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The invention of the wheel impacts countries like Europe, China, and Bulgaria.

The event was an invention first used for pottery, but then found new use.

The wheel still affects the world as cars, machines, and even math still use the wheel.

https://www.bricsys.com/fr-ca/blog/who-invented-the-wheel-a-brief-history

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Gunpowder is invented - 9th century (around 800s CE)

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Gunpowder is invented - 9th century (around 800s CE)

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The invention of gunpower in China affected areas such as the Middle East, Europe, and more.

By the end of the 14th century, Warfare had revolutionized in Europe and would play a big role in colonialization

It still affects us today as the creation of gunpower was a huge step of firearm technology.

https://www.highburygrove.cola.org.uk/filedownload/0ED55BF6-BEED-13C7-7E498D90322F0F65.pdf/yusuf-epc.pdf#:~:text=The%20invention%20of%20gunpowder%20

was,and%20the%20Siege%20of%20Constantinople.

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The Neolithic Revolution Begins ~ 10,000 BCE

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The Neolithic Revolution Begins ~ 10,000 BCE

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The Neolithic revolution impacted Mesopotamia, it then spread to India, and Europe.

The Neolithic Revolution took on the role of implementing new agricultural techniques and even new tools.

This event is very important as it turned fighting homosapiens into logical humans.

https://www2.nau.edu/~gaud/bio301/content/neolth.htm#:~:text=The%20Neolithic%20Revolution%20was%20the,directed%20the%20labor%20of%20their

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The printing press was a global impact as it affected places like Europe and Asia.

The technology was a go to for religions like Christianity at the time as bible and texts were able to be printed more quickly.

We still use it in forms of printers and such in the modern world.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/printing-press

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printing press, machine by which text and images are transferred from movable type to paper or other media by means of ink. Movable type and paper were invented in China, and the oldest known extant book printed from movable type was created in Korea in the 14th century. Printing first became mechanized in Europe during the 15th century.

The earliest mention of a mechanized printing press in Europe appears in a lawsuit in Strasbourg in 1439; it reveals construction of a press for Johannes Gutenberg and his associates. Gutenberg's press and others of its era in Europe owed much to the medieval paper press, which was in turn modeled after the ancient wine-and-olive press of the Mediterranean area. A long handle was used to turn a heavy wooden screw, exerting downward pressure against the paper, which was laid over the type mounted on a wooden platen. Gutenberg used his press to print an edition of the Bible in 1455; this Bible is the first complete extant book in the West, and it is one of the earliest books printed from movable type. ( Jikji, a book of the teachings of Buddhist priests, was printed by hand from movable type in Korea in 1377.) In its essentials, the wooden press used by Gutenberg reigned supreme for more than 300 years, with a hardly varying rate of 250 sheets per hour printed on one side.

Metal presses began to appear late in the 18th century, at about which time the advantages of the cylinder were first perceived and the application of steam power was considered. By the mid-19th century Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected a power-driven cylinder press in which a large central cylinder carrying the type successively printed on the paper of four impression cylinders, producing 8,000 sheets an hour in 2,000 revolutions. The rotary press came to dominate the high-speed newspaper field, but the flatbed press, having a flat bed to hold the type and either a reciprocating platen or a cylinder to hold the paper, continued to be used for job printing.

A significant innovation of the late 19th century was the offset press, in which the printing (blanket) cylinder runs continuously in one direction while paper is impressed against it by an impression cylinder. Offset printing is especially valuable for colour printing, because an offset press can print multiple colours in one run. Offset lithography -used for books, newspapers, magazines, business forms, and direct mail-continued to be the most widely used printing method at the start of the 21st century, though it was challenged by ink-jet, laser, and other printing methods.

Apart from the introduction of electric power, advances in press design between 1900 and the 1950s consisted of a great number of relatively minor mechanical modifications designed to improve the speed of the operation. Among these changes were better paper feed, improvements in plates and paper, automatic paper reels, and photoelectric control of colour register. The introduction of computers in the 1950s revolutionized printing composition, with more and more steps in the print process being replaced by digital data. At the end of the 20th century a new electronic printing method, print-on-demand, began to compete with offset printing, though it-and printing generally-came under increasing pressure in developed countries as publishers, newspapers, and others turned to online means of distributing what they had previously printed on paper.

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Printing press | Invention, Definition, History, Gutenberg, & Facts

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A printing press is a machine by which text and images are transferred from movable type to paper or other media by means of ink. Movable type and paper were first developed in China, and printing first became mechanized in Europe during the 15th century.

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Columbus “discovers” the Americas - 1492

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Columbus “discovers” the Americas - 1492

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This voyage impacted both the New World and the Old World as it established a connection between these places.

It was important for Spain as it brought lots of glory and new access to natural resources.

It was affected the modern world as the series of events led to the enslavement of Africans.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Columbus

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Christopher Columbus | Biography, Nationality, Voyages, Ships, Route, & Facts

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Christopher Columbus, the intrepid Italian explorer, embarked on a historic voyage across the Atlantic in 1492 and opened up new horizons for European exploration and colonization.

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The protestant reformation affected areas such as Spain and all of Europe.

This event sought to remove impurities and corruption from churches and people.

This event was substantial to today as it pushed the mass printing of bibles, furthering the religion.

https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/protestant-reformation/#:~:text=The%20Protestant%20Reformation%2C%20a%20religious,the%20course%20of%20modern%20history.

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The Protestant Reformation’s concepts of individualism and free expression of religion are incorporated into the First Amendment.

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The Council of Trent affected areas such as Italy and Europe.

It served to revitalize Roman Catholicism in many parts of Europe and was a key part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

It was important because it was a turning point in the wars of religion.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/Council-of-Trent#:~:text=Council%20of%20Trent%2C%20(1545%E2%80%93,doctrines%20contested%20by%20the%20Protestants.

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Council of Trent, (1545–63) 19th ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, which made sweeping reforms and laid down dogma clarifying nearly all doctrines contested by the Protestants.

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The steam engine affected countries such as France, England, and other countries.

The invention was a transportation method so its invention impacts lots of places.

It was first used for trains and railways but then used for transversal use like boats.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/steam-engine

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steam engine, machine using steam power to perform mechanical work through the agency of heat.
(Read James Watt's 1819 Britannica essay on the steam engine.)
A brief treatment of steam engines follows. For full treatment of steam power and production and of steam engines and turbines, see Energy Conversion: Steam engines.

In a steam engine, hot steam, usually supplied by a boiler, expands under pressure, and part of the heat energy is converted into work. The remainder of the heat may be allowed to escape, or, for maximum engine efficiency, the steam may be condensed in a separate apparatus, a condenser, at comparatively low temperature and pressure. For high efficiency, the steam must fall through a wide temperature range as a consequence of its expansion within the engine. The most efficient performance-that is, the greatest output of work in relation to the heat supplied-is secured by using a low condenser temperature and a high boiler pressure. The steam may be further heated by passing it through a superheater on its way from the boiler to the engine. A common superheater is a group of parallel pipes with their surfaces exposed to the hot gases in the boiler furnace. By means of superheaters, the steam may be heated beyond the temperature at which it is produced by boiling water.

In a reciprocating engine, the piston and cylinder type of steam engine, steam under pressure is admitted into the cylinder by a valve mechanism. As the steam expands, it pushes the piston, which is usually connected to a crank on a flywheel to produce rotary motion. In the double-acting engine, steam from the boiler is admitted alternately to each side of the piston. In a simple steam engine, expansion of the steam takes place in only one cylinder, whereas in the compound engine there are two or more cylinders of increasing size for greater expansion of the steam and higher efficiency; the first and smallest piston is operated by the initial high-pressure steam and the second by the lower-pressure steam exhausted from the first.

In the steam turbine, steam is discharged at high velocity through nozzles and then flows through a series of stationary and moving blades, causing a rotor to move at high speeds. Steam turbines are more compact and usually permit higher temperatures and greater expansion ratios than reciprocating steam engines. The turbine is the universal means used to generate large quantities of electric power with steam.

The earliest steam engines were the scientific novelties of Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century ce, such as the aeolipile, but not until the 17th century were attempts made to harness steam for practical purposes. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a pump with hand-operated valves to raise water from mines by suction produced by condensing steam. In about 1712 another Englishman, Thomas Newcomen, developed a more efficient steam engine with a piston separating the condensing steam from the water. In 1765 James Watt greatly improved the Newcomen engine by adding a separate condenser to avoid heating and cooling the cylinder with each stroke. Watt then developed a new engine that rotated a shaft instead of providing the simple up-and-down motion of the pump, and he added many other improvements to produce a practical power plant.

A cumbersome steam carriage for roads was built in France by Nicholas-Joseph Cugnot as early as 1769. Richard Trevithick in England was the first to use a steam carriage on a railway; in 1803 he built a steam locomotive that in February 1804 made a successful run on a horsecar route in Wales. The adaptation of the steam engine to railways became a commercial success with the Rocket of English engineer George Stephenson in 1829. The first practical steamboat was the tug Charlotte Dundas, built by William Symington and tried in the Forth and Clyde Canal, Scotland, in 1802. Robert Fulton applied the steam engine to a passenger boat in the United States in 1807.

Though the steam engine gave way to the internal-combustion engine as a means of vehicle propulsion, interest in it revived in the second half of the 20th century because of increasing air-pollution problems caused by the burning of fossil fuels in internal-combustion engines.

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Steam engine | Definition, History, Impact, & Facts

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Steam engine, machine using steam power to perform mechanical work through the agency of heat. In a steam engine, hot steam, usually supplied by a boiler, expands under pressure, and part of the heat energy is converted into work. Learn more about steam engines in this article.

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The Agricultural Revolution Begins (British Agricultural Revolution begins) ~1700s 

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The Agricultural Revolution Begins (British Agricultural Revolution begins) ~1700s 

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The British agricultural revolution affected countries like France, Ireland, and more.

The british agricultural Revolution helped technical improvements, such as new machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of breeding, and experimentation with new crops and systems of crop rotation.

This event has still affected us as these useful techniques helped the modern work make the most out of their plants and crops.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/agricultural-revolution

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Table of Contents

This article was most recently revised and updated by

agricultural revolution, gradual transformation of the traditional agricultural system that began in Britain in the 18th century. Aspects of this complex transformation, which was not completed until the 19th century, included the reallocation of land ownership to make farms more compact and an increased investment in technical improvements, such as new machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of breeding, and experimentation with new crops and systems of crop rotation.

Among those new crop-rotation methods was the Norfolk four-course system, established in Norfolk county, England, which emphasized fodder crops and the absence of the theretofore conventionally employed fallow year. Wheat was grown in the first year and turnips in the second, followed by barley, with clover and ryegrass undersown in the third. The clover and ryegrass were cut for feed or grazed in the fourth year. In the winter, cattle and sheep were fed the turnips. The development of Shorthorn beef cattle through selective breeding of local cattle of the Teeswater district, Durham county, typified the advances brought about by scientific breeding.

The historiography of the period that emphasized the contributions of "great men" has lost much of its influence, but the names Jethro Tull and Arthur Young are still frequently invoked by those seeking to understand the significance of the agricultural revolution, which was an essential prelude to the Industrial Revolution.

Jeff Wallenfeldt.

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Agricultural revolution | English history

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agricultural revolution, gradual transformation of the traditional agricultural system that began in Britain in the 18th century. Aspects of this complex transformation, which was not completed until the 19th century, included the reallocation of land ownership to make farms more compact and an increased investment in technical improvements, such as new machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of breeding, and experimentation with new crops and systems of crop rotation.

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The American Revolution Impacted many countries such as France, Spain, Britain, and more.

This revolution was the revolution that allowed America to cut ties with Britain.

The American Revolution is the war that helped the 13 colonies become, the U.S.A

https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution

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also called:

United States War of Independence or American Revolutionary War

What was the American Revolution?

How did the American Revolution begin?

What were the major causes of the American Revolution?

Which countries fought on the side of the colonies during the American Revolution?

How was the American Revolution a civil war?

American Revolution, (1775-83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and influential segment of its North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary neglect. Until early in 1778 the conflict was a civil war within the British Empire, but afterward it became an international war as France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain. Meanwhile, the Netherlands, which provided both official recognition of the United States and financial support for it, was engaged in its own war against Britain. From the beginning, sea power was vital in determining the course of the war, lending to British strategy a flexibility that helped compensate for the comparatively small numbers of troops sent to America and ultimately enabling the French to help bring about the final British surrender at Yorktown.

Land campaigns to 1778

Americans fought the war on land with essentially two types of organization: the Continental (national) Army and the state militias. The total number of the former provided by quotas from the states throughout the conflict was 231,771 men, and the militias totaled 164,087. At any given time, however, the American forces seldom numbered over 20,000; in 1781 there were only about 29,000 insurgents under arms throughout the country. The war was therefore one fought by small field armies. Militias, poorly disciplined and with elected officers, were summoned for periods usually not exceeding three months. The terms of Continental Army service were only gradually increased from one to three years, and not even bounties and the offer of land kept the army up to strength. Reasons for the difficulty in maintaining an adequate Continental force included the colonists' traditional antipathy toward regular armies, the objections of farmers to being away from their fields, the competition of the states with the Continental Congress to keep men in the militia, and the wretched and uncertain pay in a period of inflation.

By contrast, the British army was a reliable steady force of professionals. Since it numbered only about 42,000, heavy recruiting programs were introduced. Many of the enlisted men were farm boys, as were most of the Americans. Others were unemployed persons from the urban slums. Still others joined the army to escape fines or imprisonment. The great majority became efficient soldiers as a result of sound training and ferocious discipline. The officers were drawn largely from the gentry and the aristocracy and obtained their commissions and promotions by purchase. Though they received no formal training, they were not so dependent on a book knowledge of military tactics as were many of the Americans. British generals, however, tended toward a lack of imagination and initiative, while those who demonstrated such qualities often were rash.

Because troops were few and conscription unknown, the British government, following a traditional policy, purchased about 30,000 troops from various German princes. The Lensgreve (landgrave) of Hesse furnished approximately three-fifths of that total. Few acts by the crown roused so much antagonism in America as that use of foreign mercenaries.

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American Revolution | Causes, Battles, Aftermath, & Facts

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American Revolution (1775-83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and many North American colonists.

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Lots of countries have had industrial revolutions such as Britain, North America, and Japan.

The Industrial revolution brought great technology to the 1700's and new things were being tested out.

The Industrial Revolution also influenced the way that people lived and worked as new technological advancements transformed society.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution

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Industrial Revolution | Definition, History, Dates, Summary, & Facts

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Industrial Revolution, in modern history, the process of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. The process began in Britain in the 18th century and from there spread to other parts of the world, driving changes in energy use, socioecon…

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The French revolution made the feudal regime to be disowned in many parts of Europe.

The revolution was caused because of the unfairness of the rich and the poor in 19th century France.

If this revolution didn't inspire Britain to make them look crazy, Britain would have probably had a revolution similar to this.

https://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution

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What was the French Revolution?

Why did the French Revolution happen?

Why did the French Revolution lead to war with other nations?

How did the French Revolution succeed?

French Revolution, revolutionary movement that shook France between 1787 and 1799 and reached its first climax there in 1789-hence the conventional term "Revolution of 1789," denoting the end of the ancien régime in France and serving also to distinguish that event from the later French revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

Origins of the Revolution

The French Revolution had general causes common to all the revolutions of the West at the end of the 18th century and particular causes that explain why it was by far the most violent and the most universally significant of these revolutions. The first of the general causes was the social structure of the West. The feudal regime had been weakened step-by-step and had already disappeared in parts of Europe. The increasingly numerous and prosperous elite of wealthy commoners-merchants, manufacturers, and professionals, often called the bourgeoisie-aspired to political power in those countries where it did not already possess it. The peasants, many of whom owned land, had attained an improved standard of living and education and wanted to get rid of the last vestiges of feudalism so as to acquire the full rights of landowners and to be free to increase their holdings. Furthermore, from about 1730, higher standards of living had reduced the mortality rate among adults considerably. This, together with other factors, had led to an increase in the population of Europe unprecedented for several centuries: it doubled between 1715 and 1800. For France, which with 26 million inhabitants in 1789 was the most populated country of Europe, the problem was most acute.

A larger population created a greater demand for food and consumer goods. The discovery of new gold mines in Brazil had led to a general rise in prices throughout the West from about 1730, indicating a prosperous economic situation. From about 1770, this trend slackened, and economic crises, provoking alarm and even revolt, became frequent. Arguments for social reform began to be advanced. The philosophes-intellectuals whose writings inspired these arguments-were certainly influenced by 17th-century theorists such as René Descartes, Benedict de Spinoza and John Locke, but they came to very different conclusions about political, social, and economic matters. A revolution seemed necessary to apply the ideas of Montesquieu, Voltaire, or Jean-Jacques Rousseau. This Enlightenment was spread among the educated classes by the many "societies of thought" that were founded at that time: masonic lodges, agricultural societies, and reading rooms.

It is uncertain, however, whether revolution would have come without the added presence of a political crisis. Faced with the heavy expenditure that the wars of the 18th century entailed, the rulers of Europe sought to raise money by taxing the nobles and clergy, who in most countries had hitherto been exempt, To justify this, the rulers likewise invoked the arguments of advanced thinkers by adopting the role of " enlightened despots." This provoked reaction throughout Europe from the privileged bodies, diets. and estates. In North America this backlash caused the American Revolution, which began with the refusal to pay a tax imposed by the king of Great Britain. Monarchs tried to stop this reaction of the aristocracy, and both rulers and the privileged classes sought allies among the nonprivileged bourgeois and the peasants.

Plots and Revolutions Quiz

Although scholarly debate continues about the exact causes of the Revolution, the following reasons are commonly adduced: (1) the bourgeoisie resented its exclusion from political power and positions of honour; (2) the peasants were acutely aware of their situation and were less and less willing to support the anachronistic and burdensome feudal system; (3) the philosophes had been read more widely in France than anywhere else; (4) French participation in the American Revolution had driven the government to the brink of bankruptcy; (5) France was the most populous country in Europe, and crop failures in much of the country in 1788, coming on top of a long period of economic difficulties, compounded existing restlessness; and (6) the French monarchy, no longer seen as divinely ordained, was unable to adapt to the political and societal pressures that were being exerted on it.

Aristocratic revolt, 1787-89

The Revolution took shape in France when the controller general of finances, Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, arranged the summoning of an assembly of "notables" (prelates, great noblemen, and a few representatives of the bourgeoisie) in February 1787 to propose reforms designed to eliminate the budget deficit by increasing the taxation of the privileged classes. The assembly refused to take responsibility for the reforms and suggested the calling of the Estates-General, which represented the clergy, the aristocracy, and the Third Estate (the commoners) and which had not met since 1614. The efforts made by Calonne's successors to enforce fiscal reforms in spite of resistance by the privileged classes led to the so-called revolt of the "aristocratic bodies," notably that of the parlements (the most important courts of justice), whose powers were curtailed by the edict of May 1788.

During the spring and summer of 1788, there was unrest among the populace in Paris, Grenoble, Dijon, Toulouse, Pau, and Rennes. The king, Louis XVI, had to yield. He reappointed reform-minded Jacques Necker as the finance minister and promised to convene the Estates-General on May 5, 1789. He also, in practice, granted freedom of the press, and France was flooded with pamphlets addressing the reconstruction of the state. The elections to the Estates-General, held between January and April 1789, coincided with further disturbances, as the harvest of 1788 had been a bad one. There were practically no exclusions from the voting; and the electors drew up cahiers de doléances, which listed their grievances and hopes. They elected 600 deputies for the Third Estate, 300 for the nobility, and 300 for the clergy.

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French Revolution | History, Summary, Timeline, Causes, & Facts

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French Revolution, revolutionary movement that shook France between 1787 and 1799 and reached its first climax there in 1789-hence the conventional term 'Revolution of 1789,' denoting the end of the ancien regime in France and serving also to distinguish that event from the later French revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

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The Haitian revolution impacted France, Britain, and more.

The Haitians realized that they outnumbered their enslavers and broke free.

The Haitian Revolution was important as Haiti was the first country to founded by former slaves.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution

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What was the Haitian Revolution?

Why did the Haitian Revolution start?

How is the Haitian Revolution related to the French Revolution?

Who did the Haitian Revolution involve?

Why is the Haitian Revolution important?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Haitian Revolution, series of conflicts between 1791 and 1804 between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the British and French colonizers, and a number of other parties. Through the struggle, the Haitian people ultimately won independence from France and thereby became the first country to be founded by former slaves.

Colonial rule and slavery

The Spanish began to enslave the native Taino and Ciboney people soon after December 1492, when Italian navigator Christopher Columbus sighted the island that he called La Isla Española ("The Spanish Island"; later Anglicized as Hispaniola.) The island's indigenous population, forced to mine for gold, was devastated by European diseases and brutal working conditions, and by the end of the 16th century the people had virtually vanished. Thousands of slaves imported from other Caribbean islands met the same fate.

After the main gold mines were exhausted, the Spanish were succeeded by the French, who established their own permanent settlements, including Port-de-Paix (1665) in the northwest, and the French West Indies Corporation took control of the area. Landowners in western Hispaniola imported increasing numbers of African slaves, who totaled about 5,000 in the late 17th century. By 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution, the estimated population of Saint-Domingue, as the French called their colony, was 556,000 and included roughly 500,000 African slaves, 32,000 European colonists, and 24,000 affranchis (free mulattoes [people of mixed African and European descent] or blacks).

Haitian society was deeply fragmented by skin colour, class, and gender. The affranchis, most of them mulattoes, were sometimes slave owners themselves and aspired to the economic and social levels of the Europeans. They feared and spurned the slave majority but were generally discriminated against by the white European colonists, who were merchants, landowners, overseers, craftsmen, and the like. The aspirations of the affranchis became a major factor in the colony's struggle for independence. A large part of the slave population was African-born, from a number of West African peoples. The vast majority worked in the fields; others were household servants, boilermen (at the sugar mills), and even slave drivers. Slaves endured long, backbreaking workdays and often died from injuries, infections, and tropical diseases. Malnutrition and starvation also were common. Some slaves managed to escape into the mountainous interior, where they became known as Maroons and fought guerrilla battles against colonial militia.

Factional conflict and the rise of Toussaint Louverture

Against this background arose a revolution, beginning as a series of conflicts from the early 1790s. Among the causes of the conflicts were the affranchis' frustrations with a racist society, turmoil created in the colony by the French Revolution, nationalistic rhetoric expressed during Vodou ceremonies, the continuing brutality of slave owners, and wars between European powers. Vincent Ogé, a mulatto who had lobbied the Parisian assembly for colonial reforms, led an uprising in late 1790 but was captured, tortured, and executed.

In May 1791 the French revolutionary government granted citizenship to the wealthier affranchis, but Haiti's European population disregarded the law. Within two months isolated fighting broke out between Europeans and affranchis, and in August thousands of slaves rose in rebellion. The Europeans attempted to appease the mulattoes in order to quell the slave revolt, and the French assembly granted citizenship to all affranchis in April 1792. The country was torn by rival factions, some of which were supported by Spanish colonists in Santo Domingo (on the eastern side of the island, which later became the Dominican Republic) or by British troops from Jamaica. In 1793 a commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, was sent from France to maintain order and offered freedom to slaves who joined his army; he soon abolished slavery altogether, a decision confirmed the following year by the French government.

In the late 1790s Toussaint Louverture, a military leader and former slave, gained control of several areas and earned the initial support of French agents. He gave nominal allegiance to France while pursuing his own political and military designs, which included negotiating with the British. In January 1801 Toussaint conquered Santo Domingo, and in May of that year, he had himself named "governor-general for life." He put the peasants back to work on the plantations under military rule and encouraged many of the French proprietors to return. In December 1801 Napoléon Bonaparte (later Napoleon I), wishing to maintain control of the island, attempted to restore the old regime (and European rule) by sending his brother-in-law, Gen. Charles Leclerc, with an experienced force from Saint-Domingue that included Alexandre Sabès Pétion and several other exiled mulatto officers. Toussaint struggled for several months against Leclerc's forces before agreeing to an armistice in May 1802; however, the French broke the agreement and imprisoned him in France. He died on April 7, 1803.

Independent Haiti

Some of Toussaint's lieutenants-most notably Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe- resumed the war against the French in 1802. They were soon joined by Pétion and other mulatto leaders, who were infuriated by the restoration of the restrictions on their caste. Both the blacks and the mulattoes were enraged by reports that France had reestablished slavery in Guadeloupe and Martinique, and the struggle was carried on with great desperation. The French were weakened by an epidemic of yellow fever-Leclerc succumbed to the disease in November 1802-and the conclusion of the Louisiana Purchase in May 1803 signaled Napoleon's intention to withdraw from North America. Less than three weeks later, the French position in Haiti became truly hopeless with the renewal of hostilities between France and Britain on May 18, 1803.

On November 18 the Armée indigène (French: "Indigenous Army") under Dessalines defeated the French at the Battle of Vertières, and French Gen. Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, surrendered Cap-Français (now Cap-Haïtien), the last significant French stronghold. Under the terms of the surrender, the French were given 10 days to evacuate, but Rochambeau showed no haste in embarking his troops. Dessalines responded by threatening to turn his cannons on the French ships at anchor in Cap-Français harbour. Ironically, it would fall to the Royal Navy, which had been blockading Saint-Domingue since the resumption of the Napoleonic Wars, to carry out the evacuation. British Capt. John Bligh treated with both Rochambeau and Dessalines, and the French garrison finally departed Cap-Français as British prisoners. While this marked the end of French military action on Haiti, France continued to maintain a presence in the eastern part of the island until 1809.

On January 1, 1804, the entire island was declared independent under the Arawak-derived name of Haiti. Many European powers and their Caribbean surrogates ostracized Haiti, fearing the spread of slave revolts, whereas reaction in the United States was mixed; slave-owning states did all they could to suppress news of the rebellion, but merchants in the free states hoped to trade with Haiti rather than with European powers. More important, nearly the entire population was utterly destitute-a legacy of slavery that has continued to have a profound impact on Haitian history.

In October 1804 Dessalines assumed the title of Emperor Jacques I, but in October 1806 he was killed while trying to suppress a mulatto revolt, and Henry Christophe took control of the kingdom from his capital in the north. Civil war then broke out between Christophe and Sabès Pétion, who was based at Port-au-Prince in the south. Christophe, who declared himself King Henry I in 1811, managed to improve the country's economy but at the cost of forcing former slaves to return to work on the plantations. He built a spectacular palace (Sans Souci) as well as an imposing fortress (La Citadelle Laferrière) in the hills to the south of the city of Cap-Haïtien, where, with mutinous soldiers almost at his door, he committed suicide in 1820. It was not until 1825 that France recognized Haiti's independence, and then only in exchange for a large indemnity of 100 million francs, with a repayment period until 1887.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Michael Ray.

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Haitian Revolution | Causes, Summary, & Facts

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Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), series of conflicts between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the British and French colonizers, and a number of other parties. Through the struggle, the Haitian people ultimately won independence from France and thereby became the first country to be founded by former slaves.

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Impacted countries like America and England

The cotton gin was a machine made for cleaning the seeds out of cotton.

Was used greatly for American production.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/cotton-gin

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

cotton gin, machine for cleaning cotton of its seeds, invented in the United States by Eli Whitney in 1793. The cotton gin is an example of an invention directly called forth by an immediate demand; the mechanization of spinning in England had created a greatly expanded market for American cotton, whose production was inhibited by the slowness of manual removal of the seeds from the raw fibre. Whitney, a Massachusetts Yankee visiting a friend in the South, learned of the problem and quickly solved it. Inspired by manual brushes invented by enslaved workers, Whitney crafted a device that pulled the cotton through a set of wire teeth mounted on a revolving cylinder, the fibre passing through narrow slots in an iron breastwork too small to permit passage of the seed. The simplicity of the invention-which could be powered by people, animals, or water-caused it to be widely copied despite Whitney's patent; it is credited with fixing cotton cultivation, virtually to the exclusion of other crops, in the U.S. South and so institutionalizing slavery.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Melissa Petruzzello.

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Cotton gin | Definition, Inventor, Impact, & Facts

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Cotton gin, machine for cleaning cotton of its seeds, invented in the United States by Eli Whitney in 1793. It is credited with fixing cotton cultivation, virtually to the exclusion of other crops, in the U.S. South and so institutionalizing slavery.

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Internal combustion engine invented - 1876

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Internal combustion engine invented - 1876

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The internal combustion engine allowed lots of moving and new ways of trade worldwide.

Created by a French engineer and could not be created the same for a while.

Influenced modern machines today like automotive, locomotives, ships, and Airplanes.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/internal-combustion-engine

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Internal-combustion engine | Definition & Facts

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Internal-combustion engine, any of a group of devices in which combustion’s reactants (oxidizer and fuel) and products serve as the engine’s working fluids. Work results from the hot gaseous combustion products acting on the engine’s moving surfaces, such as the face of a piston, a turbine blade, or…

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Invention of the Machine Gun (The Maxim Gun) - 1884

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Invention of the Machine Gun (The Maxim Gun) - 1884

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The Maxim Gun impacted lots of areas around Europe in the 20th century.

Was essentially a machine gun that was very powerful, especially against humans.

Places like Russia and Germany used it in wars.

https://guides.loc.gov/machine-gun-its-history-development-and-use#:~:text=First%20invented%20in%201884%20by,in%20their%20pursuit%20of%20colonies.

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Research Guides: The Machine Gun: Its History, Development and Use: A Resource Guide: Introduction

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The invention of a military firearm that could produce rapid, repeating fire had been sought for nearly 900 years. This guide comprises digital resources and print materials related to the history of the machine gun.

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The first Airplane was invented (Wright brothers) - 1903

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The first Airplane was invented (Wright brothers) - 1903

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Heavily impacted the U.S.A as it was the first flight there.

American inventors and aviation pioneers who achieved the first powered, sustained, and controlled airplane flight.

Important in the modern world as it shaped the technology for airplanes and jets.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wright-brothers

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Wright brothers, American brothers, inventors, and aviation pioneers who achieved the first powered, sustained, and controlled airplane flight (1903). Wilbur Wright (April 16, 1867, near Millville, Indiana, U.S.-May 30, 1912, Dayton, Ohio) and his brother Orville Wright (August 19, 1871, Dayton-January 30, 1948, Dayton) also built and flew the first fully practical airplane (1905).
(Read Orville Wright's 1929 biography of his brother, Wilbur.)

Early family life

Wilbur and Orville were the sons of Milton Wright, an ordained minister of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, and Susan Catherine Koerner Wright, whom Milton had met while he was training for the ministry and while Susan was a student at a United Brethren college in Hartsville, Indiana. Two boys, Reuchlin (1861-1920) and Lorin (1862-1939), were born to the couple before Wilbur was born on a farm near Millville. The young family then moved to Dayton, Ohio, so that Milton could take up duties as the editor of a church newspaper. In that city a pair of twins, Otis and Ida, were born and died in 1870. Orville arrived a year later, followed by Katharine (1874-1929).

Elected a bishop of the church in 1877, Milton spent long periods of time away from home visiting the Brethren congregations for which he was responsible. The family moved often: to Cedar Rapids, Iowa, in 1878; to a farm near Richmond, Indiana, in 1881; and back to Dayton in 1884. The Wright children were educated in public schools and grew up, as Orville later explained, in a home where "there was always much encouragement to children to pursue intellectual interests; to investigate whatever aroused curiosity." In a less-nourishing environment, Orville believed, "our curiosity might have been nipped long before it could have borne fruit."

These were not tranquil years for Bishop Wright. As the leader of a conservative faction opposed to modernization in the church, he was involved in a 20-year struggle that led to a national schism in 1889 and was followed by multiple lawsuits for possession of church property. Even as these decades of crisis were approaching a conclusion, an entirely new conflict developed, this time within the small schismatic branch that Bishop Wright had led away from the original church. The resulting church disciplinary hearings and civil court cases continued up to the time of the bishop's retirement in 1905.

Bishop Wright exercised an extraordinary influence on the lives of his children. Wilbur and Orville, like their father, were independent thinkers with a deep confidence in their own talents, an unshakable faith in the soundness of their judgment, and a determination to persevere in the face of disappointment and adversity. Those qualities, when combined with their unique technical gifts, help to explain the success of the Wright brothers as inventors. At the same time, the bishop's rigid adherence to principle and disinclination to negotiate disputes may have had some influence on the manner in which the brothers, later in life, conducted the marketing of their invention.

Printers and bicycle makers

Wilbur and Orville were the only members of the Wright family who did not attend college or marry. Wilbur's plans to enter college came to an end when he was injured in a hockey accident in the winter of 1885-86. He spent the following three years recovering his health, reading extensively in his father's library, assisting the bishop with his legal and church problems, and caring for his invalid mother, who died of tuberculosis in 1889.

Following their mother's death, Orville, who had spent several summers learning the printing trade, persuaded Wilbur to join him in establishing a print shop. In addition to normal printing services, the brothers edited and published two short-lived local newspapers. They also published another newspaper, The Tattler, for Dayton's African American community, which was edited by poet Paul Laurence Dunbar, a high-school classmate of Orville's. They developed a local reputation for the quality of the presses that they designed, built, and sold to other printers. These printing presses were one of the first indications of the Wright brothers' extraordinary technical ability and their unique approach to the solution of problems in mechanical design.

In 1892 the brothers opened a bicycle sales and repair shop, and they began to build bicycles on a small scale in 1896. They developed their own self-oiling bicycle wheel hub and installed a number of light machine tools in the shop. Profits from the print shop and the bicycle operation eventually were to fund the Wright brothers' aeronautical experiments from 1899 to 1905. In addition, the experience of designing and building lightweight, precision machines of wood, wire, and metal tubing was ideal preparation for the construction of flying machines.

In later years the Wrights dated their fascination with flight to a small helicopter toy that their father had brought home from his travels when the family was living in Iowa. A decade later, they had read accounts of the work of the German glider pioneer Otto Lilienthal. But it was news reports of Lilienthal's death in a glider crash in August 1896 that marked the beginning of their serious interest in flight. By 1899 the brothers had exhausted the resources of the local library and had written to the Smithsonian Institution for suggestions as to further reading in aeronautics. The following year they wrote to introduce themselves to Octave Chanute, a leading civil engineer and an authority on aviation who would remain a confidant of the brothers during the critical years from 1900 to 1905.

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Wright brothers | Biography, Inventions, Hometown, Plane, & Facts

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Wright brothers, American brothers, inventors, and aviation pioneers who achieved the first powered, sustained, and controlled airplane flight (1903). Orville made the first successful flight, covering 120 feet (36 meters) through the air in 12 seconds.

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The whole world is affected by the production of plastic.

Plastic was invented in 1907 as a lab experiment.

Plastic has been a used a lot in society ever since it was invented and can cause serious problems to us and the Earth.

https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/plastics/276450#:~:text=In%201909%20Leo%20H.,after%20himself%2C%20calling%20it%20Bakelite.

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It would be difficult to imagine a world without plastics. Among the most versatile materials ever developed, plastics can be made to resemble and even replace such diverse materials as metal, wood, glass, china, stone, cloth, rubber, jewels, glue, cardboard, varnish, and leather. The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos, meaning "moldable" or "formable." When heated to a liquid or semisolid form, plastics can be molded into almost any desired shape; when cool they harden into a solid.

Many different types of plastics exist, with new ones being developed as research continues. Different plastics are used for different purposes, but most of them tend to be strong, durable, lightweight, and resistant to corrosion. They are often less expensive than other materials and can be made in a wide variety of colors.

Plastics also serve as good electrical or heating insulators. Their versatility, durability, and low cost make them ideal materials for wide use in industry and in craftwork. Also for the same reasons plastics have replaced metal, wood, glass, and other materials in many applications.

Many common, and not-so-common, plastic items produced by industry have found their way into nearly every line of business. For instance, plastics are frequently substituted for objects originally made of metal because of their light weight and resistance to rust. Many automobile parts, such as headlights, bumpers, and side panels, are made of plastic. Radio, television, and computer cabinets can be molded entirely of plastic. Protective helmets of all sorts-football, baseball, construction, and even combat helmets-are made of plastic. The light weight and strength of plastics have made them essential to the aerospace industry.

Glasslike plastics are made into lenses, reflectors, costume jewelry, dentures, artificial eyes, soft-drink bottles and milk bottles, decorative murals, and moving parts in appliances, automobiles, and business machines. Plastic resins are used to make waterproof bags, wool that will not shrink, and collars that stay starched.

Plastics also can be made into disposable diapers; plates, cups, eating utensils, and nonstick cookware; coatings and adhesives; construction products; and clothing. Polystyrene, a snowlike foamed plastic, is popular not only with manufacturers but also with handicrafters for making novel, decorative items. The list is a long one, and new uses are found for plastics, it seems, day by day.

Centuries before the first synthetic plastics were made, several naturally occurring substances were used as plastic material. These materials include gutta-percha, shellac, and the horns of animals. Gutta-percha is made from the sap of certain trees. Shellac is made from the secretions of a tiny scale insect. Before horn can be used it must be "plasticized," or softened, by being boiled in water or soaked in an alkaline solution.

The first synthetic plastic was made from the plant material cellulose. In 1869 John Wesley Hyatt, an American printer and inventor, found that cellulose nitrate could be used as an inexpensive substitute for ivory. The mixture could be plasticized with the addition of camphor. Celluloid, as this new material was called, became the only plastic of commercial importance for some 30 years. It was used for eyeglass frames, combs, billiard balls, shirt collars, buttons, dentures, and photographic film. Just before the beginning of the 20th century, casein plastics were produced in France and Germany. Casein-milk protein-was treated with formaldehyde to produce the plastic material. Although still used today by button-makers, casein plastics otherwise have little importance.

In 1909 Leo H. Baekeland, a Belgian-American chemist, developed phenol-formaldehyde, the first plastic made entirely from synthetic materials. Baekeland named the new material after himself, calling it Bakelite. Phenolic plastics such as Bakelite were used in construction components, wiring devices, automotive transmissions and power brakes, telephone relay systems, and electrical switch gear.

Baekeland's development of Bakelite marked the true beginning of the plastics industry. Demand for the materials grew rapidly in the period from the late 1920s through World War II. During that time, many of the most important plastics entered into commercial production. These included polyvinyl chloride, the key member of the vinyl plastics family; low-density polyethylene, now the most widely used plastic, particularly in packaging; acrylics, which can be made as clear as glass; polystyrene, an exceptionally versatile plastic; and nylon, an extremely tough and durable material originally developed as a fiber substitute. The manufacture of synthetic rubbers, called elastomers, is often considered part of the plastics industry.

Most plastics are now made from the breakdown products of petroleum and coal. Petroleum has become the major source material for plastics.

Molecular Composition
All natural and synthetic plastics are organic compounds, because they contain the element carbon. Atoms of carbon can join together, much like a chain, to form a "backbone" for an extremely long molecule. These long-chain molecules are called polymers, from the Greek words poly, meaning "many," and meros, meaning "part."

A polymer consists of a large number of simpler molecules repeated over and over again in the chain. Each of these simpler molecules is called a monomer ("one part"). Monomers are chemically combined, or polymerized, to form a polymer chain. For example, many propylene monomers are combined to form polypropylene. (The names of many, but not all, plastics begin with the prefix poly. This indicates that plastics are polymeric materials.) When two or more different monomers are combined, the resulting polymer is called a copolymer.

Polymer chemists know that the properties of a plastic material are greatly influenced by the shape and chemical makeup of the polymer molecule. In their research, these scientists may try to change the characteristics of a polymer chain or devise new polymers to create plastics with certain desirable properties. Resistance to heat, toughness, and flexibility are among the properties that may be affected by changes in a plastic's polymer molecule.

Resins and other ingredients
The words resin and plastic are often used as synonyms, but there is a difference. Resin is the raw, unfinished material; plastic is the material of the finished item. Resins can be made in various forms, including syrup, powder, flakes, or pellets.

Although resins may be used by themselves to produce plastic objects, more frequently other ingredients are added to form a compound. These other ingredients, generally called additives, may assist in the molding of the plastic object or add important properties to the finished product. Commonly used additives include fillers and reinforcing agents, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants, flame retardants and smoke suppressants, and processing aids.

Fillers are inexpensive materials that are added to resins primarily to reduce costs. Some fillers are used only to extend the resins but many others also improve the properties of finished plastic products. Nonmetallic minerals are the most commonly used fillers. Of these, calcium carbonate is the most popular, especially for polyvinyl chloride. Other fillers include kaolin (a type of clay), talc, and mica. Fibrous additives, particularly fiberglass, are considered the most effective reinforcing agents. When added to plastics, fibrous reinforcements may improve a product's rigidity, strength, and resistance to impact and cracking. Other fibrous additives include carbon fiber, aramid fiber (a type of nylon), and combinations called hybrids, such as aramid and carbon or aramid and glass. Plastics that contain reinforcements such as these are often called composites.

Plasticizers are added to resins to make them flow into molds more readily and, in some cases, to make them more flexible. Polyvinyl chloride, for example, is too hard and rigid to be useful unless plasticizers are added. Plasticizers work at the molecular level by loosening the polymer chains, which softens the polymer. Commonly used plasticizers are chemicals called phthalates, epoxidized oils, and phosphates.

Stabilizers prevent polymers from degrading, or breaking down. Heat stabilizers prevent degradation caused by the heat of processing. Since exposure to oxygen or ultraviolet radiation can also cause polymer degradation, antioxidants and ultraviolet light absorbers are also useful as stabilizers.

Colorants are added to plastics so that the finished product will be colored throughout. Plastics have an advantage over wood or metal, which can be colored only on the surface by means of paints or coatings. Dyes and pigments are used as colorants for plastics. Examples of colorants include titanium dioxide (by far the most common), iron oxides, and carbon black.

Flame retardants and smoke suppressants make plastics less flammable and toxic in case of fire. They are especially important for plastics used in appliances, carpets, furniture, aircraft, automobiles, electrical wiring, and construction materials. Adding flame retardants and smoke suppressants to plastics sometimes reduces other desirable properties. Aluminum trihydrate is the most common flame retardant.

Processing aids are additives that assist in the production of plastics. Lubricants, for example, improve the flow of resins in processing. Coupling agents help create stronger bonds between molecules.

Thermosets and Thermoplastics
Most plastics are described as being either thermosetting or thermoplastic. These terms refer to the reaction of a plastic to heat ( thermo is Greek for "heat").

Thermosetting plastics soften with heat but stay soft only for a short time. They set, or harden, if the heat continues. This process of making thermosetting plastics hard is called curing, which can also be accomplished by chemical means. In curing, the molecules of the plastic link together between chains (cross-link). Once these cross-links are formed, the plastic is no longer soft nor can it be resoftened through heating.

Thermoplastic materials also soften with heat but remain soft if the heat continues. They set only when cool and can be softened many times by reheating. In thermoplastics, the molecular chains do not cross-link during manufacture.

Manufacturers choose thermosetting plastics for objects that must withstand heat. Products made of these plastics can be subjected to very high temperatures-up to 500° F (260° C)-before they begin to char. Phenolics are the most commonly used thermosets. Others include epoxy resins, thermosetting polyester, and polyurethanes. Altogether, thermosets account for less than 15 percent of plastics production.

Thermoplastics are used for articles that are not subjected to unusual temperature changes. These plastics may soften or even melt at temperatures near 200°  F (93°  C). Most plastics production is of thermoplastics. These plastics include ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene), acetals, acrylics, cellulosics, fluoropolymers, nylons, polycarbonate, thermoplastic polyester, polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride.

Extrusion molding is the predominant plastics-forming process used in industry today. In extrusion a heated thermoplastic compound is forced continuously through a forming die made in the desired shape. The process may be compared to squeezing toothpaste from a tube, in that it produces a long, usually narrow, continuous product. The formed plastic cools-under blown air or in a water bath-and hardens on a moving belt. Rods, tubes, pipes, and sheet and thin film (such as food wraps) are extruded, then coiled or cut to desired lengths. Plastic fibers are also made by an extrusion process. Liquid resin is squeezed through thousands of tiny holes called spinnerets to produce the fine threads from which acetate, nylon, rayon, and other plastic fabrics are woven.

Injection molding, the second most widely used process, is employed for molding thermoplastics and some thermosetting materials. The plastic compound, heated to a semifluid state, is squirted into a mold under great pressure and hardens quickly. The mold then opens, and the part is released. The process can be repeated as many times as necessary and is particularly suited to mass production methods. Injection molding is used for a wide variety of plastic products, from small cups and toys to large objects weighing 30 pounds (14 kilograms) or more.

In blow molding, air pressure is used to form hollow objects from thermoplastics. Manufacturers can use a direct or an indirect method of blow molding. In the direct method, a partially shaped, heated plastic form, called a parison, is inserted into a mold. Air is blown into the parison, forcing it to expand to the shape of the mold. In the indirect method of blow molding, a plastic sheet or special shape is heated, then clamped between a die and a cover. Air is forced between the plastic and the cover and presses the material into the shape of the die.

Compression molding combines a thermosetting resin with a filler to create a molding compound. The compound is placed in a mold, the pieces of which are properly aligned by guide pins. Mechanical pressure is exerted on the mold, and the compound is heated to about 350°  F (177°  C). As the compound becomes semifluid, it is forced into every part of the mold. The plastic is allowed to cool and harden into a finished molded piece. Compression-molded products include telephone handsets, handles for pots and pans, and appliance and automotive parts.

Transfer molding, which combines compression and injection molding, is used most often for thermosetting plastics. As in injection molding, the plastic is heated in a chamber, then transferred into a mold by means of a plunger or ram. The process is similar to compression molding, because the plastic is cured in a mold under heat and pressure. Transfer molding is used to produce intricately shaped parts that may have deep holes or metal inserts.

In thermoforming, a thermoplastic sheet is softened by heat and then placed over a mold. The sheet is made to conform to the mold by any of several methods and cools in the shape of the mold. Packaging of various types is made by thermoforming, as are parts for furniture, appliances, aircraft, and automobiles and recreational vehicles.

In casting, fluid resins are poured into open or closed molds, and little or no pressure is applied. Both thermosetting and thermoplastic materials can be cast. Cast thermoplastic films are used for packaging and photographic film; cast sheeting made of acrylic is used for glazing, skylights, windshields, and similar products. Rods and tubes may also be cast.

Calendering produces film and sheeting from thermoplastics by squeezing the plastic between heated rollers. Floor products, such as tiles made of polyvinyl chloride, are produced by calendering. This process can be used to apply plastic coatings to textiles.

Low-pressure molding, or reinforcing, uses resins that can be formed and cured with little or no heat and little or no pressure. This method makes it possible to mold irregularly shaped objects that are too large to mold in presses. Glass fiber, fabrics, paper, and wood veneer are impregnated (soaked) with resin and then laid on forms. Limited pressure, if needed, can be applied, and the assembly is cured with little or no heat. Hulls for small boats, fuselage sections for airplanes, and air ducts are formed in this manner.

High-pressure laminating combines layers of paper, cloth, or wood veneer. The layers are soaked with thermosetting resins and then bonded into flat sheets between the heated platens of a hydraulic press. Laminated materials are very strong. They are used indoors for tabletops and for wall panels and outdoors as waterproof plywood. They are also used in electrical and electronic products, aircraft and aerospace products, and in other products where high strength is necessary.

Reaction injection molding (RIM) is a relatively new process for producing objects made of thermosetting plastics, frequently polyurethanes. In RIM, liquid components are allowed to react (combine chemically) before they are injected into a mold and cured. Parts made by RIM are widely used in the automotive industry.

Foam molding also has become more widespread. Foamed plastics are expanded materials of cellular structure; they can be produced by any of several processes. Blowing agents can be added to either thermosetting or thermoplastic resins to produce foamed objects. Egg cartons and cups made of polystyrene foam are common examples of this type of plastic.

Coating gives nonplastic materials some characteristics of plastics by applying a surface film of plastic. Fabrics such as chintz may have a plastic coating. Coated wallpaper can be washed, and coated machinery is protected from rust. In the fluidized-bed, or fusion-bond, process, a preheated metal part is dipped into a dry plastic powder. The powder melts and fuses with the metal surface to form a uniform coating. Wood, leather, glass, and other materials can also be plastic-coated.

Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Evgeniy Parilov/Dreamstime.com

Most plastics are not biodegradable; that is, they do not break down over time into simpler substances as do foodstuffs or natural fibers. Some scientists are investigating methods of creating biodegradable plastics that deteriorate, for example, on exposure to sunlight. One of the main problems in this type of research is making certain that the plastics degrade only after they are used and not before.

The problem also arises of what to do with millions of tons of plastic waste. In response, the plastics industry and environmental groups have encouraged the recycling of plastics and continue to study new methods for plastics recovery. Some plastic objects can be ground up and reprocessed into new products. For example, soft-drink bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high-density polyethylene milk jugs have been refabricated into such products as filler for down jackets and sleeping bags, insulation, strapping materials, and plastic lumber. Many communities have recycling programs that allow consumers to recycle various kinds of plastic products.

The effects of plastics on the environment, however, go beyond the issue of recycling. Plastic-foam processors, for example, have used chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as foaming agents. There is now considerable evidence that CFCs deplete the atmospheric ozone layer, which protects Earth by blocking out much of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. Many countries ended or greatly reduced their use of CFCs in the late 20th century, largely through the Montreal Protocol, an international agreement first signed in 1987. Other foaming agents that do not harm the ozone layer have been introduced.

Although inventors John Wesley Hyatt and Leo H. Baekeland are legendary figures in the plastics industry, later innovators, and their inventions, deserve no less credit. Vinyl resins were discovered as early as 1838, but polyvinyl chloride did not become available commercially until nearly a century later. Between 1927 and 1933, Waldo Semon of the B.F. Goodrich Company worked on the plasticization of polyvinyl chloride to make the resin suitable for molding.

Other researchers developed various plastics over the next several decades. The German chemist Otto Röhm had experimented with acrylic resins as early as 1901. In 1931 the Röhm and Haas Company first manufactured acrylics, under the trade name Plexiglas, for use as safety glass. An American chemist, Wallace H. Carothers of the Du Pont Company, headed the group of researchers that discovered nylon in 1935. Nylon was introduced commercially in 1938 and has since found increasing uses as a fiber and a plastic. There are several different types of nylon. In 1937 Otto Bayer of Germany conducted the original research that ultimately led to the production of polyurethanes, which were introduced commercially in 1954.

In 1938 Roy Plunkett of Du Pont was surprised to find a white powder in what had been a cylinder of tetrafluoroethylene gas. This powder, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), has become an important plastic, better known by the Du Pont trade name Teflon. Full-scale commercial production of PTFE began in 1948. Commonly used in nonstick cookware, it also has many other applications.

As early as the 19th century it was known that monomers of styrene, like monomers of vinyl chloride and acrylate, could be polymerized. Large-scale commercial production of polystyrene, however, did not begin until the late 1930s.

From 1940 to 1950 many more important plastic resins were introduced commercially, including unsaturated polyester, low-density polyethylene (LDPE), fluorocarbons, cellulose propionate, epoxy resins, silicones, and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). High-density polyethylene (HDPE) was first produced in 1957 by Karl Zeigler of West Germany. That same year, the Italian scientist Giulio Natta, using methods similar to those of Zeigler, was able to polymerize propylene and thereby produce polypropylene.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, a number of engineering plastics were developed-plastics that because of their strength and durability are suitable for use in construction, machine parts, aerospace, chemical processing equipment, and other demanding uses. These engineering plastics include polycarbonate, polyacetal, polyphenylene oxide, polyphenylene sulfide, polysulfone, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyetheretherketone (PEEK). The importance of the engineering plastics grew in the 1980s, and newer ones such as liquid crystal polymers continued to be developed.

Starting in the late 20th century, much research focused on plastics alloys and blends and reinforced composite plastics. Alloys and blends are combinations of plastics created to improve plastic materials at lower costs. Such combinations have included polycarbonate and ABS, and PET and PBT. Reinforced composite plastics have been of particular interest because they provide great strength and light weight. Composites have been taking the place of metals in many applications.

Daniel J. Domoff

Birley, A.W., and Scott, M.J. Plastic Materials (Chapman and Hall, 1982).Braun, Dietrich. Simple Methods for Identification of Plastics, 4th ed. (Hanser/Gardner, 1999).Clarke, P.J. Plastics for Schools, 3rd ed. (Mills & Boon, 1976).DuBois, J.H. Plastics History U.S.A. (Van Nos Reinhold, 1972).Margolis, J.M. Medical and Hospital Plastic Products (M. Dekker, 1983).Rauch, J.A., ed. The Rauch Guide to the U.S. Plastics Industry (Rauch Associates, 1987).Time-Life Books Editors. Working with Plastics (Time-Life, 1988).Twigg, John. Looking at Plastics (David & Charles, 1987).

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It would be difficult to imagine a world without plastics. Among the most versatile materials ever developed, plastics can be made to resemble and even replace such diverse...

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Impacted the allied countries (France, Britain, and America)

The horrific bloodshed on the first day of the battle became a metaphor for futile and indiscriminate slaughter.

Costly and largely unsuccessful Allied offensive on the Western Front during World War I.

https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Battle-of-the-Somme

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First Battle of the Somme, (July 1-November 13, 1916), costly and largely unsuccessful Allied offensive on the Western Front during World War I. The horrific bloodshed on the first day of the battle became a metaphor for futile and indiscriminate slaughter.

On July 1, 1916, after a week of prolonged artillery bombardment, 11 divisions of the British Fourth Army (recently created and placed under Sir Henry Rawlinson) began the attack north of the Somme on a front extending for 15 miles (24 km) from Serre and Beaumont-Hamel southward past Thiepval, Ovillers, and Fricourt (east of Albert) and then eastward and southward to Maricourt, north of Curlu. At the same time, the French attacked with five divisions on a front of 8 miles (13 km) mainly south of the river (from Curlu toward Péronne), where the German defense system was less highly developed.

Whereas the French had more than 900 heavy guns, the British had barely half this number for a wider front. Additional handicaps were recounted in the History of the Great War Based on Official Documents ( British Official History), which states that the problem that confronted British Commander in Chief Douglas Haig was, fundamentally, that of "storming a fortress...It must be confessed that the problem was not appreciated at G.H.Q. (general headquarters)." Instead, "the failures of the past were put down to reasons other than the stout use of the machine-gun by the enemy and his scientifically-planned defences." Thus was produced an atmosphere of false confidence. It encouraged Haig to gamble on a breakthrough, while Rawlinson's more reasonable doubts led to the plan's becoming a compromise, suited neither to a swift penetration nor to a siege attack. Rawlinson desired a long bombardment and a short advance. He was eventually allowed the first but was overborne by Haig on the second, being instructed that on his left he should take both the German first and second positions in a single stroke. Haig was warned even by his own artillery adviser that he was "stretching" his available gun power too far. "Rawlinson assured the Commander-in-Chief that he would loyally carry out 'these instructions' but privately he was convinced that they were based on false premises, and on too great optimism." The battle's outcome was to show the danger of this kind of loyalty.

"Increasing optimism" was shown by Haig as the day of battle drew nearer, though the resources of the French and, consequently, their prospective contribution were steadily shrinking because of the drain of the Battle of Verdun. Haig's optimism appeared even in the additional instructions that he issued: British cavalry was to ride through to Bapaume on the first morning, into open country. More curious than Haig's opinion was the way in which Rawlinson joined him in assuring their subordinates repeatedly that the bombardment would swamp all resistance and that "the infantry would only have to walk over and take possession." In the early discussions Haig had also said that the "corps were not to attack until their commanders were satisfied that the enemy's defences had been sufficiently destroyed; but this condition seems to have been dropped as time passed."

The question that remained was whether the British infantry could cross no-man's-land before the barrage lifted. It was a race with death run by nearly 60,000 troops. The whole mass, made up of closely packed waves of men, was to be launched together, without determining whether the bombardment had really paralyzed the resistance. Under the Fourth Army's instructions, those waves were to advance at "a steady pace" symmetrically aligned, like rows of ninepins ready to be knocked over. "The necessity of crossing no-man's-land at a good pace, so as to reach the parapet before the enemy could reach it, was not mentioned." Yet to do so would have been physically impossible, for "the infantryman was so heavily laden that he could not move faster than a walk." Each man carried about 66 pounds (30 kg) of equipment, a load that often amounted to more than half the soldier's own body weight, "which made it difficult to get out of a trench, impossible to move much quicker than a slow walk, or to rise and lie down quickly."

The race was lost before it started and the battle soon after. More than 60,000 men were casualties of the plan that failed. The 20,000 killed in action marked the heaviest day's loss that a British army had ever suffered. That result and its causes cast a strange reflection on the words which Haig had written on the eve of the attack: "I feel that every step in my plan has been taken with the Divine help." Behind the front, commanders had been rendering reports rosier than the facts warranted and also, apparently, than the commanders themselves believed. "Captures of prisoners, but not the heavy casualties, were regularly reported." Ignorance in such conditions was natural but deception less excusable.

The Allies failed to capitalize on the success that had been obtained in the south by the British right wing and more conspicuously by the French. "No orders or instructions were issued during the day by Fourth Army Headquarters" save on a few minor details, reported British Official History. At 10:00 pm on July 1, Rawlinson merely ordered his corps to "continue the attack" uniformly. "No suggestion was made to utilize the successes gained by some to assist in improving the situation of those who had failed." The unconcealed preparations and the long bombardment had given away any chance of surprise, and, in the face of the German resistance, weak in numbers but strong in organization, the attack failed along most of the British front. Because of the dense and rigid wave formations that were adopted, the losses were appallingly heavy. Only on the south of the British front, near Fricourt and Montauban, did the attack gain a real footing in the German defenses. The French, with slighter opposition and with far more heavy artillery-as well as aided by the fact that they were less expected-made a deeper advance.

This setback removed the possibility of a fairly rapid penetration to Bapaume and Cambrai, and Haig adopted the attrition method of limited advances aimed to wear down the German strength. Haig rejected the plan of the French commander, Joseph-Jacques-Césaire Joffre, that he should again throw his troops frontally on the Thiepval defenses. The attack was resumed on the southern British flank alone, and on July 14 the capture of the Germans' second line (Longueval, Bazentin-le-Petit, and Ovillers) offered a chance for exploitation, which was not taken. From that point a methodical but costly advance continued, although little ground was gained.

In one respect, the Somme shed a significant light on the future, for on September 15, 1916, the first tanks appeared. Their early employment before large numbers were ready was a mistake: it forfeited the chance of a great strategic surprise, and, because of tactical mishandling and minor technical defects, they had only a limited success. Though the higher military authorities lost faith in them (with some going so far as to urge their abandonment), more-discerning eyes realized that here was a key which, when properly used, would unlock the trench barrier.

The Somme offensive foundered in the mud when November came, though its dismal finale was partially redeemed by a stroke delivered on November 13 by Gen. Hubert Gough on the still untouched flank of the main 1916 offensive. The four months' struggle had certainly imposed a severe strain on the German resistance as well as on the attackers. Both sides had lost vast numbers of men who would never be replaced. The British losses amounted to some 420,000. The French, who had played an increasing part in the later stages, had raised their own war casualty bill by 194,000. Against this Allied total of more than 600,000, the Germans had suffered rather more than 440,000 casualties. This number had been much increased by Prussian Gen. Fritz von Below's order that every yard of lost trench must be retaken by counterattack.

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First Battle of the Somme | Summary, Location, Outcome, Casualties, Significance, & Facts

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First Battle of the Somme (July 1-November 13, 1916), costly and largely unsuccessful Allied offensive on the Western Front during World War I. The horrific bloodshed on the first day of the battle became a metaphor for futile and indiscriminate slaughter.

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It primarily affected countries like Russia, Japan, and Siberia.

Happened because of rumors of high treason spread within the country.

In the Russian empire, many minorities grew restive under domination.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Revolution

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Date:

November 6, 1917 - November 7, 1917 October 24, 1917 - October 25, 1917(Anniversary in 3 days)

What caused the Russian Revolution of 1917?

Why is it called the October Revolution if it took place in November?

How did the revolution lead to the Russian Civil War?

What happened to the tsar and his family?

Russian Revolution, also called Russian Revolution of 1917, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power.
(Read Leon Trotsky's 1926 Britannica essay on Lenin.)

World War I and the decline of the Russian Empire

Centuries of virtually unchecked Russian expansion in Asia ended with an embarrassing defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). This military reverse shattered Russia's dreams of establishing hegemony over the whole of Asia, but it also contributed to a wave of domestic unrest. The Revolution of 1905 compelled Nicholas II to issue the October Manifesto, which ostensibly transformed Russia from an unlimited autocracy into a constitutional monarchy. The tsar's reactionary policies, including the occasional dissolution of the Duma, or Russian parliament, the chief fruit of the 1905 revolution, had spread dissatisfaction even to moderate elements of the nobility. The Russian Empire 's many ethnic minorities grew increasingly restive under Russian domination.

Despite some reforms that followed the Russo-Japanese War, the Russian army in 1914 was ill-equipped to fight a major war, and neither the political nor the military leadership was up to the standard required. Nevertheless the army fought bravely in World War I, and both soldiers and junior officers showed remarkable qualities. The Russian invasion of East Prussia in August 1914 was defeated by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff at Tannenberg, but it required the Germans to send reinforcements from the Western Front and so saved France from defeat and made possible the victory on the Marne. The campaigns of 1915 and 1916 on the Eastern Front brought terrible casualties to the Russian forces, which at times did not even have sufficient rifles. As late as July 1916, however, the Russian army was capable of making a successful offensive under Gen. Aleksey Brusilov in Volhynia and Bukovina.

Plots and Revolutions Quiz

The Russian people did not respond to the war with real enthusiasm. The government could not overcome its traditional distrust of any public initiative, even in the organization of medical supplies or munitions for the forces at the front. In the Fourth Duma a majority of the centre and moderate right formed a Progressive bloc and proposed the creation of a national coalition government "possessing the confidence of the country" and a program of reforms which could be carried out even in wartime. The emperor rejected the proposal and prorogued the Duma on September 3 (September 16, New Style), 1915. Eleven days earlier Nicholas had decided to assume personal command of the armies in the field. The result was that in Petrograd (as the capital had been renamed at the beginning of the war, in place of the German-sounding St. Petersburg) the empress Alexandra was in fact in control. She herself was under the influence of the self-styled "holy man" Grigori Rasputin, whose hold over her was because of his ability to arrest the bleeding of the hemophiliac tsarevich, Alexis. Thus to the massive casualties at the front, the retreat of the armies, and the growing economic hardships was added the knowledge, widespread in the capital and among the upper classes, that the government was in the hands of incompetents. Rumours of treason in high places were widely believed, though the historical evidence does not suggest that they were true. On the night of December 16-17 (December 29-30, New Style), 1916, Rasputin was murdered by a group of conservative nobles, but by then the system was beyond salvation. There was no hand at the helm, and the ship was drifting onto the rocks.

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Russian Revolution | Definition, Causes, Summary, History, & Facts

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Russian Revolution, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union. Learn more about the Russian Revolution in this article.

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An atomic bomb is dropped on Nagasaki - 1945

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An atomic bomb is dropped on Nagasaki - 1945

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Affected countries like Japan and America

American bombing raids on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) that marked the first use of atomic weapons in war.

Japan is still recovering from this attack as water systems aren't fully clean yet as a result of this attack.

https://www.britannica.com/event/atomic-bombings-of-Hiroshima-and-Nagasaki

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What were the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki?

When were the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki?

Who was involved in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki?

Why did the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki happen?

What were the results of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki?

atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, during World War II, American bombing raids on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) that marked the first use of atomic weapons in war. Tens of thousands were killed in the initial explosions and many more would later succumb to radiation poisoning. On August 10, one day after the bombing of Nagasaki, the Japanese government issued a statement agreeing to accept the Allied surrender terms that had been dictated in the Potsdam Declaration.

Early atomic research

The turning point in the quest for atomic energy came in January 1939, eight months before the start of World War II. German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, following a clue provided by Irène Joliot-Curie and Pavle Savić in France (1938), proved definitely that the bombardment of uranium with neutrons produced radioisotopes of barium, lanthanum, and other elements from the middle of the periodic table.

The significance of this discovery was communicated by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, two Jewish scientists who had fled Germany, to Niels Bohr in Copenhagen. Bohr had been preparing to journey to the United States, and he arrived in New York on January 16, 1939. He discussed the matter with Albert Einstein, John Archibald Wheeler, and others before announcing to the world on January 26 the discovery of a process that Meitner and Frisch had termed fission. Enrico Fermi proposed to Bohr that neutrons might be released during the fission process, thus raising the possibility of a sustained nuclear chain reaction. These revolutionary suggestions triggered a flurry of activity in the world of physics. Subsequent studies by Bohr and Wheeler indicated that fission did not occur in uranium-238, the isotope of uranium most commonly found in nature, but that fission could take place in uranium-235. Gradually many of the riddles surrounding fission were resolved, and by June 1940 the basic facts concerning the release of atomic energy were known throughout the scientific world.

The Manhattan Project

The American atomic program takes shape

While engaged in one war in Europe and another in the Pacific, the United States would launch the largest scientific effort undertaken to that time. It would involve 37 installations throughout the country, more than a dozen university laboratories, and 100,000 people, including the Nobel Prize-winning physicists Arthur Holly Compton, Enrico Fermi, Richard Feynman, Ernest Lawrence, and Harold Urey.

The first contact between the scientific community and the U.S. government regarding atomic research was made by George B. Pegram of Columbia University. Pegram arranged a conference between Fermi and officers of the U.S. Navy in March 1939. In July Leo Szilard and Eugene Wigner conferred with Einstein, and the three later went to New York to meet with National Recovery Administration economist Alexander Sachs. Supported by a letter from Einstein, Sachs approached Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and explained the significance of nuclear fission to him. Roosevelt formed the Advisory Committee on Uranium, appointing Lyman Briggs, director of the National Bureau of Standards, to serve as its chair. In February 1940 a fund of $6,000 was made available to begin research; by the time of its completion, the project's budget would exceed $2 billion.

U.S. officials were now well aware of Adolf Hitler's atomic ambitions. In his letter to Roosevelt, Einstein explicitly called attention to uranium reserves in Czechoslovakia that had fallen under the control of the Third Reich in March 1939. The British had also begun studying fission, and Urey and Pegram visited the United Kingdom to see what was being done there. By August 1943 a combined policy committee had been established with the United Kingdom and Canada. Later that year a number of scientists of those countries moved to the United States to join the project that by then was well underway.

On December 6, 1941, one day before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the project was placed under the direction of Vannevar Bush and the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD). Bush's staff included Harvard University Pres. James B. Conant, Pegram, Urey, and Lawrence, among others. Alongside this scientific body was created the "Top Policy Group," consisting of Bush, Conant, Roosevelt, U.S. Vice Pres. Henry Wallace, U.S. Secretary of War Henry Stimson, and U.S. Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall.

Because there was no way of knowing in advance what technique would succeed in creating a functional bomb, it was decided to work simultaneously on several methods of isolating uranium-235 while also researching reactor development. The goal was twofold: to learn more about the chain reaction for bomb design and to develop a method of producing a new element, plutonium, which was expected to be fissile and could be isolated from uranium chemically. Lawrence and his team developed an electromagnetic separation process at the University of California, Berkeley, while Urey's group at Columbia University experimented with the conversion of uranium into a gaseous compound that was then permitted to diffuse through porous barriers. Both of these processes, particularly the diffusion method, required large complex facilities and huge amounts of electric power to produce even small amounts of separated uranium-235. It soon became clear that an enormous physical infrastructure would have to be built to support the project.

From Stagg Field to Los Alamos

On June 18, 1942, the War Department assigned management of construction work related to the project to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Manhattan District (much early atomic research-most notably Urey's group-was based at Manhattan's Columbia University). On September 17, 1942, Brig. Gen. Leslie R. Groves was placed in charge of all Army activities relating to the project. "Manhattan Project" became the code name applied to this body of atomic research that would extend across the country.

The first experimental reactor-a graphite cube about 8 feet (2.4 metres) on edge and containing about seven tons of uranium oxide-had been set up at Columbia University in July 1941. By the end of that year, reactor work had been transferred to the University of Chicago, where Arthur Holly Compton and his cryptically named "Metallurgical Laboratory" were considering related problems. On December 2, 1942, the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was carried out under Fermi's supervision in Chicago Pile No. 1, a reactor that Fermi had constructed in a squash court under the bleachers of Stagg Field, the university's football stadium. It had now been proven that the controlled release of atomic energy was feasible for the production of power and the manufacture of plutonium.

In February 1943 construction began on a pilot uranium enrichment plant located on the Clinch River in the Tennessee Valley, about 15 miles (about 24 km) west of Knoxville, Tennessee. The Clinton Engineer Works (later known as Oak Ridge) occupied a 70-square-mile (180-square-km) tract of land and came to employ roughly 5,000 technicians and maintenance personnel. For the project's full-sized reactors, however, a more isolated site would be necessary. Groves had expressed concern about the pilot reactor's proximity to Knoxville, and the larger reactors would have significantly greater power needs than could be accommodated in the Tennessee Valley.

In January 1943 Groves had selected a 580-square-mile (1,500-square-km) tract in south-central Washington for the project's plutonium production facilities. The location was desirable for its relative isolation and for the availability, in large quantities, of cooling water from the Columbia River and electric power from the Grand Coulee Dam and Bonneville Dam hydroelectric installations. The creation of what came to be known as the Hanford Engineer Works required a significant displacement of the local population. Residents of the towns of Hanford, Richland, and White Bluffs were given just 90 days to vacate their homes, and the Wanapum Native American people were forced to relocate to Priest Rapids, losing access to their traditional fishing grounds on the Columbia. At its peak in the summer of 1944, the huge complex at Hanford employed more than 50,000 people.

For the final stages of the project, it was necessary to find a location that was even more remote than Hanford for the purposes of both security and safety. A site was chosen by the Manhattan Project's scientific director, J. Robert Oppenheimer, on an isolated mesa at Los Alamos, New Mexico, 34 miles (55 km) north of Santa Fe. Beginning in April 1943, scientists and engineers began arriving at the Los Alamos Laboratory, as it was then called. Under Oppenheimer's direction, this team was tasked with developing methods of reducing the fissionable products of the Clinton and Hanford production plants to pure metal and fabricating that metal into the components of a deliverable weapon. The weapon had to be small enough that it could be dropped from a plane and simple enough that it could be fused to detonate at the proper moment in the air above the target. Most of these issues had to be addressed before any significant stores of fissionable material had been produced, so that the first adequate amounts could be used in a functional bomb. At its peak in 1945 more than 5,000 scientists, engineers, technicians, and their families lived at the Los Alamos site.

The Trinity test

Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, and within 24 hours Pres. Harry S. Truman had been briefed about the atomic bomb program by Stimson. Germany surrendered in May 1945, thus ending the war in Europe, but combat raged on in the Pacific. Sanguinary battles at Iwo Jima (February-March 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945) offered a preview of what an invasion of the Japanese home islands might look like, and there remained a strong impetus to see the Manhattan Project through to its conclusion. By the summer of 1945, the production plants had delivered a sufficient amount of fissionable material to produce a nuclear explosion, and bomb development had advanced to a point that an actual field test of a nuclear weapon could be conducted. Such a test would obviously be no simple affair. A vast array of complex equipment had to be assembled so that the success or failure of the test could be analyzed.

The bomb development teams at Los Alamos had settled on two possible designs. One, fueled by uranium-235, would utilize a "gun assembly" that used high explosives to shoot two subcritical slugs of fissionable material together in a hollow tube. The violent collision of the two slugs would cause the uranium-235 to reach critical mass, thus triggering a chain reaction and explosion. Engineers were confident that this comparatively simple design would work, but a sufficient quantity of uranium-235 would not be available until about August 1, 1945. The Hanford site would be able to deliver enough plutonium-239 for testing by early July, but Los Alamos scientists had determined that the gun assembly model would not be compatible with plutonium as a fuel source. An alternative design had been proposed, one that would use concentric layers of high explosives to implode the fissionable material under enormous pressures into a denser mass that would immediately achieve criticality. It was believed that this "implosion" design would be the most efficient way to weaponize the meagre amount of plutonium that had been produced thus far.

For the test, Oppenheimer selected a location on the Alamogordo Bombing Range (now White Sands Missile Range), 120 miles (193 km) south of Albuquerque, New Mexico. He called the site "Trinity" in reference to one of John Donne's Holy Sonnets. The first atomic bomb-a plutonium implosion device called "Gadget"-was raised to the top of a 100-foot (30-metre) steel tower that was designated "Zero." The area at the base of the tower was marked as "Ground Zero," a term that would pass into common parlance to describe the centre of an (often catastrophic) event. Military officials and scientists occupied observation posts at distances ranging from 10,000 to 17,000 yards (9 to 15.5 km). They had been instructed to lie down with their feet toward the tower and to protect their eyes from the blinding flash of the explosion.

On the morning of the test, the skies were dark and it was raining, with occasional lightning. "Gadget" was detonated at 5:29:45 am on July 16, 1945. The explosion caused a flash that illuminated the mountain peaks 10 miles (16 km) away. Soon there followed a tremendous sustained roar accompanied by a tornado-like burst of wind. Where the tower had stood, there was a great surging ball of fire, followed by a mushroom cloud that rose some 40,000 feet (12,200 metres) into the sky. The heat of the explosion had completely vaporized the tower; in its place was a saucer-shaped crater about a half mile (800 metres) in diameter and 25 feet (almost 8 metres) deep. The floor of the crater was fused into a glassy jade-coloured mineral subsequently dubbed trinitite. The bomb had generated an explosive power equivalent to approximately 21,000 tons of trinitrotoluene (TNT). The blast was visible from a distance of 50 miles (80 km), and it shattered windows 125 miles (200 km) away. Residents of Gallup, New Mexico, more than 180 miles (290 km) from Ground Zero, reported feeling the ground shake. In an attempt to head off questions about the world-changing event that had occurred at Trinity, the army issued a brief statement to the press: "A remotely located ammunition magazine containing a considerable amount of high explosives and pyrotechnics exploded, but there was no loss of life or limb to anyone."

News of the successful test reached Truman, who was attending the final meeting of the "Big Three" Allied powers at Potsdam, Germany. Truman informed Soviet leader Joseph Stalin that the United States possessed "a new weapon of unusual destructive force." On July 26 the Big Three issued an ultimatum, calling on Japan to surrender unconditionally or face "prompt and utter destruction." When it became clear that no surrender was imminent, plans to use the bomb went into effect. Some within the Manhattan Project had argued for a demonstration explosion on an uninhabited site in the Pacific. This was considered but soon discarded, largely because of concerns that the demonstration bomb might not prompt sufficient reaction from the Japanese government. By this time, several dozen B-29 bombers had been modified to carry the weapons, and a staging base at Tinian, in the Mariana Islands, 1,500 miles (2,400 km) south of Japan, had been expanded into the largest airfield in the world.

The bombing of Hiroshima

On July 16, just hours after the successful completion of the Trinity test, the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis left port at San Francisco with the gun assembly mechanism, roughly half of the U.S. supply of uranium-235, and several Los Alamos technicians. The remainder of the U.S. uranium-235 stockpile was flown to Tinian on transport planes. Upon the arrival of the Indianapolis at Tinian on July 26, assembly began on the bomb, dubbed Little Boy. The Indianapolis departed Tinian after the delivery, but it was sunk en route to the Philippines by the Japanese submarine I-58 on July 30. Hundreds of crew members who survived the torpedo attack died in the water while awaiting a rescue. The components of a second bomb, a plutonium device nicknamed Fat Man, were transported to Tinian by air. By August 2, 1945, both bombs had arrived at Tinian, and U.S. commanders were waiting only for a break in the weather to order the execution of Special Bombing Mission 13-an atomic attack on the Japanese home islands.

Groves had chaired the committee responsible for target selection, and by the end of May 1945 the list had been narrowed to Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyōto, all cities that had not yet been subjected to Gen. Curtis LeMay's strategic bombing campaign. Kyōto, Japan's ancient capital, was consistently placed at the top of the list, but Stimson appealed directly to Truman to remove it from consideration because of its cultural importance. Nagasaki was added in its place. Hiroshima became the primary target because of its military value-the city served as the headquarters of the Japanese Second Army-and because planners believed that the compactness of the urban centre would most vividly demonstrate the destructive power of the bomb.

The pilots, mechanics, and crews of the 509th Composite Group of the Twentieth Air Force had all trained with the specially modified B-29s that would serve as delivery vehicles for the bombs. Col. Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., the commander of the 509th, would pilot the B-29 that would drop the first bomb. His 11-man crew included Maj. Thomas Ferebee as bombardier and Manhattan Project ordnance expert Capt. William ("Deak") Parsons as weaponeer. Tibbets personally selected plane number 82 for the mission, and, shortly before taking off at approximately 2:45 am on August 6, 1945, Tibbets asked a maintenance worker to paint his mother's name-Enola Gay-on the nose of the aircraft. Two other B-29s accompanied the Enola Gay to serve as observation and camera planes. Once the Enola Gay was airborne, Parsons added the final components to Little Boy. This was done because a number of the modified B-29s had crashed on takeoff, and there was some concern that a crash would cause a fully assembled bomb to detonate, wiping out the installation at Tinian.

The skies were clear, and the Enola Gay encountered no opposition while approaching the target. At 7:15 am (Tinian time) Parsons armed the weapon, and the Enola Gay ascended to an attack altitude of 31,000 feet (9,450 metres). A trio of B-29s had flown ahead of the strike force to perform weather reconnaissance over the primary (Hiroshima) and secondary (Kokura and Nagasaki) targets. The pilot of the Hiroshima mission radioed Tibbets that there was little cloud cover and that he should proceed to the primary target. Just after 8:00 am local time (9:00 am Tinian time), the crew of the Enola Gay sighted Hiroshima. At around 8:12 am Tibbets relinquished control of the aircraft to Ferebee, who began his bombing run. Ferebee's aim point was the Aioi Bridge, a distinctive T-shaped span over the Ōta River. Tibbets ordered his crew to don their protective goggles, and at 8:15 am the bomb was released. Tibbets immediately put the Enola Gay into a sharp turn that, he hoped, would carry it beyond the bomb's blast radius.

It took roughly 45 seconds for Little Boy to descend to an altitude of 1,900 feet (580 metres), at which point it exploded in the sky directly above Shima Hospital. Within a fraction of a second of the detonation, the temperature at ground level exceeded 7,000 °C (12,600 °F) and a powerful blast wave scoured the landscape. Out of a population of 343,000 inhabitants, some 70,000 people were killed instantly, and by the end of the year the death toll had surpassed 100,000. Two-thirds of the city area was destroyed. "Nuclear shadows" were all that remained of people who had been subjected to the intense thermal radiation. A massive mushroom cloud rose to a height of more than 40,000 feet (more than 12 km). Although less than 2 percent of the uranium-235 contained in Little Boy had achieved fission, the bomb was horrifying in its destructive power. The explosive yield was the equivalent of 15,000 tons of TNT. Sgt. Bob Caron, the Enola Gay's tail gunner and the only member of the crew to directly observe the blast, described the scene as a "peep into hell." A series of shockwaves rocked the Enola Gay as it departed the area, and at a distance of nearly 400 miles (640 km) the mushroom cloud was still visible. Upon returning to Tinian, after a flight of just over 12 hours, Tibbets was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

Later that day, Truman addressed the people of the United States:

Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped one bomb on Hiroshima, an important Japanese Army base. That bomb had more power than 20,000 tons of TNT. It had more than 2,000 times the blast power of the British "Grand Slam," which is the largest bomb ever yet used in the history of warfare.

The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor. They have been repaid many fold. And the end is not yet. With this bomb we have now added a new and revolutionary increase in destruction to supplement the growing power of our armed forces. In their present form these bombs are now in production, and even more powerful forms are in development.

It is an atomic bomb. It is a harnessing of the basic power of the universe. The force from which the sun draws its power has been loosed against those who brought war to the Far East.

Truman further noted, "We have spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history-and won." Poet and author James Agee, writing in Time, offered something of a counterpoint to Truman's speech:

The race had been won, the weapon had been used by those on whom civilization could best hope to depend; but the demonstration of power against living creatures instead of dead matter created a bottomless wound in the living conscience of the race. The rational mind had won the most Promethean of its conquests over nature, and had put into the hands of common man the fire and force of the sun itself.

News of Hiroshima's destruction was only slowly understood, and some Japanese officials argued that their own stalled atomic program had demonstrated how difficult it would be to create such a weapon. It was possible, they argued, that the bomb dropped on Hiroshima was the only one in the American arsenal. Other members of the Japanese government had been arguing for months in favour of a negotiated settlement, perhaps mediated by the Soviets. That window was abruptly closed on August 8, 1945, two days after the Hiroshima bombing, when the Soviet Union declared war against Japan.

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atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki

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Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki | Date, Significance, Timeline, Deaths, & Aftermath

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Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, during World War II, American bombing raids on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) that marked the first use of atomic weapons in war. Tens of thousands were killed in the blasts and thousands more would die of radiation poisoning.

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The Chinese revolution impacted countries like Italy and Japan.

It made the Qing Dynasty less efficient as the revolution made it harder to fix problems within the country.

It gave the chinese a big sense of nationality for their country.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Chinese-Revolution-1911-1912

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Chinese Revolution | Summary, Key Figures, & Facts

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Chinese Revolution, (1911–12), nationalist democratic revolt that overthrew the Qing (or Manchu) dynasty in 1912 and created a republic. Ever since their conquest of China in the 17th century, most of the Manchu had lived in comparative idleness, supposedly a standing army of occupation but in real…

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The Cuban revolution impacted Spain, the U.S., and Cuba.

It happened because of the overthrowing of the Cuban leader.

Impacted the U.S. financially as economic agreements were signed.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Cuban-Revolution

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Cuban Revolution, armed uprising in Cuba that overthrew the government of Fulgencio Batista on January 1, 1959. The revolution's leader, Fidel Castro, went on to rule Cuba from 1959 to 2008.

Prelude to the revolution

U.S. rule and the creation of the Cuban Republic

As a result of the Spanish-American War, control of Cuba passed from Spain to the United States on January 1, 1899, and it was governed by direct U.S. military administration until May 20, 1902. During these years, Cubans filled more public offices than they had under Spanish rule, and much was done for public works, sanitation, and education. Most notable of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for centuries.

A constitutional convention met at Havana from November 5, 1900, to February 21, 1901. The constitution that was adopted contained certain provisions known as the Platt Amendment; these were imposed by the U.S. as a condition for accepting the constitution and were approved by Cuba on June 12, 1901. By these provisions Cuba promised not to incur debts its current revenues could not bear, to continue the sanitary administration undertaken by the U.S. military government, to lease naval stations to the U.S., and, if necessary, to permit the U.S. to intervene in order to preserve Cuban independence and a government adequate to protect life and property.

In May 1902 Tomás Estrada Palma became the first president of the new republic, and material prosperity came to certain segments of the Cuban population. This was due to a reciprocal trade treaty, requested by the outgoing U.S. authorities, that permitted more Cuban sugar to enter the U.S. Sugar exports would dominate the Cuban economy throughout the first half of the 20th century, and the U.S. was Cuba's chief trading partner.

Independence, instability, and continued U.S. intervention

Estrada Palma's administration attempted to implement progressive measures, but it was plagued by instability. His party, the Conservatives (later known as the Moderates), emerged victorious in the elections of December 1905, but the opposition Liberals accused the government of rigging the vote. This charge, along with widespread pension fraud and the failure to bring about proposed governmental reforms, triggered a revolution in July 1906. The insurrection spread rapidly, and Estrada Palma requested intervention by the U.S., which sent commissioners to mediate. The mediation failed, Estrada Palma resigned, and on September 29, 1906, U.S. Pres. Theodore Roosevelt named his secretary of war, William Howard Taft, governor of Cuba. Taft proclaimed that he would lead a provisional government to last "long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence." Government was maintained under the Cuban flag, regular constitutional forms remained outwardly unchanged, and the insurrectionists promptly disbanded. U.S. administration ceased on January 28, 1909, and the republic was inaugurated a second time. U.S. troops were withdrawn on April 1, 1909.

Three presidents governed Cuba from 1909 to 1925 with little distinction and much corruption. They were José Miguel Gómez (1909-13), Mario García Menocal (1913-21), and Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso (1921-25). During this period the U.S. interfered twice in Cuba and threatened to intervene several more times. During the Gómez administration the country prospered, but charges of corruption in the government rose. The government was accused of giving few offices to Afro-Cubans and also of favouring those who had supported the Spanish cause in the war for independence. Protests by Afro-Cubans against a law prohibiting political organization by race or religion led to a bloody government crackdown that claimed the lives of thousands. The Liberal party split, and in the election of 1912 the Conservative candidate, Menocal, won.

Menocal's administration oversaw much material progress, but with prosperity came new charges of government corruption, including accusations of nepotism. Menocal won reelection in 1916 by employing fraud and violence, and, as a result, war broke out against him in February 1917. The rebels had hoped for intervention by the U.S., but it was too occupied with the situation in Europe, and Menocal was able to put down the rebellion. Menocal's government declared war on Germany on April 7, 1917, the day after the U.S. entered World War I.

Until 1919 Cuba enjoyed phenomenal prosperity, thanks to the high price of sugar. By 1920, however, a severe financial crisis had struck the country, and, despite a moratorium, many banks and other business concerns went bankrupt. Zayas introduced financial reforms and was given a $50 million loan by the U.S. in January 1923. The economic situation rapidly improved, but charges of corruption against Zayas intensified, and revolts broke out against him, led in part by war veterans. When Zayas tried to get himself renominated, he ran into stiff opposition from his own party. He therefore made a pact with the Liberal candidate, Gen. Gerardo Machado y Morales, against Menocal, who ran as the Conservative candidate in the election of 1924.

Machado was elected overwhelmingly and assumed office on May 20, 1925. He was to become Cuba's first full-fledged dictator. Pledged to a program of reform, he made good only a few of his promises during his first term. With the beginning of his second term, in 1928, a rule of terror began. Martial law was proclaimed, and Congress allowed him to suspend freedom of speech, press, and assembly. Political opposition, allayed by an adroit distribution of patronage in 1928, revived against Machado as the economic depression of the early 1930s hit Cuba. An attempt to stabilize the price of sugar, always the mainstay of Cuba's economy, failed, and no substantial relief came from a public-works program. As the opposition increased, Machado adopted increasingly harsher methods against it. Cuban exiles fled to the U.S., and, as violence intensified, the U.S. offered to mediate. An amnesty was declared, and constitutional and political reforms were promised. With the economic crisis deepening and with Machado apparently determined to stay in office in spite of promises to resign, the army forced him to flee the country in August 1933.

Cuba had many presidents in the following years, but they were usually made and unmade by Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar, a sergeant who gained control of the army at the time of Machado's downfall. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, son of Cuban revolutionary leader Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, was the first president to serve on a provisional basis. He set aside the constitution and tried to bring about modest reforms, but critics feared that he was too closely allied to the U.S. He was overthrown after just a few months, and Ramón Grau San Martín was installed in his place. Grau San Martín's attempts at reform were also short-lived, and his four months in office were characterized by bloody strife. A military junta, headed by Batista, then conferred the presidency on Col. Carlos Mendieta, who seemed to have the approval of most factions. The U.S. and other countries granted him prompt recognition.

Under the auspices of U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy, a treaty was concluded in June 1934 that abrogated the Platt Amendment. That document, which had been issued to preserve peace, had had the opposite effect, as discontented factions had frequently risen against Cuban governments in order to bring about U.S. intervention. It also had been used by such leaders as Zayas to get the people to support them as champions of Cuban liberty against U.S. aggression.

Disorder and strikes continued, but Mendieta and his chief of staff, Batista, used dictatorial measures and postponed elections until December 1935. Batista continued to rule Cuba through two presidents-Jose Barnet y Vinageras (December 1935-May 1936) and Federico Laredo Brú (December 1936-October 1940). Miguel Mariano Gómez y Arias was elected in May 1936 but served only to December.

In 1940, Batista, then a colonel, undertook his own candidacy and defeated Grau San Martín. During his presidential term, 1940-44, Cuba entered World War II on the side of the Allies and established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Batista's candidate, Carlos Saladrigas y Zayas, ran in 1944 but was defeated by Grau San Martín, and Batista soon left the country. Grau San Martín's administration began with much emphasis on "political house cleaning" but failed to achieve any kind of concrete reform.

Carlos Prío Socarrás became president in 1948, but his ambitious domestic agenda stalled in the face of economic troubles and government corruption. Batista, a candidate for the June 1952 election, anticipating his defeat, overthrew the government in March without bloodshed. He closed Congress and called for elections in 1954. He was elected president without opposition for a four-year term beginning February 24, 1955. He reinstated the 1940 constitution, which contained many liberal pro-labour reforms, and tried to return the country to normalcy, but strong opposition developed against him. Among the primary concerns of large landowners was the Sugar Act of 1956, U.S. legislation that sharply curtailed Cuban sugar imports to the benefit of domestic producers. With Cuban sugar exports facing an uncertain future, support for Batista within both the government and the influential agriculture industry virtually collapsed. Militant anti-Batista elements denied the validity of the 1955 election and organized a campaign of harassment and sabotage in the provinces. Chief among these groups was the 26th of July Movement under the leadership of the charismatic revolutionary leader Fidel Castro.

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Cuban Revolution | Summary, Facts, Causes, Effects, & Significance

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Cuban Revolution, armed uprising in Cuba that overthrew the government of Fulgencio Batista on January 1, 1959. The revolution had as its genesis a failed assault on the Santiago de Cuba army barracks on July 26, 1953. That attack's leader, Fidel Castro, went on to rule Cuba from 1959 to 2008.

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Affected countries like India and Mexico.

At this time, people tested out farming styles and new ways of growing crops.

This revolution impacted lots of farmer's farming styles

https://www.britannica.com/event/green-revolution

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

green revolution, great increase in production of food grains (especially wheat and rice) that resulted in large part from the introduction into developing countries of new, high-yielding varieties, beginning in the mid-20th century. Its early dramatic successes were in Mexico and the Indian subcontinent. The new varieties require large amounts of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to produce their high yields, raising concerns about cost and potentially harmful environmental effects. Poor farmers, unable to afford the fertilizers and pesticides, have often reaped even lower yields with these grains than with the older strains, which were better adapted to local conditions and had some resistance to pests and diseases. See also Norman Borlaug.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Adam Augustyn.

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Green revolution | Definition, Advantages, Importance, & Facts

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Green revolution, great increase in production of food grains (especially wheat and rice) that resulted in large part from the introduction into developing countries of new, high-yielding varieties, beginning in the mid-20th century. Learn more about the green revolution in this article.

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon - 1969

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon - 1969

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This impacted Russia as there was a race to the moon.

This was able to happen because of lots of technological advancements.

Changed how Russia would see America in the future.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Neil-Armstrong

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Neil Armstrong, in full Neil Alden Armstrong, (born August 5, 1930, Wapakoneta, Ohio, U.S.-died August 25, 2012, Cincinnati, Ohio), U.S. astronaut, the first person to set foot on the Moon.

Early life and career

Neil Armstrong was the eldest of three children born to Viola Louise Engel and Stephen Koenig Armstrong, a state auditor. Neil's passion for aviation and flight was kindled when he took his first airplane ride at age 6. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America and earned the rank of Eagle Scout, the highest rank attainable. He became a licensed pilot on his 16th birthday and a naval air cadet in 1947. His studies in aeronautical engineering at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, were interrupted in 1950 by his service in the Korean War, during which he was shot down once and was awarded three Air Medals. He completed his degree in 1955 and immediately became a civilian research pilot for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), later the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). He flew more than 1,100 hours, testing various supersonic fighters as well as the X-15 rocket plane.

In 1962 Armstrong joined the space program with its second group of astronauts. On March 16, 1966, Armstrong, as command pilot of Gemini 8, and David R. Scott rendezvoused with an unmanned Agena rocket and completed the first manual space docking maneuver. After the docking, a rocket thruster malfunction sent the spacecraft into an uncontrolled spin and forced them to separate from the Agena. Armstrong then regained control of the Gemini craft and made an emergency splashdown in the Pacific Ocean.

On July 16, 1969, Armstrong, along with Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., and Michael Collins, blasted off in the Apollo 11 vehicle toward the Moon ( see Apollo program). Four days later, at 4:17 pm U.S. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), the Eagle lunar landing module, guided manually by Armstrong, touched down on a plain near the southwestern edge of the Sea of Tranquillity ( Mare Tranquillitatis). At 10:56 pm EDT on July 20, 1969, Armstrong stepped from the Eagle onto the Moon's dusty surface with the words, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." (In the excitement of the moment, Armstrong skipped the "a" in the statement that he had prepared.) Armstrong and Aldrin left the module for more than two hours and deployed scientific instruments, collected surface samples, and took numerous photographs.

On July 21, after 21 hours and 36 minutes on the Moon, they lifted off to rendezvous with Collins and begin the voyage back to Earth. After splashdown in the Pacific at 12:51 pm EDT on July 24, the three astronauts spent 18 days in quarantine to guard against possible contamination by lunar microbes. During the days that followed, and during a tour of 21 nations, they were hailed for their part in the opening of a new era in human exploration of the universe.

Later career

Armstrong resigned from NASA in 1971. After Apollo 11 he shied away from being a public figure and confined himself to academic and professional endeavours. From 1971 to 1979 he was professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Cincinnati (Ohio). After 1979 Armstrong served as chairman or director for a number of companies, among them Computing Technologies for Aviation from 1982 to 1992 and AIL Systems (later EDO Corporation), a maker of electronic equipment for the military, from 1977 until his retirement in 2002. He also served on the National Commission on Space (NCOS), a panel charged with setting goals for the space program, and on the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, the group appointed in 1986 to analyze the safety failures in the Challenger disaster. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Adam Augustyn.

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Neil Armstrong | Biography, Education, Moon Landing, & Facts

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Neil Armstrong, American astronaut and the first person to set foot on the Moon. After joining the space program in 1962, he became the command pilot of Gemini 8, which completed the first manual space docking maneuver. He is best known for accompanying Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.

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Creation of the World Wide Web - 1989 (Tim Berners-Lee)

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Creation of the World Wide Web - 1989 (Tim Berners-Lee)

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Was begun in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee and his colleagues at CERN, an international scientific organization based in Geneva, Switzerland.

Affected the whole word as the whole world uses the web now.

Made to scale so it doesn't matter how many people use it.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/World-Wide-Web

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World Wide Web (WWW), byname the Web, the leading information retrieval service of the Internet (the worldwide computer network). The Web gives users access to a vast array of documents that are connected to each other by means of hypertext or hypermedia links-i.e., hyperlinks, electronic connections that link related pieces of information in order to allow a user easy access to them. Hypertext allows the user to select a word or phrase from text and thereby access other documents that contain additional information pertaining to that word or phrase. Hypermedia documents feature links to images, sounds, animations, and movies. The Web operates within the Internet's basic client-server format; servers are computer programs that store and transmit documents to other computers on the network when asked to, while clients are programs that request documents from a server as the user asks for them. Browser software allows users to view the retrieved documents.

A hypertext document with its corresponding text and hyperlinks is written in HyperText Markup Language ( HTML) and is assigned an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator ( URL).

The development of the World Wide Web was begun in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee and his colleagues at CERN, an international scientific organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. They created a protocol, HyperText Transfer Protocol ( HTTP), which standardized communication between servers and clients. Their text-based Web browser was made available for general release in January 1992.

The World Wide Web gained rapid acceptance with the creation of a Web browser called Mosaic, which was developed in the United States by Marc Andreessen and others at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois and was released in September 1993. Mosaic allowed people using the Web to use the same sort of "point-and-click" graphical manipulations that had been available in personal computers for some years. In April 1994 Andreessen cofounded Netscape Communications Corporation, whose Netscape Navigator became the dominant Web browser soon after its release in December 1994. BookLink Technologies' InternetWorks, the first browser with tabs, in which a user could visit another Web site without opening an entirely new window, debuted that same year. By the mid-1990s the World Wide Web had millions of active users.

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The software giant Microsoft Corporation became interested in supporting Internet applications on personal computers and developed its own Web browser (based initially on Mosaic), Internet Explorer (IE), in 1995 as an add-on to the Windows 95 operating system. IE was integrated into the Windows operating system in 1996 (that is, it came "bundled" ready-to-use within the operating system of personal computers), which had the effect of reducing competition from other Internet browser manufacturers, such as Netscape. IE soon became the most popular Web browser.

Apple's Safari was released in 2003 as the default browser on Macintosh personal computers and later on iPhones (2007) and iPads (2010). Safari 2.0 (2005) was the first browser with a privacy mode, Private Browsing, in which the application would not save Web sites in its history, downloaded files in its cache, or personal information entered on Web pages.

The first serious challenger to IE's dominance was Mozilla's Firefox, released in 2004 and designed to address issues with speed and security that had plagued IE. In 2008 Google launched Chrome, the first browser with isolated tabs, which meant that when one tab crashed, other tabs and the whole browser would still function. By 2013 Chrome had become the dominant browser, surpassing IE and Firefox in popularity. Microsoft discontinued IE and replaced it with Edge in 2015.

In the early 21st century, smartphones became more computer-like, and more-advanced services, such as Internet access, became possible. Web usage on smartphones steadily increased, and in 2016 it accounted for more than half of Web browsing.

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World Wide Web (WWW) | History, Definition, & Facts

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World Wide Web, the leading information retrieval service of the Internet (the worldwide computer network). The Web gives users access to a vast array of documents that are connected to each other by means of hyperlinks, electronic connections that link related pieces of information.

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A step closer to the informational age and is world wide.

Made is so things that were analog, could be digital.

Changed how people talk to each other and live.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Digital-Revolution

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Other articles where Digital Revolution is discussed: The Fourth Industrial Revolution: ...of the Third Industrial, or Digital, Revolution, the Fourth Industrial Revolution will be driven largely by the convergence of digital, biological, and physical innovations.

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An American online social media platform and social network service that is part of the company Meta Platforms.

Facebook became the largest social network in the world, with 3 billion users.

The company earns most of its money from advertisements on the website.

https://www.britannica.com/money/Facebook

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Facebook, American online social media platform and social network service that is part of the company Meta Platforms. Facebook was founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, Eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, and Chris Hughes, all of whom were students at Harvard University. Facebook became the largest social network in the world, with nearly three billion users as of 2021, and about half that number were using Facebook every day. The company's headquarters are in Menlo Park, California.

Access to Facebook is free of charge, and the company earns most of its money from advertisements on the website. New users can create profiles, upload photos, join a preexisting group, and start new groups. The site has many components, including Timeline, a space on each user's profile page where users can post their content and friends can post messages; Status, which enables users to alert friends to their current location or situation; and News Feed, which informs users of changes to their friends' profiles and status. Users can chat with each other and send each other private messages. Users can signal their approval of content on Facebook with the Like button, a feature that also appears on many other websites. Other services that are part of Meta Platforms are Instagram, a photo- and video-sharing social network; Messenger, an instant-messaging application; and WhatsApp, a text-message and VoIP service.

The attractiveness of Facebook stems in part from cofounder Zuckerberg's insistence from the very beginning that members be transparent about who they are; users are forbidden from adopting false identities. The company's management argued that transparency is necessary for forming personal relationships, sharing ideas and information, and building up society as a whole. It also noted that the bottom-up, peer-to-peer connectivity among Facebook users makes it easier for businesses to connect their products with consumers.

The company has a complicated early history. It began at Harvard University in 2003 as Facemash, an online service for students to judge the attractiveness of their fellow students. Because the primary developer, Zuckerberg, violated university policy in acquiring resources for the service, it was shut down after two days. Despite its mayflylike existence, 450 people (who voted 22,000 times) flocked to Facemash. That success prompted Zuckerberg to register the URL http://www.thefacebook.com in January 2004. He then created a new social network at that address with fellow students Saverin, Moskovitz, and Hughes.

The social network TheFacebook.com launched in February 2004. Harvard students who signed up for the service could post photographs of themselves and personal information about their lives, such as their class schedules and clubs they belonged to. Its popularity increased, and soon students from other prestigious schools, such as Yale and Stanford universities, were allowed to join. By June 2004 more than 250,000 students from 34 schools had signed up, and that same year major corporations such as the credit card company MasterCard started paying for exposure on the site.

In September 2004 TheFacebook added the Wall to a member's online profile. This widely used feature let a user's friends post information on their Wall and became a key element in the social aspect of the network. By the end of 2004, TheFacebook had reached one million active users. However, the company still trailed the then-leading online social network, Myspace, which boasted five million members.

The year 2005 proved to be pivotal for the company. It became simply Facebook and introduced the idea of "tagging" people in photos that were posted to the site. With tags, people identified themselves and others in images that could be seen by other Facebook friends. Facebook allowed users to upload an unlimited number of photos. In 2005 high-school students and students at universities outside the United States were allowed to join the service. By year's end it had six million monthly active users.

In 2006 Facebook opened its membership beyond students to anyone over the age of 13. As Zuckerberg had predicted, advertisers were able to create new and effective customer relationships. For example, that year, household product manufacturer Procter & Gamble attracted 14,000 people to a promotional effort by "expressing affinity" with a teeth-whitening product. This kind of direct consumer engagement on such a large scale had not been possible before Facebook, and more companies began using the social network for marketing and advertising.

Privacy remains an ongoing problem for Facebook. It first became a serious issue for the company in 2006, when it introduced News Feed, which consisted of every change that a user's friends had made to their pages. After an outcry from users, Facebook swiftly implemented privacy controls in which users could control what content appeared in News Feed. In 2007 Facebook launched a short-lived service called Beacon that let members' friends see what products they had purchased from participating companies. It failed because members felt that it encroached on their privacy. Indeed, a survey of consumers in 2010 put Facebook in the bottom 5 percent of companies in customer satisfaction largely because of privacy concerns, and the company continues to be criticized for the complexity of its user privacy controls and for the frequent changes it makes to them.

In 2008 Facebook surpassed Myspace as the most-visited social media website. With the introduction of Live Feed, the company also took a competitive swing at the growing popularity of Twitter, a social network that runs a live feed of news service-like posts from members whom a user follows. Similar to Twitter's ongoing stream of user posts, Live Feed pushed posts from friends automatically to a member's homepage. (Live Feed has since been incorporated into News Feed.)

Facebook has become a powerful tool for political movements, beginning with the U.S. presidential election of 2008, when more than 1,000 Facebook groups were formed in support of either Democratic candidate Barack Obama or Republican candidate John McCain. In Colombia the service was used to rally hundreds of thousands in protests against the antigovernment FARC guerrilla rebellion. In Egypt, activists protesting the government of Pres. Hosni Mubarak during the uprising of 2011 often organized themselves by forming groups on Facebook.

Facebook encourages third-party software developers to use the service. In 2006 it released its application programming interface (API) so that programmers could write software that Facebook members could use directly through the service. By 2009 developers generated about $500 million in revenue for themselves through Facebook. The company also earns revenues from developers through payments for virtual or digital products sold through third-party applications. By 2011 payments from one such company, Zynga Inc., an online game developer, accounted for 12 percent of the company's revenues.

In February 2012 Facebook filed to become a public company. Its initial public offering (IPO) in May raised $16 billion, giving it a market value of $102.4 billion. By contrast, the largest IPO of an Internet company to date was that of the search-engine company Google Inc., which had raised $1.9 billion when it went public in 2004. By the end of the first day of the stock's trading, Zuckerberg's holdings were estimated at more than $19 billion.

In October 2021 Facebook announced that it was changing the name of its parent company to Meta Platforms. The name change reflected an emphasis on the "metaverse," in which users would interact in virtual reality environments and weigh their novel opportunities and risks.

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Facebook, American online social media platform and social network service that is part of the company Meta Platforms. Facebook was founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, Eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, and Chris Hughes, all of whom were students at Harvard University. Facebook became the largest

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Impacted Areas in the middle east like Lebanon and more.

War influenced the economy to be scarce.

This has changed Syria's economic reforms.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Syrian-Civil-War

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Uprising

In January 2011, Syrian Pres. Bashar al-Assad was asked in an interview with The Wall Street Journal if he expected the wave of popular protest then sweeping through the Arab world-which had already unseated authoritarian rulers in Tunisia and Egypt-to reach Syria. Assad acknowledged that there had been economic hardships for many Syrians and that progress toward political reform had been slow and halting, but he was confident that Syria would be spared because his administration's stance of resistance to the United States and Israel aligned with the beliefs of the Syrian people, whereas the leaders who had already fallen had carried out pro-Western foreign policy in defiance of their people's feelings.

The onset of antiregime protests, coming just a few weeks after the interview, made it clear that Assad's situation had been much more precarious than he was willing to admit. In reality, a variety of long-standing political and economic problems were pushing the country toward instability. When Assad succeeded his father in 2000, he came to the presidency with a reputation as a modernizer and a reformer. The hopes that were raised by Assad's presidency went largely unfulfilled, though. In politics, a brief turn toward greater participation was quickly reversed, and Assad revived the authoritarian tactics of his late father's administration, including pervasive censorship and surveillance and brutal violence against suspected opponents of the regime. Assad also oversaw significant liberalization of Syria's state-dominated economy, but those changes mostly served to enrich a network of crony capitalists with ties to the regime. On the eve of the uprising, then, Syrian society remained highly repressive, with increasingly conspicuous inequalities in wealth and privilege.

Environmental crisis also played a role in Syria's uprising. Between 2006 and 2010, Syria experienced the worst drought in the country's modern history. Hundreds of thousands of farming families were reduced to poverty, causing a mass migration of rural people to urban shantytowns.

It was in the impoverished drought-stricken rural province of Darʿā, in southern Syria, that the first major protests occurred in March 2011. A group of children had been arrested and tortured by the authorities for writing antiregime graffiti; incensed local people took to the street to demonstrate for political and economic reforms. Security forces responded harshly, conducting mass arrests and sometimes firing on demonstrators. The violence of the regime's response added visibility and momentum to the protesters' cause, and within weeks similar nonviolent protests had begun to appear in cities around the country. Videos of security forces beating and firing at protesters-captured by witnesses on mobile phones-were circulated around the country and smuggled out to foreign media outlets.

From early on, the uprising and the regime's response had a sectarian dimension. Many of the protesters belonged to the country's Sunni majority, while the ruling Assad family were members of the country's ʿAlawite minority. ʿAlawites also dominated the security forces and the irregular militias that carried out some of the worst violence against protesters and suspected opponents of the regime. Sectarian divisions were initially not as rigid as is sometimes supposed, though; the political and economic elite with ties to the regime included members of all of Syria's confessional groups-not just ʿAlawites-while many middle- and working-class ʿAlawites did not particularly benefit from belonging to the same community as the Assad family and may have shared some of the protesters' socioeconomic grievances.

As the conflict progressed, however, sectarian divisions hardened. In his public statements, Assad sought to portray the opposition as Sunni Islamic extremists in the mold of al-Qaeda and as participants in foreign conspiracies against Syria. The regime also produced propaganda stoking minorities' fears that the predominately Sunni opposition would carry out violent reprisals against non-Sunni communities.

As the protests increased in strength and size, the regime responded with heavier force. In some cases this meant encircling cities or neighbourhoods that had become hubs of protest, such as Bāniyās or Homs, with tanks, artillery, and attack helicopters and cutting off utilities and communications. In response, some groups of protesters began to take up arms against the security forces. In June, Syrian troops and tanks moved into the northern town of Jisr al-Shugūr, sending a stream of thousands of refugees fleeing into Turkey.

By the summer of 2011 Syria's regional neighbours and the global powers had both begun to split into pro- and anti-Assad camps. The United States and the European Union were increasingly critical of Assad as his crackdown continued, and U.S. Pres. Barack Obama and several European heads of state called for him to step down in August 2011. An anti-Assad bloc consisting of Qatar, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia formed in the last half of 2011. The United States, the EU, and the Arab League soon introduced sanctions targeting senior members of the Assad regime.

Meanwhile, Syria's long-standing allies Iran and Russia continued their support. An early indicator of the international divisions and rivalries that would prolong the conflict came in October 2011 when Russia and China cast the first of several vetoes blocking a UN Security Council Resolution that would have condemned Assad's crackdown.

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Syrian Civil War, armed conflict that began in 2011 with an uprising against the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. The conflict drew involvement from a number of international actors and helped precipitate the rise of ISIL (also called ISIS or Islamic State) in eastern Syria.

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Cambridge Analytica goes bankrupt - 2021

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Cambridge Analytica goes bankrupt - 2021

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The firm voluntarily submitted a petition to declare bankruptcy at the US Bankruptcy Court Southern District of New York.

The filings note an estimated number of creditors between 1-49, estimated assets of $100,001 – $500,000 and estimated liabilities of $1,000,001 - $10 million.

The company has come under fire over allegations it misused the personal Facebook data of millions.

https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/18/politics/cambridge-analytica-bankruptcy/index.html

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Cambridge Analytica files for bankruptcy | CNN Politics

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Cambridge Analytica, the embattled data firm that worked on Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy on Thursday.

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new phone who dis?