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Language is used to maintain social bonds. Persuasive and argumentative skills reach near-adult levels

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Expository texts are used in school writing. Most information is presented in expository formats. Understand jokes and riddles based on deep structure ambiguity

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Stories include complex, embedded, and interactive episodes. Understand jokes and riddles based on lexical ambiguity

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Stories contain complete episodes with internal goals, motivations, and reactions of characters; some multi-episode stories appear. Language is used to establish and maintain social status. Increased perspective-taking allows for more successful persuasion. Provide conversational repairs: defining terms, giving background information. Begin to understand jokes and riddles based on sound similarities. Can perform successfully in simple referential communication tasks.

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Narratives are true stories expressing central focus, high point, and resolution

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Ability to address specific requests for clarification increases. Narratives express some plot but no high point or resolution.

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New functions emerge, including reporting on past events, reasoning, predicting, expressing empathy, creating imaginary roles and props, and maintaining interactions.

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More flexibility in requesting, including permission directives (Can you . . . ?) and indirect requests (Would you . . . ?); direct requests decrease in frequency. Narratives express theme and some temporal organization.

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Some requests for clarification provided. Use of language in play increases. Narratives express theme but no plot.

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Please’’ used for polite requests. New intents include symbolic play, talk about absent objects, misrepresentation. Narratives are characterized primarily by labels and descriptions.

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Word use increases as preverbal communication decreases. New intents include requesting information, answering questions. Frequency of communicative acts: 7.5/min. of free play

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Words replace preverbal means in expressing intent. Frequency of communicative acts: 5/min. of free play.

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Caregivers attribute intent to child’s actions