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This quatrain ultimately shows how closed Black practices have ironically been appropriated by white society for profit. In a nation full of blatant racism reigning from the beginning of its creation, white people get to pick and choose what aspects of Black culture they want. This is ultimately the exploitation of the muse. White musicians, writers, politicians, creators, etc have unapologetically borrowed aspects from Black culture to advance (white) society and (white) dominance. While Black people use their unique cultural characteristics as signifiers of community, white people infiltrate this and make it their own (a.k.a. stealing).

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déjà vu, n. an illusory feeling of having previously experienced a present situation; a form of paramnesia. [1]

Mullen's placement of "voo" after "déjà" references the term above which, in this context, represents the oppressive cycles African Americans experience. Its etymological roots stem from French, showing a syncretism of white and Black language in Postbellum urban centers. New Orleans, presented in the next line of this stanza, was a popular area for freed slaves to migrate to and mix with the existing white population.

Voodoo, n. A religion practiced in parts of the Caribbean (esp. Haiti) and the southern United States, combining elements of Roman Catholic ritual with traditional West African magical and religious rites, and characterized by belief in sorcery and spirit possession. [2]

Voodoo represents another combination of European and African culture, specifically religion, that was widely practiced in the city of New Orleans. Most voodoo queens were POC, with the most famous being Marie Laveau (a Louisiana creole) in the 19th century. Since voodoo practices involve rituals, talismans, and is a polytheistic religion, it is unpopular with the Christian, white population. It is a closed practice usually passed down through generations; however, during the 20th century, Hollywood made movies wrongly depicting the religion further condemning practitioners to negative stereotypes.

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During the Great Flood of 1927, New Orleans underwent great destruction that displaced around 700,000 people. During evacuation efforts, white citizens were offered the first rounds of aid and, if there were no boats left for escape, Black citizens were left to fend for themselves. [3]

The disregard for communities of color shows how the dominant culture does not care for or protect Black bodies.

New Orleans was a hub of success during Antebellum America and was known to be a hot-spot of slave and plantation owners. After the Civil War, Black populations "flooded" into the urban center and made it home; however, this came with disadvantages since many white families continued to hold confederate values. [4]

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Black people have been stereotyped to have abnormal sexual practices and inherently sexual bodies. This has allowed for the condemnation of Black people as sexual partners since they are too "animalistic." This stems from representations of Sarah Baartman during European colonization that depicted Baartman with a curvy, over-exaggerated butt. Black women continue to be exploited as overly sexual beings. [5]

The thought of Black women and men having "kinky, unusual" sex puts them outside hegemonic ideals of sex (known as the sex hierarchy). This is another form of labeling that makes Black people the outsiders (produced by white society).

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The religious traditions and stereotypes put onto Black communities create a discomfort within "guests." The guest is a white person visiting an urban center that has a large Black population. Obviously, they are an outsider to the closed culture of African Americans and thus are not able to enjoy their "vacation."

The mixing of culture and races further creates negative feelings, as seen through the caste systems that colonizers used when determining someones rank based on skin color. If a white man had children with a WOC, that would drop the child's rank in relation to the "pure-blood" father.

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Widely used on candles in Catholic churches in Mexico (and other places in Latin America), Our Lady of Guadeloupe is the representation of the Virgin Mary. She serves as an important religious symbol in Mexico as well as a symbol of nationalism. Her image has been used on banners for wars fought in Mexico. [6]

The reference to this "[figure] with [a] lit [wick]" serves as another signifier of European religions infiltrating the native customs of regions that were colonized. She also represents a muse, a symbol of power beyond the physical body, and ethereal strength. She is sexually pure; therefore, not defined within the bounds of drudge.

This line can also take a second meaning that represents aggressiveness ("lit wicks") towards people who are trying to force dominant culture upon communities of color.

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"Switch" in this line acts as a signifier for code-switching, a common practice used by African Americans when they switch from AAVE to more "formal" language. Of course, in this context, they have to switch to a white vernacular to allow outsiders of the Black community feel a type of comfortability. This line signifies a cognitive point in a Black person's mind in which they have to switch out of AAVE to accommodate white society.

Mullen employs this reference to show how the burden falls onto Black people to make others comfortable, instead of the opposite.

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The Cost of Code Switching | Chandra Arthur | TEDxOrlando

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rumba, n. An Afro-Cuban dance; a ballroom dance imitative of this, danced on the spot with a pronounced movement of the hips. [7]

n. U.S. slang. A drinking spree, a binge. [8]

With the inclusion of an Afro-Cuban dance, that is often used as a form of celebration, Mullen aims to show that the end of slavery brought great change for African Americans; however, we know that complete equality was not (and is still not) granted. Nevertheless, Black bodies were now able to move "freely" across the country, just like the free, energetic rumba.

With the end of slavery, African Americans were able to drink alcohol and partake in other leisurely activities done by white Americans. Their "chains" were seemingly "removed."

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Rumba in Cuba, a festive combination of music and dances and all the practices associated

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In the Postbellum era, freed slaves were able to share and spread the customs and culture that were a directly created by slavery ("folkways"). They were able to call new places their homes ("turfs") and Black people congregated in similar sections of America. Of course, this wasn't natural, this congregation was a result of segregation laws that allowed Black people to only live in certain areas.

"Turfs" can also refer to the plantation fields slaves once had to work on; "folkways" are the beliefs and culture that resulted from slavery.

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This line aims to signify the murdering of Black bodies and how Black communities are often highly targeted by police—an institution created in America to originally catch slaves.

dispatch, n. Making away with by putting to death; killing; death by violence. [9]

The first two words in this stanza represent the killing of Black people. "Do do run run" can be a repetition of the words "do run" which would be the fleeing of slaves or (in the modern era) Black people running away from police brutality and structural racism. "Do do run run" is also a reference to "Da Doo Run Run" by The Crystals in which the phrase seems to act as onomatopoeia; however, people theorize that it's actually used as "etcetera." Mullen employs this to say that there are many different attacks by white people onto Black bodies/culture, not just physical killing.

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Graffiti is an art form popular in urban areas that are often spray-painted along structures. In the 20th century, it was often used for tagging an area as one's domain. This created a negative connotation around the art form. Many people began to believe that graffiti was done by gang members in low-income areas.

Since the end of slavery, the American system as often condemned Black communities to areas of poverty since social mobility is difficult in a capitalistic society. Due to the high amount of Black people in low income communities, Black people (and also Hispanics) became tied to graffiti (both seemingly "criminal").

"Brierpatch" is a reference to Br'er Rabbit stories, folktales told across the world but believed to have stemmed from Africa. Br'er Rabbit is usually read as signifying Black people and therefore the briar patch represents Black communities.

With this line working in conjunction with the previous, Mullen is explaining how Black areas in cities have been infiltrated by the dominant culture that disregards their bodies and artistic culture.

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Graffiti culture - criminal activity or artistic expression? | Brian Garcia | TEDxBangsar

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"The Goophered Grapevine" was the first article in the Atlantic Monthly written by an African American author. This article illustrated the horrors and cruelty of slavery. [10]

"telegraph" and "grapevine" represent the saying "i heard it through the grapevine" which is the spread of information through verbal communication.

The infiltration of police, slave trappers, and other white figures after the bodies of Black people were often unwarranted; therefore, the Black community had to stick closely together to warn each other of the horrors they've observed and to spread caution around the area.

The African American community also spread customs, folktales, and beliefs from separate regions of Africa through speech which came to form a whole new, closed culture.

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The drums being referred to are snare drums.

snare, n. A device for capturing small wild animals or birds, usually consisting of a string with a running noose in which a foot or the head may be caught. Also in figurative context. [11]

Mullen is using this line as a metaphor for traps used to catch animals. Since Black people were often viewed as animalistic, primal, and dehumanized by hegemonic structure, Mullen is referring to the capturing of Black bodies (whether for incarceration or enslavement).

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"Mad dog" is a reference to Harper Lee's novel To Kill A Mockingbird. The mad dog in the narrative is meant to depict racism. [12]

Kiwis are a fruit with a brown, fuzzy exterior.

"Antifreezes" can be read as "anti-freezes."

With the combination of these three meanings, this line aims to say that people with darker skin (POC) can not stay still while racism continues to be prevalent in America. There is a constant yearn for the capture of their bodies and the exploitation of their labor and/or culture. This anti-freezing can be seen in the great migration north by freed slaves who were experiencing horrible treatment by white communities in the south that still held confederate values.

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Spittle, n. A house or place for the reception of the indigent or diseased; a charitable foundation for this purpose, esp. one chiefly occupied by persons of a low class or afflicted with foul diseases. [13]

"Spittle" and "anguished" show how racism acts as a disease in Black neighborhoods. It is an inescapable, non-tangible thing that proliferates throughout their areas. It takes bodies and everyone is affected by it.

"Spittle" is also another term for spit, especially when projected from the mouth. This definition represents the way the dominant culture looks down upon Black people.

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Skid Row is an area in Los Angeles known for its homeless population. By making skid row a verb, Mullen is explaining that no matter how much "elbow grease" (hard work) Black Americans do, it is very difficult for them to climb the social latter.

"Downwind" conveys the feelings of these people. Due to the impossible fight against the system, there are feeling of resentment and depression throughout Black Americans. Mullen is trying to show why it is important for Black communities to stick together and find appreciation in their culture and bodies.

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"Monkey Wrench" is a reference to a Foo Fighters song that speaks upon the experience of a man who feels as if he's being used to a woman's disposal.

Mullen alludes to this song since this is how Black Americans feel living in a society that wants to steal their bodies, force European religion and language onto them, and also appropriate the culture that makes Black communities unique.

"Nuts" and "Bolts" show how the hegemonic structure does not see Black people as whole, instead they are in need of correcting and, without white aid, Black people can not be whole. Therefore, Black Americans are seen as inherently partial.

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Voodoo and folktales are referenced in this quatrain of Muse and Drudge to represent white infiltrations on pre-exisitng African customs during the age of colonization, slavery, and Postbellum America. Voodoo originated in the Caribbean after colonization from Europe, however most of its roots are from Africa. Even though the religion had elements of Catholicism, it was condemned largely by the dominant culture because it had been "blackened." This shows how white society will try to exert their influence over Black communities but do not like when POC put their own touch into the mix (also a metaphor for interracial births/marriages).

While folktales aren't necessarily religions, they teach moral lessons and ethics. Folktales from Africa were often taken and twisted by white culture into forms that negatively depicted Black people. Mullen touched on folktales to represent the exploitation of Black culture for one's own purpose—with that purpose usually being to poke fun at the group the folktale originated from.

These ideals represent the muse, who is a non-tangible form of inspiration to the poet (hegemonic structure). The poet can paint, write about, or gain inspiration from the muse as he pleases. However, the muse does not have agency to exploit the poet for profit.

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The reference to Christianity allows Mullen to expose white society's forceful nature in creating a "civilized" nation. White people believe that their customs should be universal because they are the superior race. The allusion to Lady Guadeloupe show how European religion has syncretized with other cultures and is now a standard for many nations.

White society does not care about what the "primitive, uncultured" nations believe in, they will violently or politically exert their dominance in any way possible, even if it's through a seemingly loving religion.

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Mullen represents the unique, ever-changing Black urban landscape from Postbellum America into the modern period to show how Black communities have been hunted and exploited from periods of slavery to the late 20th century (when she wrote Muse and Drudge). Black neighborhoods in urban centers are often segregated from the rest and have rich culture. However, one may not realize this due to the poverty the Black population has been condemned to by racist systems. Mullen aims to show both sides: the rich and poor. Mullen also uses urban centers with predominantly Black populations to expose the wrongful actions of our modern day police and the blatant racism used to justify police brutality. Being Black is seemingly criminal and in these urban areas, Black people must come together to come up with tactics (such as warnings, code-switching, etc) to keep each other safe.

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In terms of the drudge, the dominant culture has put in place a racist system that acts as a disease across the nation, constantly taking Black bodies away from their families and neighborhoods. After slavery, Black people did not have correct access to healthcare, insurance, and were continually being targeted by law enforcement. The rights to medicare and other life-saving institutions were not attainably with hard work since most of the Black population during Postbellum America came from freed slaves who had no assets to their names. The attack on Black bodies continues in modern day in the form of police brutality and the flawed justice system that does not arrest white people who kill Black victims.

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Harryette's Mullen's Muse and Drudge represents a binary placed upon feminine figures (specifically Black women) that define them in the terms of the hegemonic structures (patriarchal, White society). The muse is meant to represent a woman who serves as an inspiration to the poet, and exhibits ethereal qualities that are not physical in nature; she is a form of inspiration and represents the positive side of the binary. The drudge, on the other hand, is a symbol of physicality and labor; her purpose is to serve as a sexual, working being for the poet to use at his disposal. Through Muse and Drudge, Mullen aims to break down this dichotomy by making the Black woman the subject of the poem; she is able to share her perspective (one that extends beyond herself and represents Black women as an identity) and represents both muse and drudge. This work is able to grasp the power of the dominant culture and reveal the intricacies of Black femininity, bodies, customs, and beliefs.

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In Muse and Drudge, Mullen exposes the faults in the Postbellum south that mirror similar problems Black people went through during slavery. The oppression of Black communities in southern states illuminates how slavery's end did not end subjugation by White society and the perpetual cycles Black people face, and continue to face, throughout American history. Mullen presents two types of infiltration by the dominant culture: the stealing of autonomy and the appropriation or condemnation of customs. Bodily abstraction represents the drudge; Black physicality has been targeted by White America due to various biological stereotypes and sexual representations originating from the age of colonization. The appropriation of Black culture and customs represents the muse; White people are able to pick and choose what aspects of the closed culture they want to profit of off and integrate them into dominant customs, while condemning the beliefs they don't believe fit. By presenting both types of thieving, Mullen shows hows Black communities are stripped of their bodies and culture; therefore, can not be defined through the binary, muse and drudge, since Black people are both. Mullen further depicts how, through acts of colonization, Europeans have forced their customs upon communities of color (to "civilize" them).

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[1]"déjà vu." oed.com. Oxford English Dictionary, 2021. 22 Nov. 2021.
[2] "Voodoo." oed.com. Oxford English Dictionary, 2021. 22 Nov. 2021.
[3] Rivera, Jason David, and DeMond Shondell Miller. “Continually Neglected: Situating Natural Disasters in the African American Experience.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, Sage Publications, Inc., 2007, pp. 502–22, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40034320.
[4] History of New Orleans, https://www.neworleans.com/things-to-do/history/.
[5] Hill, Collins, Patricia. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism, Taylor and Francis Group, 2004.

[6] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Our Lady of Guadalupe". Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 May. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Our-Lady-of-Guadalupe-patron-saint-of-Mexico. Accessed 22 November 2021.
[7] "Rumba." oed.com. Oxford English Dictionary, 2021. 22 Nov. 2021.
[8] "Rumba." oed.com. Oxford English Dictionary, 2021. 22 Nov. 2021.
[9] "Dispatch." oed.com. Oxford English Dictionary, 2021. 22 Nov. 2021.
[10] "The Goophered Grapevine ." Short Stories for Students. . Encyclopedia.com. 25 Oct. 2021 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
[11] "Snare." oed.com. Oxford English Dictionary, 2021. 22 Nov. 2021.
[12] “The Mad Dog as a Symbol.” To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee) - Behind the Story, https://tkambehindthestory.weebly.com/the-mad-dog-as-a-symbol.html.
[13] "Spittle." oed.com. Oxford English Dictionary, 2021. 22 Nov. 2021.
[14] Mullen, Harryette Romell. Recyclopedia: Trimmings, s*Perm**k*t, Muse & Drudge. Graywolf Press, 2006.

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Digital Annotation Muse and Drudge (107)

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In her poem Muse and Drudge, Mullen aims to bring the Black experience to the forefront and explain that the muse/drudge binary does not exist since Black ideals and bodies are stolen simultaneously. In this quatrain, she shows that, even after the end of slavery, the dominant culture continues to judge Black culture and control Black bodies. This is a great problem in urban centers, highlighted in this quatrain, since there are high populations of Black communities.  Both the muse and drudge are not able to move freely throughout America without being exploited or attacked. Mullen shows that ending racism is not easy, since the dominant culture condemns Black people into oppression no matter what.