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Exploitation occurs through a steady process of the transfer of the results of the labor of one social group to benefit another. (Young, 37)

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Exploitation can be viewed in the social category of status and/or wealth. The working class sell their labor power to the capitalists in exchange for a wage. However, since the workers have to put in more work and time than what is equivalent to their wage in order to produce surplus labor for the advantage of the capitalists (owners of modes of production), there is exploitation in action. Maybe in a less apparent way, gender category also exhibits this face of oppression. Women constantly provide men with their emotional care while receiving very little in return. The labor they produce at home either for reproduction or for domestic work is always unpaid and women are expected to "naturally" excel at this. Female presenting bodies are objectified, sexualised and the capitalists make profit out of this. Race also has a very closely linked connection with exploitation because throughout history certain races have been constantly exploited to benefit another races. The slavery in American history is an apparent example. But racial exploitation did not end in history and continues to exist throughout this day. I have seen many immigrant workers as well as other Asian, Black and Mexican workers in the food industry I used to work illegally at; and most visitors/shoppers being middle-class white people (especially on that other side of the bridge.)

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This topic and its three-class discussions have given me much thought. The economic exploitation in all three social categories (race, class and gender) speaks to me directly. This has been a reminder that my frustrations and anger within myself are a reflection of my systemically exploited body and not my lack of willingness to try in life. At times, I find myself exhausted in this neoliberal capitalist education and economic systems and I have always wondered if life would still be worth living if this is it. Being brought up as a woman, I find myself constantly transferring my emotional and physical labor (caring, cooking and cleaning) to other gender groups as well. The lessons have given me an extensive self-reflection session. More importantly, learning what "oppression" is, what "exploitation" is in a more specific and defined way helps me navigate and tackle these issues better. I am also urged to utilise this knowledge as a tool to better analyse similar situations in my home country.

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One example of method to challenge exploitation

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One example of method to challenge exploitation

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Exploitation in race, gender and class has been challenged in multiple ways. One example to challenge exploitation by the capitalists on working class can be seen by the strikes and unions formed by the garment workers in Burma. Despite brutal oppressions and abuses by the military government and affiliated corporations, workers remain strong resisting such exploitation. They may not be successful in getting their demands met yet and it is extremely sad and distressing to learn about the consequences they are facing, their strength and courage is extraordinary.

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Seven Burmese garment workers and union activists will face trial on incitement charges in a military court for advocating for a pay raise at a factory that supplied Inditex, the owner of the Spanish retailer Zara, a labor activist said Friday.

The case has put a spotlight on the plight of workers in Myanmar's troubled garment sector. Several companies have exited the country since the February 2021 military coup and subsequent deterioration in labor conditions.

Inditex is reportedly set to make a phased exit from the country after the arrests of the five garment workers and two union activists in June. They worked at a Chinese-owned factory operated by Hosheng Myanmar Garment Company Limited in Yangon division. They formed a union in April to bargain for better conditions.

An activist affiliated with the union, declining to be named for safety reasons, told RFA that the seven accused are still being held at Hlawga police station in Shwepyithar Township.

On Friday, despite a scheduled hearing, the activist was told that the seven would remain in custody awaiting a trial for incitement. If convicted, they face up to two years in prison under section 505 (a) of Myanmar's penal code.

"Before setting up the trade union, the working conditions had many rules - no complaints, forced overtime, very low salary," the activist said. "The factory doesn't like the trade union, so that's why the seven trade union members were dismissed."

The activist said the trial of the seven will be held behind closed doors at a military court in Shwepyithar Township in Yangon. The township is under martial law.

RFA has reached out to Inditex for comment.
Workers lack recourse from labor abuse
Nearly 500,000 people are employed in Myanmar's garment sector, but labor activists say the military takeover has diminished regulatory oversight of factories. They say workers have less ability to negotiate with their employers and lack recourse in cases of labor abuse. But faced with economic instability , some feel they have no choice but to accept any job available.

In the last two years, as Myanmar has sunk into civil conflict and international condemnation of the military junta has grown, Inditex and other European brands have decided to quit the Southeast Asian country, including Primark, C&A, and the UK-based Tesco PLC and Marks & Spencer.

Since December, the European Union and international retailers have funded the Multi-stakeholder Alliance for Decent Employment in Myanmar, or MADE, to provide more accountability for conditions in factories that supply garments for export, expanding on a previous project. Roughly 380,000 garment jobs are directly reliant on EU trade.

Workers in a Yangon, Myanmar, factory stitch clothes in 2015. Nearly 500,000 people are employed in Myanmar's garment sector. Credit: AP file photo

Labor activists have called for the program to be axed, claiming brands still present in the country have not been able to ensure worker protection in factories. Out of 37 brands linked to labor violations in Myanmar factories since the coup, Inditex was reported to be linked to the highest number of alleged abuse cases, followed by H&M and Bestseller.

One rights group found that freedom of association was "nearly non-existent" and that business-military collusion was found in 16% of cases. At Hosheng, soldiers were recorded telling workers there were no unions under military rule.

In April, the 16-union Myanmar Labour Alliance sent a letter to EU leaders requesting that the program be defunded. It said that training for workplace coordination committees provided by MADE would undermine union efforts and allow management to conduct elections which would threaten existing unions.
'We don't have any legal mechanism'
The alliance reported that since the coup, 53 union members and activists were murdered and 300 were arrested. Khaing Zar Aung, a representative of the alliance and president of the Industrial Workers Federation of Myanmar, told RFA that brands had no capacity to oversee working conditions on the ground.

"What mechanism do we have?" she asked. "We don't have any legal mechanism applicable."

However, the EU has also remained firm in their stance on the program.

An EU spokesperson told RFA in a statement that funding for MADE provides ways for workers to file complaints about workplace conditions, "as well as facilitating dialogue between employers, workers and international stakeholders."

While acknowledging the constraints on freedom of association, the spokesperson wrote: "Nonetheless, the EU and the Multi-stakeholder Alliance for Decent Employment in Myanmar (MADE) partners believe that the interests of workers are best served if EU companies continue to source from the country, as long as this is done responsibly."

"When large international retailers exit, this will inevitably lead to a loss of jobs, regardless of how the retailer goes about this," Jacob A. Clere, a team leader of the MADE project, told RFA. He said retailers are currently being enrolled in MADE for 2023, with the first cohort to be finalized this coming month.

"We estimate that between 130 and 170 facilities could collectively be covered by those who initially joined MADE in 2023."

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Myanmar garment workers to face military court after forming union

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The arrests have reportedly prompted the owner of retailer Zara to plan its exit from the military-run country.

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When a whole category of people is expelled from useful participation in social life and thus potentially subjected to severe material deprivation and even extermination. (Young,39)

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Marginalisation works with different categories and it is apparent in race, (dis)ability, gender, sexuality, etc. In a capitalist society, marginalised groups are expelled from the capitalist-working class relationship/system, being unable to operate in or benefit from the existing system. This is evident in how disabled bodies are considered 'unfit' to work in traditional work spaces, while the systems never consider the flaws of the working environment and conditions that are not inclusive. Another example in modern-day America is "Mass Incarceration", where systems are designed so that people of colour are put behind bars, followed by strict parole and probation rules and nearly impossible access to education, housing, healthcare and employment, making it very difficult for them to get back on their feet and fully function in society. In Burma as well, trans-exclusion from work spaces and schools is an example of marginalisation. Trans people are not recognised officially in any governmental administrations; and they are also heavily discriminated (considered sub-human) in workplaces. (There was also an incident that took place in 2019 at a private university in Burma, where a gay librarian took his own life due to mockery he received from coworkers for his sexuality, and being forced to come out as queer.) Another example in Burma is the case of Rohinga and other muslim people; their citizenship is heavily controlled by the military and a lot of muslims, despite having lived in Burma for generations, cannot get a citizenship card. These groups are not recognised as citizens of Burma; without citizenship, documentation and access to education and joining the workforce becomes impossible.

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Marginalisation is challenged using reparations and mutual aid. Mutual aid projects not only cater to survival needs but also build shared understanding about why people do not have what they need. This is a radical model because it addresses the root causes of the social problems we are facing, and tries to analyse and understand them, and eradicate them as a collective action. Examples of mutual aid: Black Panther Party and the Young Lords.  The BCP (Breakfast For Children Program) organised by Black Panther Party not only provided essential needs (food) for black children, it also encouraged people to dig into a thorough analysis of Black poverty. Unlike most government-funded programs, capitalists’ charity and NGOs, this mutual aid model shows solidarity and a collective fight for liberation (eradication of root causes of the problem). There are also many organisations arising and arisen to resist the oppression of the military government in and outside Burma, that can serve as a good example of mutual aid. One good example is MSU (Myanmar Student Union); as they fight against military dictatorship in Burma through demonstrations and financial support that goes back to armed groups on the ground, they provide physical space for the student community to gather at their office/house where people can grow a sense of communion and political awakening. In time, with this much effort, MSU can grow to become a perfect example of Mutual Aid for Burma struggle.

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The Black Panthers and Young Lords: How Today’s Mutual Aid Strategies Took Shape

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It is impossible to be free under today’s violence of capitalism, colonialism, white supremacy and militarized policing; these are our oppressors.

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In economic perspective, marginalised groups are those who are expelled from the "exploitation" cycle/system or the relationship between the capitalist and the working class, so that exploitation can be done at the highest benefit for the bourgeois.

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The powerless are a group who can rarely exercise authority or power, and over whom power is exercised.

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Marginalisation, exploitation and powerlessness all happen in the area of social division of labor. While both professionals and nonprofessionals are exploited in the economic model of capitalists versus the working class, only nonprofessionals are considered powerless because they lack the opportunity to develop and exercise skills, and therefore power. In contrast, marginalised groups are completely excluded from the exploitation circle.

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"Social Class"- Powerlessness shows a very direct and obvious relationship with the category of social class. The bourgeoisie exploit the entire working class. However, within the working class, the nonprofessionals or the powerless group lack the opportunity to climb up the ladder of social hierarchy. In contrast, professionals or the middle class can exercise power and also hold the potential to become the capitalist class. Power is exercised on the nonprofessional working class by both professional working class and the capitalists.

'Race and Language"- Certain languages are considered "official" in schools and workplace settings, making people of other languages feel powerless if they have not mastered it. The behaviours (tones in speaking, mannerism, etc.) and attires (suits and dresses) of white people are considered 'professional' while those of other cultures may be labelled 'unprofessional, rude, etc."

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Is code-switching a potential way to challenge powerlessness? 

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Is code-switching a potential way to challenge powerlessness? 

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Code-switching can be interesting and useful in how one can vary their way of expressing themselves based on the situations they are in. If the speaker speaks more than one language (the dominant language and mother tongue, for example), they feel the home-like comfort and sense of belonging in speaking the native tongue (provided that they can communicate in this language with ease). However, having to code-swift for survival needs (for example, speaking in English as a second language speaker in workplace) can be extremely demanding and tiring. In a similar way, code-switching in a White (upper) middle class tone or cis-hetero manner to sound professional or educated does not sound empowering either. As long as the language hierarchy exists, speakers of oppressed languages and dialects will need to constantly code-switch to survive/ be viewed as respectable in this White heteropatriarchal neoliberal society. Code-switching is not a radical way of challenging the language hierarchy; rather, it is a necessity under current systems.

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Cultural imperialism is when the dominant culture becomes the norm. The dominant group looks at the dominated ones as the object; the dominated groups are stereotyped and they also develop double-consciousness. Due to universalisation of the dominant group's experiences, this group becomes invisible.

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Social Categories and Cultural Imperialism

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Social Categories and Cultural Imperialism

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Race (+Religion)

In American society, White experiences and their culture (the dominant race) are considered "norm"; this means everyone expects everyone to understand this culture, accept it and practice it. However, the way of life, perspectives and cultural values of dominated races are considered inferior. If not inferior, dominated races are objectified and exoticised and stereotyped. Someone that belongs to a dominated group can be reduced to one part of their culture that the majority know of (such as bringing up the traditional food while having the conversation.)

Language

The language of the dominant culture is considered the norm and therefore is allowed to thrive and grow, while that of dominated cultures are not. This has so much to do with White Supremacy as well. European languages such as French and English are considered "fancy", "professional" and everyone (no matter where they live) is encouraged to learn them. This is not the case for most other languages. In the context of Myanmar alone, "Burmese" language is regarded as national language and is used in school curriculums as well; all other ethnic groups are forced to learn this language. A different example is the influence of "Chinese" language in Burma. People think it is beneficial to learn Chinese because Burma's economy is now operating somewhat under Chinese Imperialism.

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Double-consciousness is when we view ourselves in the lens of the dominator. For example, I find myself making decisions for my body so that I look attractive to men. Beauty standards accepted by the society are somewhat similar (thin is beautiful, white skin is beautiful, curves are sexy, etc.). At a glance, both men and women and people of all genders seem to not only accept them but are also heavily influenced by them. But who do these beauty standards (for women) serve? The group that looks at them and objectifies them: mainly men. Double consciousness is within me as a woman and mostly it can be very difficult to identify it. This is because sometimes it acts like my own consciousness, my own way of thinking and my own decision-- giving me a false sense of autonomy. I think women still find so much joy in trying to make our bodies look "attractive"; knowing that people will desire them. Since double-consciousness is learned and practiced throughout our whole lives, it is extremely challenging to imagine a way to live without it.

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How to challenge cultural imperialism/double consciousness

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How to challenge cultural imperialism/double consciousness

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How do we get rid of double consciousness (from cultural imperialism)? Is it possible? In order to get rid of it, we need to identify "double-consciousness" within ourselves and challenge it on a daily basis. In my personal experiences, I used to hate my own accents and other Asian accents in general, and found them "not cool", "unattractive". But this is just us viewing ourselves in the lens of the dominator/ native speakers of dominator's language, and thinking that we need to impress them by showing that we sound just like them. In order to get rid of this kind of mindset + feelings, we can collectively encourage each other that we can embrace our own different accents and that it is indeed empowering. We need to assess what it means to be truly ourselves (without the influence of cultural imperialism) both as individual and collective efforts; this can take place on a daily basis. When a White lesbian told me that a conference for Queer Students of Color might not be inclusive to those who are not people of color (such as White), there was a little voice in me that doubted, thinking if I need to consider that perspective. In such moments, we need to find a community where we can develop ideas that can counter-attack those little voices that doubt and confuse us, and sustain them, reaffirm each other and practice!

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Violence is not an individual victimisation: rather, it is a social practice. 

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Violence is not an individual victimisation: rather, it is a social practice. 

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Sometimes violence towards oppressed communities are considered “an individual hate crime” committed by a hater. However, this isn’t the case. Both group and individually committed violence is systematic and systemic and roots from the socially accepted/dominant ideas that allow such violence. People from oppressed communities are attacked just because of their identity (because they belong to that group). It does not matter how they are as an individual. Violence is a social practice because as we grow up, we naturally learn that violence can happen to certain groups at any given time and values of our society allow violence to be tolerated depending on whom the violence is done to and who committed such violence.

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Gender

Transgender communities are constantly subject to violence and hate crimes, just because of their identity as trans. Women are also victims of domestic and sexual abuse: a lot of women I know (myself including) have experienced sexual violence at some point in our lives. Rape is an example of violence that both transgender and cis-female communities experience; the rapist takes away sexual pleasure and power from the victims-- this is one of the most violent crimes.

Religion

Most religions preach about peace but in reality, religion can be the root cause of violence. An example is the Rohinga genocide that took place in Burma. Burmese Military is responsible for this ethnic cleansing of Rohinga muslim populations that reside in Rakhine region. Most of the Burmese populations (including the so-called democratic government) did not oppose this massacre in a way that they should, because of the race and religion of the victims. Islamophobia in Burma is huge: most Buddhist monks spread propaganda and hate against Islam as a religion, and promote hate and fear towards Muslims. This hate and fear against one religion caused violence of the Rohinga genocide.

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How could cultural imperialism promote violence as a social practice?

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How could cultural imperialism promote violence as a social practice?

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One of the four elements of cultural imperialism is this: “ The dominant group designates the dominated group as the OBJECT being looked at”. (When men sexualize and objectify women, women are mere bodies that they can do anything to as if women are not living, breathing human beings who feel feelings, experience things and make decisions. This objectification allows violence to take place with ease. The person who is committing violence does not see the women(in this case) as persons.)

This element of cultural imperialism, when the dominant group objectifies the dominated group, supports and justifies violence. Colonizers justify violence that is associated with colonization by using their cultural dominance and made-up superiority of their cultural elements. By viewing the cultural differences in a hierarchical order and by considering the dominant cultures as the norm(above others), all other cultures are subject to violence because their ways of living, thinking and feelings are ridiculed, belittled and considered worthless, and the persons who practice these are viewed as objects.

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How could cultural imperialism promote violence as a social practice?

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How could cultural imperialism promote violence as a social practice?

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One of the four elements of cultural imperialism is this: “ The dominant group designates the dominated group as the OBJECT being looked at”. (When men sexualize and objectify women, women are mere bodies that they can do anything to as if women are not living, breathing human beings who feel feelings, experience things and make decisions. This objectification allows violence to take place with ease. The person who is committing violence does not see the women(in this case) as persons.)

This element of cultural imperialism, when the dominant group objectifies the dominated group, supports and justifies violence. Colonizers justify violence that is associated with colonization by using their cultural dominance and made-up superiority of their cultural elements. By viewing the cultural differences in a hierarchical order and by considering the dominant cultures as the norm(above others), all other cultures are subject to violence because their ways of living, thinking and feelings are ridiculed, belittled and considered worthless, and the persons who practice these are viewed as objects.