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The war of 1812 begins. The two leading causes of the war were the British Orders-in-Council, which limited American trade with Europe, and impressment, the Royal Navy’s practice of taking seamen from American merchant vessels to fill out the crews of its own chronically undermanned warships. Under the authority of the Orders in Council, the British seized some 400 American merchant ships and their cargoes between 1807 and 1812. Press gangs, though ostensibly targeting British subjects for naval service, also swept up 6,000 to 9,000 Americans into the crews of British ships between 1803 and 1812.

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British victory at Queenston Heights: In the Battle at Queenston Heights, the United States suffers its second major defeat of the war. To secure a foothold in Canada before the onset of winter, U.S. forces cross the Niagara River and seize Queenston Heights. Although initially successful, reinforcements are not forthcoming because American militiamen refuse to cross the Canadian border. The British, under Major General Isaac Brock, and their Grand River Iroquois allies under Captain John Norton, assault the Heights and defeat and capture the bulk of the American invasion force. Although victorious, General Brock is killed.

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USS Constitution defeats HMS Java: After returning to Boston in September, Constitution sails for the South Atlantic. On December 29, off the coast of Brazil, Constitution defeats the British frigate Java.After a fierce battle lasting almost three hours, the British surrender. Java suffers heavy damage, forcing the Americans to set it on fire and sink it after the battle. The three U.S. frigate victories in 1812 eventually induce the Royal Navy to change its tactics. In 1813, the Royal Navy orders its frigates not to engage American frigates alone.

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Americans are defeated at Frenchtown: After defeating a small enemy force at Frenchtown on the River Raisin in Michigan Territory on January 18, U.S. forces are overwhelmed by an army of British soldiers and warriors from indigenous nations four days later. The following day, indigenous warriors kill somewhere between 30 and 100 wounded and abandoned American prisoners in an apparent retaliation for actions committed by the Americans. “Remember the Raisin!” becomes a popular rallying cry for American settlers in the West.

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Battle of Crysler’s Farm: British victory ends the U.S. offensive that has targeted Montreal. The Americans do not fight badly, but their commander, Brigadier General Thomas P. Boyd, sends his soldiers into battle intermittently in a seemingly uncoordinated offensive. Major General James Wilkinson is too ill to lead the men himself. By late afternoon the American army retreats.

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Battle of Horseshoe Bend: In the climactic battle in the Creek War, U.S. forces under Major General Andrew Jackson defeat Muscogee “Red Sticks” at their encampment on a bend in the Tallapoosa River in present-day Alabama. Intense close combat continues through the night. The “Red Sticks” are unwilling to surrender.

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Siege of Fort Erie: Following the Battle at Lundy’s Lane, the U.S. Army withdraws to Fort Erie, which it enlarges and strengthens. The British, reinforced, besiege the fort. The Americans repulse a British attack on August 15. On September 17, in a sortie from Fort Erie, Americans overrun and spike several British artillery batteries before being forced to withdraw. Both sides suffer heavy casualties in the exchange. In addition, both sides suffer from the nearly constant rain. The British, unable to take the fort, withdraw on September 21. U.S. forces abandon Fort Erie and cross into New York in November.

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McArthur’s Raid into Upper Canada. With a force of 720 mounted men, including 70 Shawnees, Lenapes, and Wyandots, Brigadier General Duncan McArthur conducts a deep raid into Upper Canada from Detroit, destroying mills to deprive the British army of food. McArthur’s force overruns a militia force at Malcolm’s Mills on November 6. This is the only battle during the raid and is the last battle on the Canadian-American frontier.

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Battle of New Orleans: The British attack of January 8 is the climax of a British campaign on the Gulf Coast. After three preliminary engagements fought from December 23, 1814 to January 1, 1815, the British launch a major assault against General Andrew Jackson’s stout defenses south of New Orleans. They are repulsed with heavy losses, with over 2,000 killed, wounded, missing, or captured, while Jackson’s own losses are only 70. It is the last major battle of the War of 1812 and a resounding American victory. Casualties below are from the entire campaign.

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USS Peacock defeats East India brig Nautilus: The U.S. Navy wins the last engagement of the war. Cruising far from normal lines of communication, Lewis Warrington, captain of the sloop Peacock, does not know the war has ended. Off the coast of present-day Indonesia, he fights and captures the Honorable East India Company brig Nautilus, even though the British officers on the company ship assure him that the war is over. Ironically, the first and the last vessels captured in the War of 1812 share the same name.