# data[].attributes.body
December 31, 2019:

A number of pneumonia cases have been reported in Wuhan, Hubei Province, by the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission in China. Eventually, a novel coronavirus was discovered. (WHO, 2020)

President Duterte dismissed the threat posed by a highly contagious virus from China that may cause widespread infections in the Philippines. (Business World, 2021)

January 30, 2020:

The first case of COVID-19 was recorded in the Philippines with a Chinese citizen.

March 7, 2020:

The first case of COVID-19 that is detected from a local citizen. (Quisao et. al, 2021)

March 9, 2020:

The Department of Health confirmed the local COVID-19 transmission in the Philippines, prompting President Rodrigo Duterte to proclaim a state of public health emergency. (Xinhua, 2020)

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PH naitala ang unang kaso ng bagong coronavirus | TV Patrol

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1817:

The first global cholera epidemic, when the disease traveled from India to southern Russia and other Asian nations including China and Japan via trade routes. (UK Parliament, n.d.)

March 20, 1902:

The start of the outbreak of Cholera in the Philippines.

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March 15, 2020:

Implementation of "community quarantine" as a limitation measure to control the spread of the virus. Also putting curfews in different places, monitoring social gatherings, and controlling business activities. (Jiang et. al, 2022)

2020:

The Social Amelioration Program (SAP) aimed to assist 82% of the nation's population, which included elderly citizens, people with disabilities, single parents, Filipino workers in distress abroad, indigenous people, the homeless, farmers, fishermen, self-employed individuals, and informal settlers. The program lasted 2 months with cash grants varying in amount from ₱5,000 to ₱8,000 per month. The initiative was able to reach 98% of the target families by the end of November. (Southeast Asia Development Solutions, 2021)

2020:

LGUs used their reserve funds to organize the disinfection operation and supply home relief supplies, primarily food like rice and canned foods. (Gutierrez, 2020)

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Hard lockdown sa barangay sa Maynila nagsimula na | TV Patrol

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The start of the pandemic and the epidemic became a major problem for the country especially for the government during both timelines. This reflects the level of unpreparedness that the government had as they are not equipped enough to face such problems, thus, the number of unexpected problems that occurred and the impacts it had on the country. Aside from this, the incompetence and belittling of the government during the first months of the pandemic resulted to the lack of preparations. From this, it is evident how despite the difference in time, the country still is taken aback when faced with a health crisis, hence, the need for further improvements.

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March 1902:

A quarantine was imposed in Manila to stop the spread of the disease, and inspectors visited home to house across the city at all hours of the day and night to ensure that no cholera cases went undiscovered.

Guards posted around homes and communities of cholera victims to ensure isolation, a strong effort to sanitize the areas, and the deployment of smudge pots to keep insects and flies away were implemented. (Gillett, 1995)

April 16, 1902:

General Malvar surrendered from the US forces as cholera would spread around Laguna if he had decided otherwise. (Ileto, 1988)

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May 11, 2020:

Promotion of cleaning and hygiene tips to combat the spread of the virus. (UNICEF, 2020)

December 15, 2020:

The government imposed the mandatory use of face masks and face shields in public areas in order to control the spread of the virus. (Presidential Communication Office, 2020)

March 1, 2021:

To mitigate the unprecedented health, social, and economic damage of COVID-19, the Philippines undertook a nationwide vaccination program to manage the effects of the global pandemic. The goal was to vaccinate 70 million of the people by the end of the year. (Caple et. al, 2022)

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1902:

The Philippine Board of Health was forced to block all of the city's shallow wells and have a few new ones driven to a depth of 700–1,000 feet when cholera struck Manila.

Medical officers were mandated to establish municipal boards in areas where none previously existed, stop stream pollution, and notify their division chiefs of any cholera cases.

The American school teachers were instructed by the Philippine Board of Health to inform their fellow citizens about the causes of cholera and preventative measures. (Gillett, 1995)

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The pandemic contributed to greater inequality in urban areas and was especially hard on low-income urban households.

People have lost their jobs and means of livelihood as a result of lockdowns and social distancing measures, making it difficult for them to pay for housing and food. One of the primary routes out of poverty for low-income children has been cut off by the closure of the schools. (Kharas et. al, 2021)

Due to social restraints brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic, people were forced to adjust to isolation, which raised the likelihood of family violence, sadness, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorders.(Hosseinzadeh, 2022)

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Language: English | Spanish | Portuguese

Abstract

Objective.

To provide a systematic review of the social consequences of COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods.

In the present study, articles indexed in Persian and Latin databases (Web Of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar and Magiran). 43 documents published in the last 3 years in Persian or English language were reviewed. The research steps were performed according to PRISMA writing standard and the quality assessment was done by two researchers independently with Newcastle Ottawa Scale tools for observational studies according to the inclusion criteria.

Results.

Measures to break the chain of virus transmission and to control the COVID-19 pandemic have caused major problems in the economic, social, political and psychological spheres and have affected billions of people worldwide. The COVID-19 pandemic crisis has caused widespread unrest in society and unprecedented changes in lifestyle, work and social interactions, and increasing social distance has severely affected human relations.

Conclusion.

The COVID-19 pandemic has social consequences in certain groups can exacerbate their unfavorable situation. Special groups in crisis situations should be given more attention, and clear and precise policies and programs should be developed to support them.

Descriptors: COVID-19, coronavirus, pandemics, impacts on health, systematic review.

Resumen

Objetivo.

Realizar una revisión sistemática de las consecuencias sociales de la pandemia de COVID-19.

Métodos.

En el presente estudio se revisaron los artículos indexados en bases de datos latinas y persas (Web Of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar y Magiran), luego de lo cual se recuperaron 43 documentos publicados en los últimos 3 años en persa o en inglés. Los pasos de la revisión se realizaron según el protocolo PRISMA y, para reducir el sesgo en la evaluación de la calidad, los artículos seleccionados se evaluaron cualitativamente por dos investigadores de forma independiente con la herramienta de Newcastle Ottawa Scale.

Resultados.

Las medidas para romper la cadena de transmisión del virus y para el control de la pandemia de COVID-19 han causado importantes problemas en las esferas económica, social, política y psicológica y han afectado a miles de millones de personas en el mundo. La crisis por la pandemia ha provocado un malestar generalizado en la sociedad y cambios sin precedentes en el estilo de vida, el trabajo y las interacciones sociales. El aumento de la distancia social ha afectado gravemente las relaciones humanas.

Conclusión.

La pandemia de COVID-19 tiene consecuencias sociales que pueden agravar la situación desfavorable de grupos vulnerables. Se debe brindar más atención a los colectivos especiales en situaciones de crisis y desarrollar políticas y programas claros y precisos para apoyarlos.

Descriptores: COVID-19, coronavirus, pandemias, impactos en la salud, revisión sistemática.

Resumo

Objetivo.

Realizar uma revisão sistemática das consequências sociais da pandemia de COVID-19.

Métodos.

No presente estudo, os artigos indexados nas bases de dados latinas e persas (Web Of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar e Magiran) foram revisadas, logo se recuperaram 43 documentos publicados nos últimos 3 anos em persa ou em inglês. Os passos da revisão se realizaram segundo o protocolo PRISMA e, para reduzir o viés na avaliação da qualidade, os artigos selecionados foram avaliados qualitativamente por dois investigadores de forma independente com a ferramenta de Newcastle Ottawa Scale.

Resultados.

As medidas para romper a cadeia de transmissão do vírus e para o controle da pandemia de COVID-19 há causado importantes problemas nas esferas económica, social, política e psicológica e há afetado a milhares de pessoas no mundo. A crise pela pandemia de COVID-19 há provocado um mal-estar generalizado na sociedade e câmbios sem precedentes no estilo de vida, no trabalho e nas interações sociais. O aumento da distância social há afetado gravemente às relações humanas.

Conclusão.

A pandemia de COVID-19 tem consequências sociais que podem agravar a situação desfavorável de grupos vulneráveis. Se deve brindar mais atenção aos coletivos especiais nas situações de crise e desenvolver políticas e programas claros e precisos para apoiá-los.

Descritores: COVID-19, coronavirus, pandemias, impactos na saúde, revisão sistemática

Introduction

In late December 2019, an outbreak of a new viral disease belonging to the coronavirus family was reported in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China.( 1) The new COVID-19 belongs to the same group of coronaviruses as acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), which has caused two outbreaks in recent years.( 2) The new virus is mainly transmitted by respiratory droplets and contact( 3) and affects all age groups.( 4) On December, 2021, due to the rapid spread of the virus and the increase in infections, followed by alarming death tolls from the disease was declared an epidemic by the World Health Organization.( 5) According to the WHO, as of December 6, 2021, 269 559 230 people worldwide have been infected and 530 5337 people have died from the virus. Also in Iran, as of December 6 in 2021, 6 137 821 people have been infected and 130 277 people have died due to this virus.( 6,7)

The COVID-19 pandemics crisis has caused great unrest in society and unprecedented changes in lifestyle, work and social interactions.( 8) The implementation of policies such as social distancing and the closure of gathering and interaction centers such as parks, cafes, shrines, schools, universities, etc., has had certain social consequences.( 9) Prolonged stay at home, in a society with a patriarchal lifestyle, will increase the pressure for women to do housework. The economic and psychological dimensions of COVID-19 also affect family members. The issue of increasing domestic violence, including child abuse, spousal abuse, elder abuse, and disability abuse following the COVID-19 pandemics crisis, is such that the Secretary-General of the United Nations has also expressed concern.( 10) The closure of schools and universities will deprive millions of children, teenagers and young people of social educational activities for a long time, after which it may not be easy to compensate.( 11,12) Travel restrictions by different countries have reduced social relations in external areas and led to the isolation of individuals. Because COVID-19 affects all aspects of human life, it has increased divorce and reduced marriage in many countries.( 13) In couples' lives, we have witnessed a decrease in marital relationships due to fear of contracting or transmitting the disease.( 14) COVID-19 has also challenged and damaged public transport.( 15,16)

The COVID-19 greatly affects people's lives. Everyone in the world directly or indirectly faces the severe consequences of this disease. Due to severe isolation and cessation of some social affairs, this disease causes problems such as social anxiety, panic due to insecurity, economic recession and severe psychological stress, which requires coordinated efforts to prevent and control them, and people should follow the advice and the suggestions of government officials and the World Health Organization to make the necessary and at the same time contrary to the internal desire in their daily plan.( 17) Given that previous studies have evaluated the psychological and social consequences of other respiratory illnesses; few studies have been performed to evaluate the results of the current epidemic of COVID-19. Therefore, this review study will be conducted with the aim of estimating the social consequences of COVID-19 in order to identify them and take the necessary preventive measures to reduce the problems caused by these consequences. The present study sought to answer the following question: What are the social consequences of COVID-19 disease?

Methods

Search strategy. All stages of this research were performed based on the writing standard of systematic studies, PRISMA meta-analysis. The study population in this study included articles on the social consequences of COVID-19 that were indexed on one of the Internet sites. The Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Magiran databases were searched as international databases, and the Google Scholar search engine was searched in Persian and English between 2000 and 2020. To find related articles in Persian and English language databases, the words searched in line with the research topic and based on mesh and syntax were the following items that were combined using AND and OR operators. The searching strategy used in Medline was: "(COVID-19[tiab] OR Coronavirus[tiab] OR Coronaviruses[tiab] OR Deltacoronavirus[tiab] OR Deltacoronaviruses[tiab] OR "Munia coronavirus HKU13"[tiab] OR "Coronavirus HKU15"[tiab] OR (Coronavirus[tiab] AND Rabbit[tiab]) OR "Rabbit Coronavirus*" [tiab] OR (Coronaviruses[tiab] AND Rabbit[tiab]) OR "Bulbul coronavirus HKU11"[tiab] OR "Thrush coronavirus HKU12"[tiab] OR ("Coronavirus 229E"[tiab] AND Human[tiab]) OR ("Coronavirus NL63"[tiab] AND Human[tiab]) OR "Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus"[tiab] OR "SARS Virus"[tiab]) AND ("Social Behavior"[tiab] OR (Behavior[tiab] AND Social[tiab]) OR (Behaviors[tiab] AND Social[tiab]) OR "Social Behaviors"[tiab] OR "Competitive Behavior"[tiab] OR "Cooperative Behavior"[tiab] OR Self-Control[tiab] OR "Social Adjustment"[tiab] OR "Social Distance"[tiab] OR "Social Isolation"[tiab] OR "Social Skills"[tiab] OR "Social Stigma"[tiab] OR (Psychology[tiab] AND Social[tiab]))".

Selection of studies. In total, in this study, systematic review with the above keywords was initially studied in 912 articles and reports, protocols by reputable health organizations and considering the entry and exit criteria of articles in the relevant databases. After studying the titles and abstracts of articles by the authors of the article and removing similar and unrelated items, the relevant items were selected as research. Due to the widespread and increasing prevalence of the disease and the change in the statistics related to the prevalence, the statistics presented in this study are until July 23, 2020. Criteria for selecting articles are: (i) Descriptive, analytical, interventional and review articles related to the last 5 years; (ii) Persian and English language articles published in scientific research journals inside and outside the country, the full text of which was available; and, (iii) Articles related to the study of the social consequences of COVID-19.

Criteria for deleting articles were: articles that did not have a full text, articles that did not have a clear implementation method, and articles that focused solely on the social consequences of the disease. To review the articles obtained in the search of databases, were evaluated and evaluated according to the inclusion and exit criteria in the working method, four research colleagues participated. After reviewing the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study, 43 articles and 4 protocols and reports in accordance with the above criteria entered the final quality assessment stage ( Figure 1 ).

Quality control. The quality of the papers selected by the two individuals was assessed independently using the Newcastle Ottawa Scale (NOS). This scale examines articles in terms of selection process (including four sections: sample expediency and sample size, non-response and measurement tools, comparability (control of confounders and influencing factors) and results (evaluation of results and statistical tests). Based on this scale, articles are rated from zero (weakest study) to 10 (strongest study). In this study, studies that scored above 4 were considered as quality studies. Therefore, according to the quality results of the reviewed articles, all articles selected at this stage had a score higher than 4 (optimal level).

Extracting the data: After evaluating the quality, to extract data from the text of articles eligible to enter to the study of two researchers independently by the researcher form, information about each article by name of authors, year of publication, type of research, place of research, Sample size and specificity of samples, standardization of research tools, main findings were extracted. In case of need for review and doubt in the method of reviewing articles, the help of a third researcher was sought ( Table 1 ).

Table 1.

Subject

Authors

Place and year

Type study

Samples

Results

Reference

Results

In late 2019, the world faced a global crisis called COVID-19, which was a threatening epidemic. In addition to increasing the incidence and mortality of this epidemic, it caused significant other economic, social, political, and psychological problems. Social isolation by quarantining billions of people at home to disrupt the virus transmission chain has created many crises in various dimensions,( 18) here are some of them:

Scope of knowledge and education. COVID-19 has disrupted students' lives in different ways and it has provided anxious times for students and parents.( 19) According to UNESCO, more than 1.5 billion students in about 165 countries have been affected by the restrictions on schools and universities. As a result, schools, colleges and universities were forced to turn to online learning. This has caused students to continue their education at home.( 20) Closing schools and accepting distance education may negatively affect students' learning through four main channels: spending less time learning, stress symptoms, changes in how students interact, and lack of motivation to learn. Most formal child learning takes place in schools, and closing schools and moving to a distance learning environment may cause children to spend less time learning.( 21) Students who stay home because of COVID-19 are more likely to develop acute stress, maladaptation, and PTSD. The possibility of dropping out of school due to mental health problems also increases.( 22) Attendance at schools increases the interaction between students and teachers and strengthens social skills and increases self-esteem and other skills necessary for the social environment. However, due to quarantine proceedings and the closure of schools, these social interactions have decreased.( 21) Also, some teachers or students are not familiar enough with the world of the Internet and distance education, and this has disrupted the educational process. On the other hand, due to the lack of access to online education tools for all students such as phones or laptops or the lack of Internet access in less developed areas, problems in distance education have been created for them.( 23)

Family scope. With the announcement of the epidemic of COVID-19 and the application of various restrictions in the community, some jobs were closed, which increased the financial and economic burden on the family and increased the couple's dissatisfaction, as well as disputes and even divorce. Also, due to the constraints and economic problems caused by COVID-19, weddings and bonds between people have decreased.( 24, 25) With the closure of schools and the presence of students in homes and the closure of businesses due to social constraints, it has increased psychological problems in families, abuse and violence between family members.( 26) This has a very important impact on people's lifestyle, the short-term consequences of which can be seen in health. These restrictions have led to decreased physical activity, weight gain, changes in diet, changes in smoking and alcohol consumption habits, changes in lifestyle, and ultimately quality of life and well-being.( 27, 28) Also, different degrees of quarantine measures have reduced people's access to healthy food, inequality between communities, increased anxiety and stress, and impaired sleep quality. Some people also used drugs and alcohol to alleviate the fear and anxiety of COVID-19.( 29)

Judicial scope. By imposing social distancing and various restrictions, individuals may resist these commands. The increasing burden of social distance in daily life has led to violence, bad temper, conflict, theft, murder, suicide, sabotage, and disregard for the law.( 30) Social distance at the court level has also disrupted the proceedings and the presence of parties and witnesses in court.( 31) The sale of illicit drugs, the distribution and consumption of drugs and alcohol, cybercrime, as well as the sale and purchase of firearms are among the crimes that are on the rise during COVID-19.( 32) The outbreak of COVID-19 and the need for social isolation have also hampered the normal process of prisons. The temporary release of many prisoners in some countries has caused anxiety at the community level, and due to the lack of adequate space for solitary confinement, the possibility of increasing the incidence of COVID-19 among prisoners has become even more significant. Also, in some countries, the possibility of COVID-19 disease is higher among prisoners due to lack of adequate hygiene.( 33)

Sexual scope. Anxiety about the state of the world, along with constant exposure to images of illness and death, has severely affected everyone's emotional stability. Daily turmoil, restriction of freedom and loss of sense of usefulness in society create a feeling of helplessness and overload in human beings. This has also affected the sexual sphere. Fear of these conditions has reduced physical contact in couples from simple kissing to full sexual intercourse and has weakened the bond between husband and wife.( 34) Further depression and anxiety can reduce the level of sexual desire. With the closure of schools and the constant presence of children at home, sexual relations between individuals have also been overshadowed.( 35) With the restrictions imposed, the tendency to have sex online has increased. Fear of infection has led single people to masturbate, have sex on the phone, and use of sexual means, which in turn has increased their desire for pornography and visits to pornographic sites and movies.( 22,36)

Scope of transportation. Restrictions imposed by the government have halted public transport, restricted travel and activities abroad. The change of direction to personal transportation by individuals has intensified traffic on the roads and reduced the overall air quality in the urban environment. With the application of social distance, we are witnessing an increase in queues at bus and metro stations.( 37,38) Air travel has also decreased significantly. COVID-19 has also led to the closure of many transportation agencies around the world due to a sharp drop in demand and a heavy economic burden on the people and the government. Violations and accidents on the road and in the city have also increased due to the use of private vehicles by the people.( 16)

Cyberspace scope. This epidemic has played an important role in disseminating information in a news cycle.( 39) The COVID-19 epidemic has not only posed significant challenges to the health care system worldwide, but has also played an important role in increasing rumors, deception and misinformation about the disease, its consequences, prevention and treatment. With so much news coming from different sources, there are many concerns about fake news. People are constantly following the news of COVID-19 and may experience high anxiety while doing things.( 40) Comprehensive media exposure during the 24-hour news cycle can also lead the viewer to inaccurate and threatening information. These stress reactions may also have long-term consequences for physical and mental health.( 41) It may even reduce the function of the immune system and upset the balance of their natural physiological mechanisms.( 42)

Discussion

The social effects of the changes resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic crisis are not yet well known. We know that due to the implementation of social distance policy, many of the usual activities of society in the economic, social and political spheres have been closed or suspended.( 43) As a result, many people in areas such as business, family relationships, and education have experienced the changes and effects of this policy. Many sectors were forced to adjust their workforce and increase the number of unemployed to reduce costs.( 44) The heavy economic burden and unemployment caused by the COVID-19 epidemic have caused anxiety thoughts, anxiety, and ultimately an increase in crimes such as theft, strife, domestic disputes, fraud, and etc. To prevent such crimes, the government can adopt policies that can include livelihood support, management and organization of Internet businesses, and low-interest lending.( 45) In the policy of social distancing, the situation of certain social groups such as immigrants, refugees and addicts has been ignored and the problems of this group of people have intensified.( 46) Civil society and voluntary groups of people are full of initiatives, innovations and resources that can be used in times of crisis. Internet infrastructures and modern communication tools have transcended the physical limitations of communication and enabled virtual social interactions that can be used to maintain connections.( 47)

It should be noted that the lack of management and monitoring of the virtual world can impose irreparable damage on society in the long time.( 3) Social distancing, despite its problems, has a significant impact on reduction of casualties from the disease and reducing its negative consequences, but ultimately it is the level of public trust in the government that ensures the success of policies and measures. It is necessary to provide more freedom of action for the media to provide accurate, transparent information in this regard. The development of information infrastructure, especially in the less developed regions of the country, must be seriously on the agenda. Necessary requirements for equipping students in need of teaching aids such as tablets.( 11,48) The need for public transportation in any society is an indisputable need. Therefore, the government should take action to provide the desired service in accordance with social distance.( 49) Increasing the number of public vehicles, regular disinfection and the use of social distance labels can revitalize this vital sector and meet the needs of the community and prevent pollution. Also, providing brochures and educational materials in public transportation can help reduce anxiety and increase public literacy.( 16,50)

One must be careful about the social consequences of COVID-19 for certain groups. Ignoring this issue can cause COVID-19 to exacerbate the unfavorable situation of these groups. Groups such as addicts in crisis situations should be given more attention and clear and precise policies and programs should be developed to support this group. Immigrants and refugees also have their own circumstances, and their fate in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis cannot be ignored. Doing all of the above means that a small part of the social issues created by the COVID-19 pandemic crisis require capacities of trust, cross-sectoral cooperation, coordination, transparency and joint action. Capacities that many of them may not have looked good under normal circumstances.( 51,52)

Limitations of the study: In this study, due to the lack of proficiency of researchers in languages other than English and Persian, articles in other languages were excluded from the study, which can be a limitation of the study.

Conclusion: In this review study, the effect of coronavirus on some aspects of people's lives was briefly discussed. Unfortunately, in the current epidemic and control of the corona virus, while becoming a crisis of health in the world, it is considered as such that it still has various aspects. In recent months, the world has been going through one of the most severe crises in the field of health and without a doubt one of the most important consequences of its epidemic and social ills. In fact, anxiety factors related to the risk of contracting the disease, future employment status, and sources of income for individuals and families, as well as long-term quarantine, can be kept at home for a long time.

Implications of the results for nursing practice. Considering the psychological consequences of the COVID-19 outbreak, the design and planning of intervention and supportive strategies to reduce the negative effects are suggested. In fact, it is necessary to identify the factors that cause the danger to the psychological health of different people in the society in order to use appropriate treatment methods.

Footnotes

*How to cite this article: Hosseinzadeh P, Zareipour M, Baljani E, Rezaee Moradali M. Social Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review. Invest. Educ. Enferm. 2022; 40(1):e10.

References

18. Banerjee D, Rai M. Social isolation in COVID-19: The impact of loneliness. SAGE Publications Sage UK: London, England; 2020. pp. 525-527. [[ PMC free article] [ PubMed] Google Scholar]

21. Di Pietro G, Biagi F, Costa P, Karpiński Z, Mazza J. The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on the existing literature and recent international datasets: Publications Office of the European Union Luxembourg. 2020. [ Google Scholar]

34. Zattoni F, Gül M, Soligo M, Morlacco A, Motterle G, Collavino J, et al. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on pornography habits: a global analysis of Google Trends. Int. J. Impot. Res. 2020:1-8. [[ PMC free article] [ PubMed] Google Scholar]

37. Koehl A. Urban transport and COVID-19: challenges and prospects in low-and middle-income countries. Cities Health. 2020:1-6. [ Google Scholar]

44. Saladino V, Algeri D, Auriemma V. The psychological and social impact of COVID-19: new perspectives of well-being. Front. Psychol. 2020:2550-2550. [[ PMC free article] [ PubMed] Google Scholar]

59. Boberg S, Quandt T, Schatto-Eckrodt T, Frischlich L. Pandemic populism: Facebook pages of alternative news media and the corona crisis--A computational content analysis. 2020. [ Google Scholar]

Articles from Investigacion y Educacion en Enfermeria are provided here courtesy of Facultad de Enfermeria, Universidad de Antioquia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Social Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic. A Systematic Review

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
To provide a systematic review of the social consequences of COVID-19 pandemic.In the present study, articles indexed in Persian and Latin databases (Web Of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar and Magiran). 43 documents published in the last ...

# data[].attributes.body
Over 83% of families in 10 cities in Metro Manila and 4 cities in Cebu reported a decrease in income, approximately 34% claimed to have lost their source of income entirely. Additionally, 33% skip their meals due to lack of money.

The Philippines' National Economic Development Authority announced a 9.5% total drop in GDP for 2020, with the largest decline occurring in the second quarter during which the most severe lockdown or community quarantine was in place. (Javier, 2022)

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1902:

Due to the continuous number of cholera victims in Calamba, Laguna, agricultural flow like rice plantations was affected as a supposedly medical aid to inhibit the disease which somehow, did no good as the domino effect of starvation and famine health risks for Filipinos became now the primary cause of death.

Despite efforts to minimize suffering, the reality of starvation and disease remained. Surrender became a matter of survival as food supplies dwindled and the threat of death loomed. (Ileto, 1998)

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Ileto, R. C. 1988.Cholera and the Origins of the American Sanitary Order in the Philippines

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Internal trade was halted by the exact quarantine regulations intended to stop the spread of cholera, thus weakening the Philippine economy. (Gillett, 1995)

Calamba was rice-dependent on neighboring towns of Cabuyao and Binan for a while. (Ileto, 1988)

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April 2021: Unpaid benefits and a shortage of medical-grade personal protective equipment (PPE) are other issues facing workers. (Amnesty International, 2021)

August 2021: According to an emergency medicine specialist, individuals in the Philippines are waiting two to three days to be admitted from the emergency room to a ward specifically designated for Covid-19 cases as the number of coronavirus cases rises. A number of major hospitals in Metro Manila, including St. Luke's Medical Centre, The Medical City, National Kidney and Transplant Institute, Adventist Medical Center, and Medical Centre Manila, have already filled up to capacity with Covid-19 patients. (The Straits Times, 2021)

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11 Metro Manila hospitals report COVID-19 ICU beds now full

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Lack of knowledge, crowdedness, poor living conditions, and poverty have all been linked to the spread Cholera.

1903: The Philippine Board of Health encountered challenges in locating sufficient space to separate those who had come into contact with Cholera as well as in providing beds for those who could not be maintained in their own homes. (Gillett, 1995)

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Both the pandemic and epidemic that occurred in the Philippines in different timelines had both governments implement quarantine to control the spread of disease. However, a difference in the cholera epidemic was that there were just limited responses that the government could give to those who were affected due to the lack of facilities and other different priorities the people had. Aside from this, they also lacked sufficient knowledge on the appropriate measures to take during these kinds of health crisis. On the other hand, during the COVID 19 pandemic, there were more effective government responses which helped many of the affected people. This includes the cash aids, supplies, and food which were provided by the government.

Furthermore, the pandemic response was not near perfect, it still had a lot of flaws in terms of consistency and distribution to all Filipinos. However, this was still an improvement in comparison to what occurred during the cholera outbreak as the lessons during the epidemic such as sanitation and hygiene were carried out during the latest pandemic.

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From the two major health crisis the country experienced, the dissemination of health information was the topmost similarity of public health response. In addition to this, an immense improvement in the response during the pandemic is evident, PPEs and vaccination programs that didn’t exist during the 19th century paved the way to a better handling of the virus. Furthermore, this goes to show how much the country has evolved in terms of access to knowledge and supplies when combating an epidemic or pandemic. Resulting to a more effective public health response.

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In both the epidemic and pandemic, the Philippines encountered a crisis in the availability of healthcare facilities to accommodate the infected victims. Aside from this, there had been a crisis of health workers being underpaid along with the lack of supply of PPEs that could protect them from the virus. From this, it is apparent that in both periods, the country is still unable to handle a health crisis that could potentially lead to a mass of patients due to its insufficient equipment and facilities. Highlighting the need for improvement in the country’s healthcare system.

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Both the epidemic and pandemic in the Philippines caused a disruption in the functioning of society as a whole. These resulted in the increase of poverty rate and prevalence of starvation among Filipinos, especially those that belong to low-income households. Aside from this, psychological effects were more experienced during the pandemic due to the prolonged mandated community lock down. Hence, resulting to lasting impacts on the mental wellness of the majority. From this, it is evident that the country is still vulnerable and is receiving insufficient protection from the government when faced with a major health crisis like a pandemic. Implying that the country still has a long way to go to be considered prepared to face another health crisis.

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The country’s economy took a downfall resulting in the suffering of many individuals during the pandemic and epidemic. Since the country and the government are not equipped for these situations, they failed to take control of the economy of the country during times of crisis. Hence, devising an aid or solution to one of the country’s biggest challenges will prepare the country to be more ready for potential pandemics in the future, thus, having the ability to maintain and increase the economy even during a crisis. Also resulting to the decrease of suffering for the people.

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July 21, 2023:

President Marcos Jr. lifts the state of Public Health Emergency throughout the Philippines due to COVID-19. (National Archives of the Philippines, 2023)

The COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines reports 4,140,383 cases, 66,864 deaths, and 4,067,381 recoveries. (Worldometer, 2024)

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WHO declares official end to COVID-19 pandemic | DW News

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March 8, 1904:

The end of the cholera outbreak in the Philippines.

The cholera epidemic in the Philippines during the 19th century reports 166,252 cases, with 109,461 deaths. (Heiser, 1907)

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THE OUTBREAK OF CHOLERA IN THE PHILIPPINES IN 1905.THE METHODS USED IN COMBATING IT, WITH STATISTICS TO JAN. 1, 1906.

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According to the official records on file at the Bureau of Health for the Philippine Islands, the last case of cholera of the pandemic which commenced March 20, 1902, was reported to have occurred March 8, 1904. During that period 166,252 cases, with 109,461 deaths, were reported. Reliable observers…

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Both the pandemic and epidemic in the country had a huge impact from then until now. Due to the lack of health treatments in the past, the cholera epidemic was not approached well, resulting in the large number of deaths. On the other hand, the COVID 19 pandemic resulted in a higher number of people becoming infected than the cholera epidemic, however, reported less deaths.

In the period of the cholera epidemic facing poor hygiene and lack of health system and services to treat the infected were prioritized. Hence, after the epidemic, there has been an improvement in maintaining the environment clean and safe because of the lessons learned from the past. Aside from this, during the pandemic, the government learned to implement new protocols to reduce the risks of other possible outbreaks.