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Political parties started to form during the struggle over ratification of the federal constitution of 1787. Federalists (favored a strong national government) and Anti-federalists (wanted state power).

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Landmark in 1896 where U.S. Supreme Court decision that uphold constitutional of racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine. The case stemmed from an 1892 incident in which African American train passenger Home Plessy refused to sit in a car for Black people.

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That petitioner was subsequently brought before the recorder of the city for preliminary examination and committed for trial to the criminal District Court for the parish of Orleans, where an information was filed against him in the matter above set forth, for a violation of the above act, which act

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Immigration after the American civil war

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Immigration after the American civil war

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Despite the prejudice and violence, immigration increased more than 500 percent from 1845 until 1855, with about three million immigrants coming to the United States. Almost 90 percent settled in the North or the West, where either jobs or cheap land, or both, were plentiful.

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The Event: Large-scale war fought between the Northern states of the Union and eleven Southern slaveholding states of the Confederacy that declared their secession from the United States

Date: 1861-1865

Location: Principally in the southern United States

Significance: Immigrants played leading roles in the Civil War and the reconstruction of the South. Apart from slavery, few issues were as important in Civil War America as immigrants and immigration policy. Immigrant settlement patterns in the earlier decades of the nineteenth century demonstrated an ever-deepening division between the North and the South that would soon explode into open war.

Federal troops firing on draft rioters in New York City. (Gay Brothers)

Fromthe founding of the United States through the first quarter of the nineteenth century, white American culture was generally homogenous; most whites were Protestant and could trace their ancestry to Great Britain. The slaves and free blacks in America were notable exceptions, but isolated pockets of non-British and/or non-Protestant whites were also scattered throughout America. The latter included French and Spanish in Louisiana and Florida, Germans in Pennsylvania and parts of the Carolinas, and the descendants of Dutch settlers in New York.

Several of the Founders, including Thomas Jefferson, were ambivalent about immigration and argued that it should be limited to those who were culturally and politically similar to native-born Americans. By the 1850's, however, most immigrants were either non-English speaking or non- Protestant. Local reactions were sometimes extreme. During the 1840's and 1850's, anti-immigrant riots occurred in New Orleans, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis. In the same decades, antipathy toward immigrants led to the development of the Know-Nothing Party, whose dominant plank was the restriction of immigration.

Immigrants on the Eve of the Civil War

Despite the prejudice and violence, immigration increased more than 500 percent from 1845 until 1855, with about three million immigrants coming to the United States. Almost 90 percent settled in the North or the West, where either jobs or cheap land, or both, were plentiful. German and Hungarian farmers tended to settle in the central and upper Midwest. By 1860, more than 1.25 million Americans of German descent lived in the United States.

Unskilled and semiskilled immigrants from Ireland, Wales, and Italy settled in urban or industrialized areas in Pennsylvania, New York, and New England. These immigrants, particularly the Irish, often found themselves competing against nativeborn white Americans and free blacks for lowpaying jobs. The million Irish immigrants who came to America were survivors of the Great Irish Famine (1845-1852) and could be both tenacious and incredibly brutal, as events in 1862-1863 would show.

From 1830 until 1860, relatively few immigrants settled in the South. The southern political elite opposed homesteading and government spending for infrastructure, such as canal or railroad construction. Further, there was less capital invested in industrial development in the South, thus fewer factory jobs for immigrants. Despite these facts, there were some immigrant communities in the South, especially in the cities. Historian David Gleeson points out that the population of Savannah, Memphis, and New Orleans ranged from 20 to 25 percent Irish. Besides the Irish, New Orleans had an economically strong community of free black immigrants from Haiti.

The vast numbers of immigrants who flooded into the North and West during the nineteenth century provided evidence of a vibrant, blended economy of small farms and urban centers with brisk entrepreneurial and industrial sectors. Far fewer immigrants settled in the South, where the single-crop farming economy was strong, but where job creation was less rapid, and where slave labor limited employment opportunities for unskilled laborers. During the CivilWar, immigrants provided a source of manpower for the North but proved troublesome as the war dragged on. Finally, after the war, northern and southern politicians contended over immigration policy in their efforts to reconstruct the South.

Immigrants in Uniform

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, America's standing army consisted of about seventeen thousand troops, stationed mostly along the western frontier. Many of these soldiers resigned to serve in the Confederate armed forces. To expand the northern army and to build the southern one, each national government depended upon militia troops raised by the states.

Fortunately for the states, there were literally hundreds of various semiprofessional military organizations connected haphazardly with various local governments. In the North, many of these had an ethnic flavor. When war broke out, these drilling societies and irregular companies, native-born or immigrant, were usually integrated into various state militias.

Confederate and Union Territories During Civil War

Immigrants could find themselves enrolled in a predominantly ethnic unit in another way. In 1861, most states encouraged local recruiting, allowing hundreds of men from small towns and counties to formtheir own companies and elect their own officers. Where large immigrant communities existed, new militia companies were predominantly foreign born. For example, the Ninth Ohio Volunteer Infantry consisted almost entirely of German immigrants, many with previous military experience in Germany. The unit's officers followed German military practices and issued commands in German. Similar units were raised in Wisconsin, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and New York. In all, about 200,000 German immigrants served in the Union forces.

About 140,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Union forces, with about one-third serving in New York State forces. The Army of the Potomac's famous Irish Brigade was made of a number of predominantly Irish units: the 63d, 69th, and 88th New York, the 28th Massachusetts, and the 116th Pennsylvania. Other famous Irish units included the Irish Legion: the 155th, 164th, 170th, and 180th New York, and the Hibernian Guards, a company of the 8th Ohio Volunteers.

New York's units were especially multicultural. One polyglot regiment from New York-the Garibaldi Guards-consisted of roughly three hundred Germans, three hundred Hungarians, one hundred Swiss, one hundred Italians, one hundred French, and one hundred combined Spanish and Portuguese.

Although immigrants also served in the Confederate forces, there were almost no distinctive immigrant units. Immigration patterns before the war explain this difference. Far fewer immigrants lived in the South, and their communities were smaller. A community of a few dozen families could hardly be expected to furnish the hundred volunteers necessary to forma company. In addition, some of the larger immigrant communities-such as the free black immigrants from Haiti in New Orleans- did not volunteer for the Confederacy.

Few immigrants were motivated to enlist by the political rhetoric of either the North or the South. In fact, as historians Richard F. Welch and Susannah U. Bruce point out, immigrants were more often moved to enlist by economic need or loyalty to neighbors, family, and friends who were themselves enlisting. Some Irish immigrants enlisted for military experience, hoping eventually to drive the English out of Ireland. Other immigrants weremotivated by fellow expatriates who personally appealed to them to enlist. In 1861-1863, the famous Irish general Thomas Francis Meagher was sent on many recruiting trips throughout New York to exhort Irish volunteers to enlist.

Immigrants on the Home Front

As the war developed, northern strategy demanded ever-increasing numbers of soldiers, yet the U.S. government was faced with increasing public disillusionment over the prosecution of the war, its casualties and costs.

In 1862, northern efforts to win the war were fruitless, marked by increasingly costly campaigns that failed to defeat the Confederacy. Public frustrations with repeated military disasters were intensified by the press. In 1861, many northern newspapers ran hawkish editorials demanding victory at all costs. By 1862, these were replaced by dovish pleading for peace at any price.

In light of defeatism in the press and military disasters in the field, voluntary enlistments plummeted. As a result, individual states in the North resorted to drafts to meet their federal quotas. As one might expect, these worsened an already sour public mood. Immigrant communities throughout the North expressed their frustrations violently. In 1862, there were antidraft riots in four states, including immigrant areas in the coalfields of Pennsylvania and the German American farming communities ofWisconsin. In each case, federal troops had to be sent in to quell the violence.

With lessons unlearned, the U.S. government in 1863 issued a new national draft, which provoked the worst outbreak of civil disorder in the country with the exception of the CivilWar itself. For three days, a largely Irish working-class mob plundered New York City, looting, burning, attacking police and city officials, and killing any black person it could find.

The New York City riot demonstrated the intensity of Irish immigrant anger over related issues: anger over the Emancipation Proclamation of January, 1863, which seemed to demonstrate perceived favoritism toward black people, as well as fear that the newly liberated slaves would flood the North and increase the economic pressure on the Irish. In short, the Irish of New York City-who competed with free black people for the lowest-paying industrial jobs, and who had themselves experienced extensive prejudice-believed that they were being forced to die so that others could be free to come North and take their jobs. Historian RichardWelch points out, in fact, that this had happened as late as June, 1862, when black workers were hired as "scab" laborers during a shipyard workers' strike.

Eventually, the riot was suppressed, and even the most militant immigrants learned that federal draft laws did not target them. In fact, far more of the rural, native-born poor were forced into service than their urban immigrant counterparts.

As one might expect, urban industrial workers were often exempted for economic reasons. The structural challenge faced by the federal government from1861 until 1865 was to expand the economy while replacing the vast numbers of experienced farmers and workers who were now in uniform. To meet this challenge, the federal government introduced new legislation to promote increased immigration to meet the demands of the wartime economy. In 1862-1863, Congress passed a homestead law and a law allowing immigration for the purposes of labor contracts. Previous versions of these bills had been proposed before the Civil War but had always been blocked by legislators in the South. As a result of these laws, immigration surged once again, with subsequent railroad expansion, as well as increased production of food, textiles, clothing, and military technologies.

The War's Aftermath

Prewar settlement patterns led to the northern and western immigrant communities that sometimes caused chaos in the North, yet which also contributed enormous numbers of soldiers to win the war. After the war, the status of certain immigrant groups increased tremendously in both the North and the South. Immigrants were perceived as a crucial element in various competing strategies for economic recovery in the South.

Northern politicians who loathed the prewar planter aristocracy and feared their return to power passed the Southern Homestead Act of 1866 with the goal of breaking up the larger plantations into small family farms that could be parceled out to new immigrants. Ironically, southern politicians also hoped for increased immigration of northern or western European immigrants. They hoped to increase immigration to the South in order to flood the labor market and drive down wages in the South, thereby bringing the newly liberated slaves once more into economic subservience.

With this goal in mind, most southern states founded commissions to market the region to prospective European immigrants. Although pursued vigorously, these efforts were usually unsuccessful. Of the three million immigrants who came to America from 1865 to 1873, almost none settled in the South. Some historians contend that these efforts failed because they were founded on the unrealistic belief that immigrants would passively accept the sort of living conditions and treatment that slaves had been forced to endure. In 1866, an Alabama planter persuaded a group of thirty Swedish immigrants to settle on his plantation. He fed, housed, and clothed them as he had formerly provided for his slaves. Nevertheles, they all quit within a week.

Michael R. Meyers
Further Reading
Anbinder, Tyler. "Which Poor Man's Fight? Immigrants and the Federal Conscription of 1863." CivilWar History 52, no. 4 (2006): 344-372. Study of conscription records demonstrating that immigrant groups were not unfairly targeted by federal draft laws in 1863.

Bruce, Susannah U. The Harp and the Eagle: Irish- American Volunteers and the Union Army, 1861- 1865. New York: New York University Press, 2006. Recounts the motives and exploits of Irish immigrants during the war.

Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877. New York: Perennial, 1989. Oneof the best studies of the politics of the era.

Gleeson, David T. The Irish in the South, 1815-1877. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. One of the few modern studies of southern immigrants.

Kamphoefner, Walter, and Wolfgang Helbich, eds. Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home. Translated by Susan Carter Vogel. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006. Presents the views of German immigrants on the war.

McPherson, James. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Although not specifically about immigrants, perhaps the best single-volume history of the war.

Silverman, Jason H., and Susan R. Silverman. Immigration in the American South, 1864-1895. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 2006. Account of southern efforts to market the region to prospective immigrants.

Welch, Richard F. "The Green and the Blue." Civil WarTimes, October, 2006, 22-30.Ashort account of the Irish Fenian movement and the war.

Woodworth, Steven E. "The Other Rock." Civil War Times, October, 2003, 44-56. An article on the exploits of a German unit during the war.

See also: Abolitionist movement; African Americans and immigrants; European immigrants; German immigrants; History of immigration, 1783- 1891; Homestead Act of 1862; Irish immigrants; Military conscription; New York City.

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The Event: Large-scale war fought between the Northern states of the Union and eleven Southern slaveholding states of the Confederacy that declared their secession from the United States Date: 1861-1865 Location: Principally in the southern United States Significance: Immigrants played leading

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Was created to assure fair labor practices and workplace democracy nationwide. They have an impact on American companies everyday, as they investigate unfair labor practices by unions and employers.

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The renewed interest in organizing, together with the refusal of many employers to recognize the unions their employees wanted, triggered strikes in support of the organizing drives. By August 1933, the situation had become so severe that President Franklin Roosevelt created a National Labor Board (NLB) to bring about compliance with Section 7(a) and to mediate labor disputes.

He made Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York its chairman. Three industry representatives were selected for the NLB by the National Recovery Administration's Industry Advisory Board, and three labor members were picked by the NRA's Labor Advisory Board. In early 1934, President Roosevelt authorized the NLB to conduct union representation elections and handle violations of the NIRA codes.

The NLB, however, lacked any real power. The authority of the National Recovery Administration, which administered the Act, was limited to withdrawing an employer's privilege of displaying the Blue Eagle, emblematic of NLRA participation. By June 1934, when the NLB's authority expired, only four employers had been deprived of the Blue Eagle for violations of Section 7(a). Despite its problems in achieving voluntary compliance with Section 7(a), the NLB managed to settle 1,019 strikes, avert 498 others, and settle 1,800 other types of labor disputes.

Frustrated by the NLB's failure to achieve voluntary compliance with Section 7(a), Senator Wagner introduced a bill in February 1934 to set up a permanent tripartite agency that would mediate labor disputes. The new board would be empowered to conduct representation elections and to prevent "unfair labor practices" by issuing cease-and-desist orders. The bill encouraged collective bargaining and prohibited employers from interfering with the right of employees to organize.

Faced with mounting labor disputes, Congress in 1934 passed joint Public Resolution No. 44, authorizing the President to establish a new board as part of the NIRA. The board, called the National Labor Relations Board, would later be known as the "Old NLRB." Unlike the tripartite NLB, this "Old NLRB" was composed of three public members.

The "Old NLRB" was powerless to enforce Section 7(a), just as the NLB had been, but it was able to achieve compliance from many cooperative employers in the public spirit of the era, which looked to the NIRA to restore the economy to better times. Its decisions also provided a foundation for an emerging national labor policy of collective bargaining.

The voluntary codes of the NIRA collapsed in May 1935, when the Supreme Court ruled that the NIRA was unconstitutional.
Photos (top to bottom): First meeting of the "Old NLRB" in July 1934. From left: Edwin S. Smith, Harry A. Millis, and Chairman Lloyd Garrison;Charles T. Coiner of Philadelphia Pa., displays NRA Eagle, the insignia he created, July 1933.

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The renewed interest in organizing, together with the refusal of many employers to recognize the unions their employees wanted, triggered strikes in support of the organizing drives. By August 1933, the situation had become so severe that President Franklin Roosevelt created a National Labor Board (NLB) to bring about compliance with Section 7(a) and to mediate labor disputes.

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Anti-War movement. There have been peace movements during every American war, but the most famous is the movement started to protest the Vietnam War in the 1960s. Famously, an anti-war protest at Kent State in 1970 turned violent when the National Guard open-fired on protestors, killing four. Women who were involved in suffrage and social reform movements became engaged in the peace movement to form the Women’s Peace Party.

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Woman sought for equal rights, opportunities, and personal freedom. Organizations like NOW were created to lead protests and work for legislative change. Women marched and protested for equal pay, and equal rights amendment, access to reproductive rights, and more. Often called the Second Wave of feminism.

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A struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for Black Americans to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn’t end discrimination against Black people—they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans had had more than enough of prejudice and violence against them. They, along with many white Americans, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades.

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Civil Rights and the 1950s: Crash Course US History #39

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A series of programs and projects instituted by Franklin D Rosevelt. Aimed to restore prosperity to America.

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Black-and-White Negatives

In the summer of 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Governor of New York, was nominated as the presidential candidate of the Democratic Party. In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt addressed the problems of the depression by telling the American people that, "I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people." In the election that took place in the fall of 1932, Roosevelt won by a landslide.

The New Deal Roosevelt had promised the American people began to take shape immediately after his inauguration in March 1933. Based on the assumption that the power of the federal government was needed to get the country out of the depression, the first days of Roosevelt's administration saw the passage of banking reform laws, emergency relief programs, work relief programs, and agricultural programs. Later, a second New Deal was to evolve; it included union protection programs, the Social Security Act, and programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. Many of the New Deal acts or agencies came to be known by their acronyms. For example, the Works Progress Administration was known as the WPA, while the Civilian Conservation Corps was known as the CCC. Many people remarked that the New Deal programs reminded them of alphabet soup.

By 1939, the New Deal had run its course. In the short term, New Deal programs helped improve the lives of people suffering from the events of the depression. In the long run, New Deal programs set a precedent for the federal government to play a key role in the economic and social affairs of the nation.

To search for more documents in Loc.gov related to New Deal programs and agencies, use such terms as Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Public Works Administration, Farm Security Administration, and the National Recovery Administration.

Documents

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President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the New Deal | Great Depression and World War II, 1929-1945 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the summer of 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Governor of New York, was nominated as the presidential candidate of the Democratic Party.

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19th Amendment: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” Ratified on August 18, 1920, after almost a century of protest. The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott put women’s suffrage on the map. Only white women were allowed to vote, with all women not gaining the right to vote for 40 more years.

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19th Amendment: 'A Start, Not A Finish' For Suffrage | NPR

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Was signed May 28, 1830. This law authorized the president to negotiate with southern native tribes to remove them to federal territory west of the Mississippi river.

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Section 1 "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."
Section 2 "Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation."

On December 6th, 1865 slavery was abolished in the United States. This needs no explanation of importance. This amendment stands to guard the freedom of every man and woman living in America.

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The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution

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SECTION. 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

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On September 22, 1862 President Lincoln issued the emancipation proclamation and declared that all men living as slaves in the confederation “shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free".
This is a pivital point in the civil war. It set the focus on ending slavery instead of preserving the union. It set the tone of how the nation would reshape itself after the conflict.

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Emancipation Proclamation - Definition, Dates & Summary

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Issued after the Union victory at Antietam on September 22, 1862, the Emancipation Proclamation carried moral and strategic implications for the ongoing Civil War. While it did not free a single enslaved person, it was an important turning point in the war, transforming the fight to preserve the nat…

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Dred Scott was born into slavery in Virginia. He was bought and his "owner" moved to the free state of Missouri where he sewed on two cases of wrongful enslavement. In 1847 the court ruled against them based on a technicality. Scott whent to trial again in 1850 and won but in 1852 Scott's case and his wife's were combined and the court reversed the win and made them enslaved again. By 1854 Scott's case made its way to the supreeme court where in 1857 he lost his freedom again. Scott was given back to the son of his original owner and the son set him free in may of 1857. Scott lived and worked for about a year as a free man but died in september of 1858.
Scott's case sparked so much tension that lead into the civil war. The Emancipation Proclamation was given in 1862 and three years later the 13th amendment freeded all slaves and abolished slavery in the US.

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Who Was Dred Scott?

Dred Scott was born into slavery around 1799 in Southampton County, Virginia. In 1818, he moved with his owner Peter Blow to Alabama, then in 1830 he moved to St. Louis, Missouri-both slave states-where Peter ran a boarding house.

After Blow died in 1832, army surgeon Dr. John Emerson purchased Scott and eventually took him to Illinois, a free state, and then to Fort Snelling in Wisconsin Territory where the Missouri Compromise had outlawed slavery. There, Scott married Harriet Robinson, also enslaved, in a rare civil ceremony; her owner transferred ownership of Harriet to Emerson.

In late 1837, Emerson returned to St. Louis but left Dred and Harriet Scott behind and hired them out. Emerson then moved to Louisiana, a slave state, where he met and married Eliza (Irene) Sandford in February 1838; Dred Scott soon joined them.

Did you know? Dred Scott, along with several members of his family, was formally emancipated by his owner just three months after the Supreme Court denied them their freedom in the Dred Scott decision.

In October 1838, Emerson, his wife Irene and their enslaved workers returned to Wisconsin. After the army honorably discharged Emerson in 1842, he and Irene returned to St. Louis with Scott and his family (which now included two daughters), but they struggled to find success and soon moved to Iowa. It's unclear if Scott and his family accompanied them or stayed in St. Louis to be hired out.

John Emerson died suddenly in 1843 in Iowa, and his enslaved workers became Irene's property. She returned to St. Louis to live with her father and hired out Scott and his family. Scott tried multiple times to purchase his freedom from Irene, but she refused.

For unknown reasons, Dred and Harriet Scott never tried to run away or sue for freedom while living in or traveling through free states and territories.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

In April 1846, Dred and Harriet filed separate lawsuits for freedom in the St. Louis Circuit Court against Irene Emerson based on two Missouri statutes. One statute allowed any person of any color to sue for wrongful enslavement. The other stated that any person taken to a free territory automatically became free and could not be re-enslaved upon returning to a slave state.

Neither Dred nor Harriet Scott could read or write and they needed both logistical and financial support to plead their case. They received it from their church, abolitionists and an unlikely source, the Blow family who had once owned them.

Since Dred and Harriet Scott had lived in Illinois and the Wisconsin Territory - both free domains - they hoped they had a persuasive case. When they went to trial on June 30, 1847, however, the court ruled against them on a technicality and the judge granted a retrial.

The Scotts went to trial again in January 1850 and won their freedom. Irene appealed the case to the Missouri Supreme Court which combined Dred and Harriet's cases and reversed the lower court's decision in 1852, making Dred Scott and his family enslaved again.

In November 1853, Scott filed a federal lawsuit with the United States Circuit Court for the District of Missouri. By this time, Irene had transferred Scott and his family to her brother, John Sandford (although it was determined later that she retained ownership). On May 15, 1854, the federal court heard Dred Scott v. Sandford and ruled against Scott, holding him and his family in slavery.

In December 1854, Scott appealed his case to the United States Supreme Court. The trial began on February 11, 1856. By this time, the case had gained notoriety and Scott received support from many abolitionists, including powerful politicians and high-profile attorneys. But on March 6, 1857, in the infamous Dred Scott decision, Scott lost his fight for freedom again.

Chief Justice Roger Taney

Roger Taney was born into the southern aristocracy and became the fifth Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court.

Taney became best known for writing the final majority opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which said that all people of African descent, free or enslaved, were not United States citizens and therefore had no right to sue in federal court. In addition, he wrote that the Fifth Amendment protected slave owner rights because enslaved workers were their legal property.

The decision also argued that the Missouri Compromise legislation - passed to balance the power between slave and non-slave states - was unconstitutional. In effect, this meant that Congress had no power to prevent the spread of slavery.

Despite Taney's long tenure as a Supreme Court justice, people vilified him for his role in the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision. In an ironic historical footnote, Taney would later swear in Abraham Lincoln, the "Great Emancipator," as president of the United States in 1861.

Dred Scott Wins His Freedom

By the time the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its Dred Scott decision, Irene had married her second husband, Calvin Chaffee, a U.S. congressman and abolitionist. Upset upon learning his wife still owned the most infamous slave of the time, he sold Scott and his family to Taylor Blow, the son of Peter Blow, Scott's original owner.

Taylor freed Scott and his family on May 26, 1857. Scott found work as a porter in a St. Louis hotel, but didn't live long as a free man. At about 59 years of age, Scott died from tuberculosis on September 17, 1858.

Dred Scott Decision: Impact on Civil War

The Dred Scott Decision outraged abolitionists, who saw the Supreme Court's ruling as a way to stop debate about slavery in the territories. The divide between North and South over slavery grew and culminated in the secession of southern states from the Union and the creation of the Confederate States of America. The Emancipation Proclamation of September 22, 1862 freed enslaved people living in the Confederacy, but it would be another three years until Congress passed the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery in the United States.

Sources

Missouri State Archives: Missouri's Dred Scott Case, 1846-1857. Missouri Digital Heritage.
Primary Documents in American History: Dred Scott v. Sandford. The Library of Congress.
Roger B. Taney. United States Senate.
The Dred Scott Case. National Park Service.

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Dred Scott Case - Decision, Definition & Impact

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In the Dred Scott case, or Dred Scott v. Sanford, the Supreme Court ruled that no enslaved person could claim U.S. citizenship or petition a court for their freedom.

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Differences between the North and the South

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Differences between the North and the South

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The north had bigger cities than the south and a higher number of immigrants. The southern region had more fertile soil and bigger plantations were made while the north had smaller farms. Travel was easier in the north and the north also had higher rates of literacy.

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The South: An Agricultural Aggregate

Ultimately, what led to the American Civil War were the differences in the North and South's views toward the institution of slavery. There were other aspects within the institution of slavery that led to division in the United States. Economic practices, religious practices, education, cultural differences, and political differences all furthered the division between the North and South about the institution of slavery. These decade-long divisions all culminated in the bloody conflict of the Civil War, which permanently ended the division and abolished slavery permanently.

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The Civil War that raged across the nation from 1861 to 1865 was the violent conclusion to decades of diversification. Gradually, throughout the beginning of the nineteenth century, the North and South followed different paths, developing into two distinct and very different regions.

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Rome made several contributions that are used today. Roman numerals are not our main numbering system but are still used and read in mordern society. Modern plumming started in rome with sanitary mesaure that were not used prior. Rodes and arches in archetecture saw major inprovement and books were bound for the first time.

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The Roman Empire is considered to be one of the most influential civilizations of all time. From the Colosseum to aqueducts, the impact of the Roman Empire in shaping western history is extremely significant.

While many historical developments and innovations have survived the test of time, some remain a part of our daily lives. These 18 ancient Roman inventions still have an impact today.

1. Roman Numerals

Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome, but survived for some uses after the end of the Roman Empire. The numbers in the system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet. Some practical examples can be seen at the entrances to the Roman Colosseum, which are labeled with Roman numerals - XXIII (23) to LIIII (54).

Starting in the 14th century, Roman numerals began to be replaced by Arabic numerals, which benefitted from the use of the zero, making them much more useful for arithmetic and counting. Still, Roman numerals are still seen today - most often on clock faces or representing years on architecture.

2. An Early form of Newspaper

While Romans cannot be credited with creating a modern system of daily, paper newspapers, they did have something similar. They often inscribed news of current affairs unto stones, papyri, or metal slabs, which were placed in public spaces.

This publication was called Acta Diurna or 'daily acts' and originated as early as 131 B.C.

This Roman invention had much the same purpose as modern newspapers, giving Roman citizens information about military victories, births and deaths, and even human interest stories. Unfortunately, there are no surviving intact copies.

3. Modern Plumbing and Sanitary Management

Romans were very knowledgeable when it came to their engineering excellence is highlighted by their civil engineering. But their talent wasn't limited to building large structures like the Colesseum or roadways. While it may seem less visually impressive, sewage and sanitary plumbing systems.

The drainage pipes were connected and were flushed regularly with the water running off from streams. Romans also had covered gutter systems and public 'bathrooms' that ensured that the streets stayed clear of human waste.

4. Using Arches to Build Structures

While Romans weren't the ones who actually invented the arch, they did develop the architectural arch to allow them to build bridges, large buildings, and better aqueducts.

In the first centuries BC, Romans discovered how to use arches in the construction of bridges, aqueducts, and buildings, allowing the expansion of infrastructure across the Roman Empire. The Roman arch became a foundational aspect of Western architecture and generated new systems of building across Europe.

5. The Hypocaust System

The hypocaust system was a heating mechanism somewhat similar to modern-day central heating, or radiant floor heating. These systems distributed heat from an underground fire throughout a space beneath the floor raised by a series of concrete pillars. In addition, Romans also built flues into the walls, ensuring the heat had a path to warm higher floors, and could eventually escape safely through the roof.

This was an impressive engineering feat at the time - especially as the risks of poor construction included carbon monoxide poisoning, smoke inhalation, or fire hazards.

It's important to note that these systems were expensive, and were usually only used in public buildings, large homes owned by wealthy Romans, and in the thermae, or Roman baths, which featured heated floors and walls.

6. Aqueducts

Romans built aqueducts to bring fresh water in from neighboring sources into their growing cities and towns. While earlier civilizations in Egypt and India also used aqueducts, the Romans greatly improved on the structure. The whole process needed no external energy, as it was achieved by the use of gravity alone.

The aqueducts were connected to a large water holding area, which would then distribute the water to public baths, fountains, farms, and more. What may seem easy to accomplish today was a remarkable feat of engineering as early as 312 B.C.

7. The First Surgical Tools

Romans weren't just about spears and daggers, they also developed precision medical instruments that influenced many modern-day surgical tools. In fact, the design of some tools, such as the vaginal speculum, did not change significantly until the 19th and 20th centuries. Romans also used tools such as forceps, syringes, scalpels, and bone saws made by specialist manufacturers that resemble their 21st-century equivalents.

In addition to using these tools in hospitals or medical centers, leaders were intrigued to see how they could be used to help soldiers on the battlefield. Some R oman armies employed a trained chirurgus (essentially, a medic trained in surgery) to staunch blood loss, remove arrows, sew up wounds, and administer medicines.

8. Developing Concrete to Strengthen Roman Buildings

Concrete may not seem as alien or impressive as many of the entries on this list, but it played an important role for Romans. Romans were the first ones to use this material in a widespread manner.

Using a mixture of volcanic ash, lime, and seawater, they developed a mix that they used to add structural integrity to their buildings. Obviously, they did something right, as many of their buildings still stand today. In fact, some types of Roman concrete were able to be set underwater.

9. Roads That Can Withstand Time

All roads the roads may lead to Rome, but all roads aren't created equally. Romans built roads that weren't just a mix of gravel and rocks. The Romans used a combination of dirt and gravel with bricks made from hardened volcanic lava or granite, making immensely strong no matter the weather.

They also constructed perfectly straight roads with slight banking to them. The banking ensured that water doesn't sit on the road after it rains. B y 200 AD, the Romans had built more than 50,000 mi (almost 80,400 km) worth of road. These roads were then completed with directions and stone marks. The proof of their workmanship is evident, as many of the old roads in Rome are in use even today.

10. The Codex: The First Bound Book

During the Roman Empire, writings were typically either carved into clay slabs or written on scrolls. As you can imagine, these texts were difficult to transport, brittle in nature, and challenging to store.

Instead of a scroll that could be up to 32 feet (10 meters) in length, and had to be unrolled to be read, Julius Caesar commissioned the very first bound book - a collection of papyrus - to form a codex. This provided a safer and more manageable way to keep the information secure. The codex could hold many volumes, had a built-in cover for protection, and the pages could be numbered for reference, allowing the use of a table of contents and index.

This Roman invention was widely used by the early Christians to make codices of the Bible and later spread to other areas along with Christianity.

11. Developing the Julian Calendar

Source: The Roman Republic: Class handouts, Calendar of Numa, Vassar College/Wikimedia Commons

The Roman republican calendar contained 355 days. It was basically a lunar calendar to make up for the discrepancy between the calendar and the solar year, an intercalary month consisting of 27 or 28 days was added once every two years. The Intercalation was the duty of the Pontifices, and over time, due to negligence and corruption, the intercalations became irregular. As a result, b y the 40s B.C., the Roman civic calendar had become out of sync with the seasons and the holy festivals, it was about three months ahead of the solar calendar.

To correct this, in 46 B.C., Julius Caesar introduced The Julian calendar was more accurate and remained in use until 1582, when the Gregorian calendar was introduced to correct for the fact that the year is not exactly 365 and ¼ days long. a new form of calendar system which had 12 months, and used a cycle of three years of 365 days, followed by a year of 366 days (leap year). The Julian Calendar also moved at the beginning of the year from March 1 to January 1.

12. Apartment "Islands"

Due to population pressures, Rome was perpetually in need of more space for housing. Instead of building new homes outward, architects introduced the idea of stacking six to eight apartment blocks around a staircase and central courtyard.

The result was apartments or " insulae" (islands), named as such because they occupied whole blocks, with roads flowing around them like water. By the fourth century A.D., there were around 45,000 insulae in Rome. The higher-value apartments on the lower floors were called cenacula, while the apartments for poorer tenants on higher floors were called cellae.

Overall, the apartments were reserved for medium to lower-class citizens, as the upper classes preferred their own separate housing spaces in certain areas of the city. Tennants had issues with waste falling from floors above, slumlords, and fires.

13. The Postal System

Around 20 B.C. Emperor Augustus established the cursus publicus, a system by which messages and notices could be transferred between provinces with the help of horses and vehicles such as the horse cart called rhedæ.

The average speed of a mounted messenger over the Roman road system was about 50 mi per day (80 km). With their vast network of well-engineered roads, the Roman postal service was a success.

14. The Corvus and Harpax

The Corvus was a moveable bridge used to board an enemy ship. When attached, the Romans could even engage in combat across the structure. The Roman engineers invented the Corvus to have the upper hand in naval battles because, at that time, Rome was a novice in regards to waterborne warfare.

Despite its advantages, the bridge had its setbacks - for example, it couldn't be used in rough seas. By the end of the First Punic War, Rome was no longer using the Corvus. By 36 B.C. the Roman navy was using a different kind of device to facilitate boarding attacks, a harpoon and winch system known as the harpax.

15. Testudo: The Tortoise Approach

The Roman army was well-known for its various battle formations. Testudo, meaning "tortoise" is a Latin word that describes a formation effective against projectiles or missiles.

This formation required the Roman soldiers to position their shields in such a way that they formed a roof-like barrier above their heads. The soldiers in the front would use their shields to form a wall. With this innovative move, Roman soldiers were able to protect themselves from all sides during battle.

However, the formation did have its drawbacks. B ecause of its density, the men found it more difficult to fight in hand-to-hand combat and needed to sacrifice speed.

16. Pioneers of Siege Warfare

Romans didn't invent siege warfare, but their contributions towards broadening its scope and perfecting the techniques were key.

They adapted and improved on Greek weapons like the ballista, a catapult that amplified the range and power of the crossbow, and the scorpion and onager, which was a torsion powered siege engine usually shown as a catapult with a bowl, bucket, or sling at the end of its throwing arm.

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16 Historical Roman Inventions That Helped Shape the Modern World

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The Roman Empire is considered to be one of the most influential civilizations of all time. From the Colosseum to aqueducts, the impact of the Roman Empire in shaping western history is extremely significant. While many historical developments and innovations have survived the test of time, some remain a part of our daily lives.

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Bethany is purple
Korey is white
Annie is red

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The Greeks gave modern society so many inventions. Our alphabet, democracy and the olimpics are huge parts of our society. They also made huge contributions in archetecture, theature, standardized medicine and created the trial by jury.

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11 Ways Ancient Greece Influenced Modern Society

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Our society today owes a lot to Greece. Here are 11 significant contributions made by the ancient Greeks.

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1. Trail of Tears. This was part of a series of forced displacements of approximately 60,000 Native Americans of Five tribes from 1830 to 1850. https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/trail-of-tears

2. King George III. This was the King of Great Britain and Ireland during the American Revolution. He hired thousands of Hessian mercenaries to fight in the rebellion. The war lasted eight years, largely because he refused to surrender.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GGH9efC0R38

3. The United States Constitution. This is a written charter of government, the world's longest surviving one. It discusses that the government exists to serve the American citizens and it was written in 1787.
https://www.nationalreview.com/2021/09/eight-reasons-to-love-the-constitution/

4. Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights are the first 10 amendments to the US Constitution written by James Madison and they include things like freedom of speech.
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/primary-sources/bill-of-rights

5. The Thirteen Colonies. These were the British colonies in North America that joined together and became The United States.
https://www.history.com/topics/colonial-america/thirteen-colonies

6. George Washington. Of course George was the first president of the US but he was also an American soldier, statesman, one of the founding fathers and the commander in chief of the continental Army during the Revolutionary War.
https://www.google.com/search?q=george+washington&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS913US918&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwja-I7y8_zzAhUNac0KHVNkCq8Q_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=715&bih=601&dpr=2#imgrc=dkJJMAx4sYSDjM

7. Westward Expansion. This was the 19th-century movement of settlers, agriculture and industry into the American west.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q16OZkgSXfM

8. Slavery in America. This was the legal institution of enslaving human beings, mainly Africans and African Americans. This existed until the Civil War.
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/slavery

9. Industrial Revolution. This was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Britain, Continental Europe and the United States.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xLhNP0qp38Q

10. Benjamin Franklin. He is one of the founding fathers of the United States. He was an American polymath who was an active writer, scientist, inventor, statesmen, diplomat, printer and publisher. He also helped write the Declaration of Independence and other important documents.
https://www.ushistory.org/franklin/info/index.htm

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Acient Egypt invented many things that are still used today! We can thank them for starting the fashion world by designing wigs and using makeup. They created tools to use in surgery. They had a police force that trained and used dogs. They used sun dial clocks and invented many tools for farming.
Many building innovations and farming tecniques started in Egypt. Learning about acient Egypt is fun, but is important because we can see where many tools and trends started.

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The Egyptian's inventions were many and it might be easier to list the things they did not invent such as the wheel; not unexpected in a country where everyone travels on water.

Most scholars now believe that isolated civilizations first arose independently at several locations; initially in Mesopotamia around Tigris and Euphrates rivers and, a little later, in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean. Other civilizations arose in Asia along the Indus River in modern India and the Yellow River in what is now China.

All these early civilisations had to invent or discover everything for themselves because unlike later civilisations such as the Greeks in the west or the Chinese in the east, they had no one to learn from. Therefore, the Egyptians had to invented mathematics, geometry, surveying, metallurgy, astronomy, accounting, writing, paper, medicine, the ramp, the lever, the plough, mills for grinding grain and all the paraphernalia that goes with large organised societies.

So how do we define Egyptian inventions today? It is very difficult to determine because three thousand years is a long time for discoveries to be made and lost or appropriated by others. For example the Greeks sometimes take the credit for inventing mathematics but they learned their math from the Egyptians then later developed and improved upon what the Egyptian achieved.

3000 BC appears to have been a critical time for the development of technology, especially metal making. The Egyptians as well as the Mesopotamians independently discovered that by mixing a small quantity of tin ore with copper ores they could make bronze which is harder and more durable. This set off a chain of connected innovations that could not have happened without the primary discovery.

The Pyramids

The oldest pyramid was erected for King Zoser between 2667-2648 BC. In fact it is the first monumental stone building designed and constructed that we know of.

Writing

Along with the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were the first people to develop their language into a codified form of writing. All early forms of writing were pictograms - pictures. All writing systems developed in this way but their original forms become lost as the pictures are refined into abstract forms. What is interesting about the Egyptians is that although their writing changed to the abstract form of Hieratic they deliberately preserved the hieroglyphic pictures in their original forms.

Papyrus Sheets

Papyrus sheets are the earliest paper-like material - all other civilisations used stone, clay tablets, animal hide, wood materials or wax as a writing surface. Papyrus was, for over 3000 years, the most important writing material in the ancient world. It was exported all around the Mediterranean and was widely used in the Roman Empire as well as the Byzantine Empire. Its use continued in Europe until the seventh century AD, when an embargo on exporting it forced the Europeans to use parchment.

Black Ink

The Egyptians mixed vegetable gum, soot and bee wax to make black ink. They replaced soot with other materials such as ochre to make various colours.

The Ox-drawn Plough

Using the power of oxen to pull the plough revolutionised agriculture and modified versions of this Egyptian invention are still used by farmers in developing countries around the world.

The Sickle

The sickle is a curved blade used for cutting and harvesting grain, such as wheat and barley.

Irrigation

The Egyptians constructed canals and irrigation ditches to harness Nile river's yearly flood and bring water to distant fields.

Shadoof

The Shadoof is a long balancing pole with a weight on one end and a bucket on the other. The bucket is filled with water and easily raised then emptied onto higher ground.

The Calendar

The Egyptians devised the solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog Star) in the eastern sky. It was a fixed point which coincided with the yearly flooding of the Nile. Their calendar had 365 days and 12 months with 30 days in each month and an additional five festival days at the end of the year. However, they did not account for the additional fraction of a day and their calendar gradually became incorrect. Eventually Ptolemy III added one day to the 365 days every four years.

Clocks

In order to tell the time Egyptians invented two types of clock.
Obelisks were used as sun clocks by noting how its shadow moved around its surface throughout the day. From the use of obelisks they identified the longest and shortest days of the year.
An inscription in the tomb of the court official Amenemhet dating to the16th century BC shows a water clock made from a stone vessel with a tiny hole at the bottom which allowed water to dripped at a constant rate. The passage of hours could be measured from marks spaced at different levels. The priest at Karnak temple used a similar instrument at night to determine the correct hour to perform religious rites.

The Police

During the Old and Middle Kingdoms order was kept by local officials with their own private police forces. During the New Kingdom a more centralized police force developed, made up primarily of Egypt's Nubian allies, the Medjay. They were armed with staffs and used dogs. Neither rich nor poor citizens were above the law and punishments ranged from confiscation of property, beating and mutilation (including the cutting off of ears and noses) to death without a proper burial. The Egyptians believed that a proper burial was essential for entering the afterlife, so the threat of this last punishment was a real deterrent, and most crime was of a petty nature.

"They went to the granary, stole three great loaves and eight sabu-cakes of Rohusu berries. They drew a bottle of beer which was cooling in water, while I was staying in my father's room. My Lord, let whatsoever has been stolen be given back to me." (Eighteenth Dynasty)

Surgical Instruments

The Edwin Smith Papyrus shows the Egyptians invented medical surgery. It describes 48 surgical cases of injures of the head, neck, shoulders, breast and chest. It includes a list of instruments used during surgeries with instructions for the suturing of wounds using a needle and thread. This list includes lint, swabs, bandage, adhesive plaster, surgical stitches and cauterization. It is also the earliest document to make a study of the brain. The Cairo Museum has a collection of surgical instruments which include scalpels, scissors, copper needles, forceps, spoons, lancets, hooks, probes and pincers.

Wigs

During the hot summers many Egyptians shaved their heads to keep them clean and prevent pests such as lice. Although priests remained bald as part of their purification rituals, those that could afford it had wigs made in various styles and set with perfumed beeswax.

Cosmetic Makeup

The Egyptian invented eye makeup as far back as 4000 B.C. They combined soot with a lead mineral called galena to create a black ointment known as kohl. They also made green eye makeup by combining malachite with galena to tint the ointment.
Both men and women wore eye makup; believing it could cure eye diseases and keep them from falling victim to the evil eye.

Toothpaste

At the 2003 dental conference in Vienna, dentists sampled a replication of ancient Egyptian toothpaste. Its ingredients included powdered of ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells and pumice. Another toothpaste recipe and a how-to-brush guide was written on a papyrus from the fourth century AD describes how to mix precise amounts of rock salt, mint, dried iris flower and grains of pepper, to form a "powder for white and perfect teeth."

Mummification

The Egyptians were so expert at preserving the bodies of the dead that after thousands of years we know of the diseases they suffered such as arthritis, tuberculosis of the bone, gout, tooth decay, bladder stones, and gallstones; there is evidence, too, of the disease bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), caused by small, parasitic flatworms, which still exists in Egypt today. There seems to have been no syphilis or rickets.

Egyptian Hieroglyphics 2018

This is a brand new version that now works on Windows 10, MAC, iPad, Android and all mobile phones.
There are more than 1100 Hieroglyphic illustrations including 450 Egyptian word examples and over 650 hieroglyphs from the Gardiner list.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics includes detailed information on the history of Egyptian writing and mathematics, the use of the different types of symbols, how to write your name, how to recognize kings names and the story of the scribe with a video showing how papyrus is made.

Kids can quickly write names and short secret messages and then select print from the menu.

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Ancient Egyptian Inventions were many such as Writing Papyrus Sheets Black Ink Irrigation The Calendar Clocks Surgical Instruments Toothpaste Mummification

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There are many great inventions from China. Four that changed the world are papermaking, printing, gunpowder, and the compass are all ancient Chineese inventions. These four inventions have had such a global impact. Papermaking and printing were vital to the spread of information. Gunpowder was a combat advantage, and compasses aided in exploration.
It is so important to understand where inventions came from so that we can appreciate the cultures that made them.

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Primary sources are accounts written or told by someone who experiences or witnessed an event. These are original documetns. Often times they are journals or letters but can also be pictures and newspapers that are published soon after the event.
Secondary sources are things that are published about primary sources. They interpret the primary sources and often can summarize or interpret the event.
Teaching students the difference between primary and secondary sources has never been more important. The world we live in is filled with fake news and false or misleading articles. It has never been more improtant to teach studetns how to examine their sources.

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is the arrangement of events or dates in the order of their occurrence.
Understanding the timeline of events is so important for history. Events spark other events and things happen during a specific time period becase of the events or conditions around them. Chronology is improtant to understand what happened when, but also during what circumstances. The context is so important for history becase without it events can be misleading or confusing. It will help students understand and relate to history more if they know what lead up to events or what the culture was like when they happened.

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Timelines for kids - A comprehensive overview of timelines for k-6 students