during testing. Teachers and other members of each student's IEP team should have information about the way the student learns best and types of accommodations that the student has used in the classroom on assignments and during previous testing. If this information is not readily available, it may be helpful to work with a student prior to his or her IEP meeting and try out a variety of accommodations in the classroom in order to figure out what works well.

The tendency may be to recommend the use of a variety of accommodations, with the assumption that "the more accommodations, the better, " or "at least somethingwill help" a student to do his or her best. Unfortunately, this hit or miss approach does not necessarily enhance a student's access to a test. Every student with a disability does not need an accommodation, nor do all students with the same disability need the same accommodations. For example, students with low vision may simply wear glasses or contact lenses, or use a hand held magnifier, computerized magnification, several different sizes of large print, Braille, or audio presentation. A student with difficulty reading print because of a learning disability may use no accommodation, a human reader, a cassette tape or compact disc, or a screen reader. The ultimate decision about whether to use an accommodation rests on each student and his or her preferences and abilities. The ultimate effectiveness of the use of an accommodation depends on a student's familiarity and opportunity to practice using it in everyday life - in the classroom, at home, and in the community.

Including Students in the Decision Making Process
Students can play a significant role, with the support of their IEP teams, in choosing and using test accommodations. A study conducted by the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) sheds light on student understanding of high stakes testing and accommodations. Nearly 100 high school students with learning disabilities were interviewed about their participation in state tests that they have to pass in order to graduate from high school (Thompson, Thurlow, & Walz, 2000). Most of the students were in grades 10 - 12 and ages 15 - 18. NCEO wanted to know whether the students had taken the state tests and whether they had passed tests in Reading, Math, and Writing. Students were also asked what accommodations they used for statewide testing, in their daily classes, and what accommodations they thought might be most helpful to them in the future. Some of the findings are described below:

Ninety percent of the students interviewed knew whether they had taken the state tests.

Most students knew whether they had passed each test.

About three quarters of the students tested said that they had used accommodations; only two students did not know what accommodations were.

Older students (grades 11-12) were more likely to use accommodations than younger students (grades 9-10).

Most students used three or fewer accommodations, including extended time, testing in a separate room in a small group, having directions repeated, and reviewing test directions in advance.

Many of the accommodations students used for testing were also used in daily classroom activities, including extended time, working in a small group or in a separate room, having tests read aloud, and having directions repeated.

Other classroom accommodations students used that would not work for tests included books on tape, reduced amounts of reading, note taker, copy notes and/or directions from chalkboard or overheads.

About two thirds of the students were able to list accommodations that would be helpful to them in their future adult lives. The other third either did not know what would be helpful, or thought they probably would not need accommodations in the future.

The results of this study show that students can have an understanding of accommodations and underscore the importance of student participation in the decision making process. Students can provide information to choose accommodations that can help them do their best. In addition, it is important for students to understand the purpose of each test they take and the consequences of their scores, especially if the test is used to determine graduation status.

For students with disabilities, understanding their disabilities and learning self-advocacy strategies are critical for success in school. Some students have had limited experience expressing personal preferences and advocating for themselves. Speaking out about their preferences, particularly in the presence of "authority figures," may be a new role for students, one for which they need guidance and feedback. Teachers can play a key role in working with students to advocate for themselves in the context of choosing accommodations for testing. In addition, these skills can be used throughout a student's daily life, and on into post-secondary education, career, and community life.

Documenting Accommodations on a Student's IEP
Once a decision has been made about which accommodations will be used during testing, it is important to document the process and the accommodations. IDEA requires that accommodations used by students on assessments be documented on each student's Individualized Education Program (IEP). The law says:

"Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) must include a statement of any individual modifications in the administration of state or district wide assessments of student achievement that are needed for the student to participate in such assessments." 34 CFR 300.347 (a)(5)(i)

Documenting Accommodations on a Student's 504 Accommodations Plan
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires public schools to provide accommodations to students with disabilities even if they do not qualify for special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The definition of a disability under Section 504 is much broader than the definition under the IDEA. All IDEA students are also covered by Section 504, but not all Section 504 students are eligible for services under IDEA. Section 504 states:

No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States... shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. (29 U.S.C. 794)

Here are examples of students who may receive assessment accommodations based on their 504 accommodations plan:

students with communicable diseases (i.e., hepatitis),

students with temporary disabilities from accidents who may need short term hospitalization or homebound recovery,

students with allergies or asthma,

students who are drug addicted or alcoholic, as long as they are not currently using illegal drugs,

students with environmental illnesses, and

students with attention difficulties.

Following Through on Test Day
On the day of a test, teachers or other members of a student's IEP team can make sure the test administrator (sometimes called a proctor) knows what accommodations a student will be using. For example, the proctor needs to know whether a student will be allowed extra time to complete the test. In addition, the proctor needs to know specifically how to implement each accommodation. For example, when the proctor states, "Time is up, put your pencils down and leave the room," there must be a plan for how a student receiving extra time can continue working. One state did a study of assessment accommodation implementation. They looked at what students had listed on their IEPs and then researchers visited schools on test day to see what accommodations the students actually received. They found that the room a student was tested in was more likely to determine which accommodations he or she received than what was listed on the IEP. For example, if a student was in a room where a teacher decided to read the test to the group, then the student received a read-aloud accommodation, or if the student was in a room where a teacher decided that all students would read the test to themselves, no read-aloud accommodations were provided. It did not appear that the test administrators had seen any of the students' IEPs. Here is a summary of what to avoid:

Teachers and other test administrators making "on the spot" decisions about what accommodations a student needs for testing,

Giving an accommodation to everyone in a room because of convenience, and

Not giving an individual an accommodation because he or she is the only one in the room who needs it.

Schools need to plan for who will need what accommodation and how each accommodation will be implemented and monitored on test day. Some schools use an accommodation request form that is completed by a student's IEP team. Information about all students can be compiled on a data base that has each student's name, accommodations needed, and logistics for providing the accommodation on test day.

Increasing Access in Other Ways
There are other important ways to increase a student's access to assessments. These include teaching students test taking strategies, designing tests that are more accessible to a greater population of students, making sure that all students have opportunities to learn the content that is being assessed, and motivating students to do their best.

Test Taking Strategies
Sometimes improving a student's test-taking skills will help reduce the need for accommodations. For example, students need to learn strategies for answering objective and subjective test questions, and tips like skimming a test before beginning work, marking unknown questions and returning to them, and identifying key words.

Universally designed assessments
We are learning to think more carefully about the design of tests and test items from the beginning to be sure that they can be accessed by today's diverse test participants. In using the term "universal design" we have sought to produce "optimal standard assessment conditions". With this is mind, we have identified things that the test developers must do, such as ensure that all item tryouts and field testing involves an inclusive assessment population, and established legibility and graphics guidelines are followed. Primarily, however, we have identified things that item developers must keep in mind as they develop items and put them together (Thompson & Thurlow, 2002). These apply to all kinds of tests and include:

Inclusive assessment population - Think about all students who will participate in the assessment when developing items. Ideally, examinees would be afforded equal opportunity to prepare for a test.

Precisely defined test content - Define what is to be tested so that irrelevant cognitive, sensory, emotional, and physical barriers can be removed.

Accessible, non-biased items - Build accessibility into items from the beginning, and use bias review teams to ensure that quality is retained in all items.

Amenable to accommodations - Test design facilitates the use of needed accommodations (e.g., all items can be brailled).

Simple, clear, and intuitive instructions and procedures - Making sure that students are easily able to follow the directions for taking a test.

Maximum readability and comprehensibility - Using, for example, plain language strategies and other approaches that reduce ambiguity and increase understandability.

Maximum legibility - Characteristics that ensure easy decipherability are applied to text, tables, figures and illustrations, and response formats.

Computer-Based Assessments
Several states are working toward the administration of state tests via computer. There are many important considerations to keep in mind in the development and administration of computer-based assessments. These considerations are described for each accommodation in a report by the National Center on Educational Outcomes.

Opportunities to learn the content assessed
Students who have not learned the material on a test will not be helped by accommodations, test-taking strategies, or universally designed assessments. There are many wonderful sections on this website designed to help students access and achieve academic content standards.

Motivation
Students need to be clear about the purpose and importance of a test and be motivated to do their best. A high school principal was recently heard bemoaning the fact that the students knew the state tests didn't count for anything for them personally and responded by just filling in the bubbles on the answer sheet without really trying. Several students also said that on the reading test, they did not bother to read the passages, they just read the questions and made a feeble attempt to answer them. Accommodations would not have helped these students. The school administration had sent the message to the students that the tests and the laws requiring them were not important.

Finding Research on Accommodations
There are many types of accommodations, and there is a need for research to help guide us in making better decisions about accommodations used for students with disabilities. Fortunately, research is accumulating. Still, most decisions continue to be made on the basis of, experience, thoughtful consideration, and expert judgment. The National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) website provides information about accommodation policies and use nationwide (see www.education.umn.edu/nceo). In addition, NCEO offers a review of accommodation research with a searchable database.

The National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) summarized findings from research on the effects of accommodations through the study of 46 empirical research studies on accommodations published from 1999 through 2001 (Thompson, Blount, & Thurlow, 2002). Three accommodations showed a positive effect on student test scores across at least four studies: computer administration, oral presentation, and extended time (see the table below). However, additional studies on each of these accommodations also found no significant effect on scores or alterations in item comparability.

Positive Effect on Scores

No Effect on Scores

Comparability Altered

Comparability Not Altered

Computer Use

Burk (1999); Calhoon et al. (2000);
Russell & Plati (2000);
Russell (1999)

Brown & Augustine (2001);
Haaf et al. (1999); Hollenbeck et al. (1999a)

Helwig et al. (2000); Hollenbeck et al. (1999b)

Oral Presentation (read aloud)

Fuchs et al. (2000a);
Fuchs et al. (2000b);
Helwig et al. (1999);
Johnson et al. (2000);
Meloy et al. (2000);
Weston (1999)

Kosciolek & Ysseldyke (2000)

Barton & Huynh (2000); Bielinski et al. (2001)

Pomplun & Omar (2000)

Extended Time

DiCerbo et al. (2001);
Huesman & Frisbie (2000);
Medina (2000);
Zuriff (2000)

Marquart (2000);
Schulte et al. (2001);
Walz et al. (2000)

Student-Paced Video

Hollenbeck et al. (2000)

Examiner Familiarity

Szarko (2000)

Type of Calculator

Hanson et al. (2001)</td>

Simplified Language

Tindal et al. (2000)

Sign Language

Johnson et al. (2001)

Meta Analysis

Chiu & Pearson (1999);
Elliott et al. (2001)
McKevitt (2000) McKevitt et al. (1999) (2000)

Developed by: Sandra J. Thompson, Ph.D., Research Associate, National Center on Educational Outcomes, University of Minnesota

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Assessment Accommodations [ Teacher Tools] [ Case Studies] Including All Students in State and District Assessments Assessments for accountability are required by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, and participation in assessments, with accommodations as necessary, is required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997.

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https://www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/getting-started/what-you-need-to-know/what-are-learning-disabilities

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6.4 instruction for learning disabilities 

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6.4 instruction for learning disabilities 

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Do2Learn: Educational Resources for Special Needs

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Do2Learn: Educational Resources for Special Needs

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picture communication cards, songs, games and learning activities for autism, aspergers, fetal alcohol syndrome and disabilities

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xMWtGozn5jU

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Teaching Students with ADHD - HelpGuide.org