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The three-tier IoT architecture model consisting of Perception Layer, Network Layer, and Application Layer is most appropriate for RFID-based systems. The reason is that such IoT architecture is simple and highly effective for RFID systems due to its focus on gathering data from the tag, transmitting data across the network, and displaying it via application. In addition, this type of IoT architecture is relatively easy to implement, cost-effective, and applicable to small and medium-sized enterprises, e.g., employee attendance monitoring and inventory management.

Nevertheless, compared to other IoT architecture models (such as the five-tier one), it is less scalable, and there are fewer opportunities to integrate advanced analytical tools and security measures into RFID-based systems based on this IoT architecture model.

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5-layer

Perception → Transport → Processing → Application → Business (plus security/management)

Used in enterprise systems with analytics and business logic

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Recommended architecture for an RFID reader system

Recommended: 5-layer IoT architecture

Why this fits RFID systems:

Perception layer: RFID tags + RFID reader capture ID data

Network layer: Sends data via Wi-Fi/Ethernet

Processing layer: Middleware/database filters and stores tag data

Application layer: Displays tracking info (e.g., inventory system)

Business (plus security/management)

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Recommended architecture for an RFID reader system

Recommended: 4-layer IoT architecture

Why this fits RFID systems:

Perception layer: RFID tags + RFID reader capture ID data

Network layer: Sends data via Wi-Fi/Ethernet

Processing layer: Middleware/database filters and stores tag data

Application layer: Displays tracking info (e.g., inventory system)

This structure directly matches how RFID systems work: data collection → transmission → processing → usage.

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justification (why use this architecture in software design)

a) Simplicity and clarity

Clear separation of responsibilities makes systems easier to design and debug

b) Scalability

You can expand each layer independently (e.g., add more RFID readers without changing the app)

c) Reusability

Processing and application layers can be reused across multiple IoT systems

d) Good for real-world applications

Widely used in logistics, retail, and asset tracking (common RFID use cases)

e) Supports software development practices

Works well with APIs, databases, and cloud services

Easy to integrate with web/mobile apps

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Disadvantages of this architecture

a) Latency issues

Data must travel through multiple layers → slower than edge-based systems

b) Dependence on network/cloud

If connectivity fails, system performance drops

c) Security risks

Multiple layers increase attack surface

d) Limited real-time processing

Not ideal for time-critical systems compared to edge/fog architectures

e) Integration complexity (at scale)

As system grows, managing data flow between layers becomes harder

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There are several types of Internet of Things (IoT) architectures commonly discussed in the literature, including the three-layer, five-layer, and more advanced multi-layer models. The three-layer architecture consists of the perception layer, network layer, and application layer, and is considered the most basic structure of IoT systems . In contrast, the five-layer architecture expands this model by adding transport, processing (middleware), and business layers, allowing for more detailed data handling and decision-making . More complex architectures (such as six or seven layers) are typically used in large-scale or industrial systems to support advanced analytics and scalability .

For explaining an RFID reader system, the three-layer IoT architecture is the most appropriate choice. In this model, the perception layer includes the RFID reader and tags, which collect data from the physical environment. The network layer is responsible for transmitting this data using communication technologies such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. Finally, the application layer processes the data and presents it to users, for example through a tracking or attendance system .

This architecture is recommended because it is simple and easy to understand, making it suitable for explaining systems like RFID. It provides a clear flow of data from devices to users and is effective for small to medium-sized applications. Additionally, it is useful when designing software applications because developers can focus on the core functions of data collection, communication, and user interaction without dealing with unnecessary complexity .

However, there are some disadvantages to using this architecture. The three-layer model is too basic for complex systems, as it does not include a dedicated processing or middleware layer for handling large volumes of data. It also offers limited scalability and fewer built-in security controls, which can be problematic in larger or more advanced IoT environments . As a result, more advanced architectures such as the five-layer model may be required for enterprise-level systems.

In conclusion, the three-layer IoT architecture is the most suitable choice for explaining an RFID reader system due to its simplicity and clarity, although it may not be ideal for more complex or large-scale applications.

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Narrowband Internet of Things (NB‑IoT) is a low‑power wide‑area network (LPWAN) architecture designed for devices that transmit small amounts of data over long distances while consuming minimal power. It operates on licensed frequency bands and is characterised by its reliability, security, and energy efficiency (Arshdeep and Vijay, 2014).

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NB‑IoT is widely used in smart city waste management systems, where sensors installed in public bins send fill‑level data to a central monitoring platform. This enables more efficient waste collection routes and reduces environmental and operational impact.

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NB‑IoT is designed specifically for low‑power, wide‑area IoT applications, making it highly suitable for systems that transmit small amounts of data intermittently over long distances. It supports deep indoor and underground coverage, ensuring stable connectivity where traditional wireless networks often fail.

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NB-IoT is commonly used in smart parking systems, where sensors detect whether a parking space is occupied and send data to a central platform in real time.

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NB-IoT is suitable because it uses low power while maintaining reliable connectivity over long distances. It is ideal for IoT devices like RFID systems that transmit small amounts of data. Additionally, it works well in areas with weak signal coverage, such as indoors.

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NB-IoT is suitable because it uses low power while maintaining reliable connectivity over long distances. It is ideal for IoT devices like RFID systems that transmit small amounts of data. Additionally, it works well in areas with weak signal coverage, such as indoors.

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NB-IoT is a low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) architecture designed for devices that need to send small amounts of data over long distances using cellular networks.

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This architecture is used in UK as it is used to monitor and control the flow of traffic. For example Waze app is used to alert drivers of potential traffic and automatically redirect their route. Traffic lights are controlled to prioritise emergency vehicles. History of accidents are reported on apps by analysing data and thereby alerting the driver to be caution while driving.

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4-layer architecture is required in traffic monitoring as is contains physical-layer(sensors), networking-layer(WiFi, fiber-optics and 4G/5G connection), Middleware-layer(data processing and analysing) and application-layer(citizen's app, dashboard for city officials).

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I will go for the 7-layer and 4-layer. If using for business i will go for 7 layers; for domestic use, I will go for 4 layer

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This architecture is being used for applications like smart meter, agriculture sensors, asset tracking.

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it is installed in smart parking meters these days. where card payment can be made without any attendant

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Taking into consideration the increasing number of cyber-attacks, I'm sure that an extra security layer is always welcome

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It was developed under the EU FP7 research program to create a common way of describing IoT systems. Many academic papers cite it as the first serious attempt to standardize IoT design

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Narrow Band IoT is cheaper to install but can give long battery life and network range can reach deeper into buildings. it is goo d for frequent short notifications.

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NB-IoT provides excellent indoor and rural coverage. Due to low power consumption, the devices can last over 10 years making them the ideal for applications where frequent battery replacement is impractical. They are simpler and cheaper to manufacture than traditional cellular modules.

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can be used in Smart City Traffic & Parking Management

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Relating to smart-cities especially traffic monitoring, I would choose 4 layer IoT architecture

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I would choose Narrow band IoT because it is cheaper to install and has deep extended reach. it is low maintenance solution and battery usage is very low . It is best for static sensor.

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Cheaper to install / lower battery usage 

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I prefer 6 layers because it has an extra security layer

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NB-IoT, as it is widely adopted, energy efficient and cost- effective architecture.

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monitoring weather, predict natural disasters, large agricultural fields

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monitoring weather, predict natural disasters, large agricultural fields

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NB-IoT can be used in smart cities and environmental purposes 

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NB-IoT can be used in smart cities and environmental purposes 

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I would prefer NB-IoT because it cover wider range and uses low power

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I would prefer NB-IoT because it cover wider range and uses low power

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Its the one will be suitable on my project

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Its the one will be suitable on my project

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I would choose NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT): A 3GPP standard designed for low-power, wide-area networks (LPWAN). It supports massive numbers of devices with low cost, low power consumption, and long battery life, ideal for smart meters, agriculture sensors, and city infrastructure.

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In many Chinese cities, NB-IoT has been deployed in smart water meters. These meters automatically send water usage data to utilities over NB-IoT networks, eliminating manual meter reading. The benefits include accurate billing, leak detection, and reduced operational costs.

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NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT) is widely used in real-world low-power, wide-area applications where devices need to send small amounts of data over long distances with long battery life.

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I would choose NB-IoT because it is optimised for massive IoT deployments where devices don’t need high data rates but do need long battery life and wide coverage.

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I would choose NB-IoT because it is optimised for massive IoT deployments where devices don’t need high data rates but do need long battery life and wide coverage.

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Energy efficient: Devices can last up to 10 years on small batteries.

Deep coverage: Works even in underground or remote areas (e.g., basements, rural zones).

Massive scalability: Supports millions of connected devices per network cell.

Low cost: Modules are cheaper compared to 4G/5G modems.

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Smart Agriculture - Soil Moisture Monitoring
In a large agricultural field, sensors are buried to monitor soil moisture levels. These sensors need to operate for years on a single battery, transmit data from a remote location with potentially poor cellular coverage, and only send small packets of data (e.g., moisture readings) a few times per day. NB-IoT's low power consumption, excellent coverage range, and efficiency with small data packets make it a perfect fit for this use case.

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NB-IoT is ideal for applications that require long-range communication, deep penetration (e.g., underground or inside buildings), and extremely long battery life. It is a cost-effective solution for devices that need to transmit small amounts of data infrequently.

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NB-IoT (Narrowband Internet of Things)