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During the cholera epidemic, a surge in misinformation and disinformation led to widespread confusion regarding the disease's transmission and treatment. False beliefs, such as cholera being spread through miasma or bad air, were prevalent, similar to the unfounded theories surrounding COVID-19 transmission via 5G networks or other misinformation during the pandemic (Tulchinsky et al., 2023).

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Similarly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, misinformation and disinformation spread widely, causing confusion about transmission modes and preventive measures. False claims about COVID-19 vaccines containing microchips or causing infertility circulated widely, echoing the dissemination of unproven remedies and treatments during the cholera epidemic. Additionally, misinformation and disinformation regarding the origin of the COVID-19 virus were also prevalent during the pandemic (Islam et al., n.d.; Trust, n.d.).

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The comparison between the cholera epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic reveals a recurring pattern of misinformation and disinformation during public health crises. False beliefs about disease transmission, such as cholera being spread through miasma or COVID-19 via 5G networks, contribute to public confusion. Additionally, false claims about treatments and vaccine safety undermine public trust and vaccination efforts. Addressing misinformation surrounding disease origins is crucial for implementing effective preventive measures. Overall, this highlights the importance of robust public health communication strategies to combat misinformation during crises.

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During the cholera epidemic, people faced heightened anxiety and fear due to the unknowns surrounding the disease's cause, transmission, and treatment. This uncertainty created a sense of panic and unrest within communities, compounded by the stigma and discrimination faced by those affected by cholera.

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Similarly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, individuals experienced increased levels of stress and anxiety as they grappled with the novel coronavirus and its rapid spread. Uncertainty about the virus, coupled with concerns about personal health and the impact of public health measures, such as lockdowns and social distancing, added to the psychological burden. Overall, both crises had profound psychological effects, with individuals and communities struggling to cope with the fear and uncertainty surrounding these infectious diseases

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The comparison between the cholera epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic underscores the profound psychological effects of infectious disease outbreaks. During both crises, the pervasive uncertainty surrounding the diseases' causes, transmission, and treatments fueled heightened anxiety and fear within communities. This uncertainty led to a sense of panic and unrest, as individuals grappled with the unknowns and feared for their own health and the well-being of their loved ones. Additionally, stigma and discrimination further compounded the psychological burden, as those affected by cholera and COVID-19 often faced social ostracization and blame, hindering effective public health responses and exacerbating the sense of isolation among impacted individuals.

Moreover, the implementation of public health measures aimed at controlling the spread of the diseases, such as lockdowns and social distancing, had unintended consequences on mental health. These measures disrupted daily routines, limited social interactions, and contributed to feelings of isolation and loneliness, further amplifying the psychological toll of the crises. Addressing the psychological impacts of infectious disease outbreaks alongside their medical and public health implications is crucial for effective crisis management. Efforts to provide mental health support, combat stigma, and promote community resilience are essential components of comprehensive strategies aimed at mitigating the psychological effects of such crises.

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During the cholera outbreak in the Philippines, educational campaigns were instrumental in increasing awareness and preventing disease transmission. These initiatives focused on promoting hygiene practices such as handwashing, sanitation, and safe food handling to reduce cholera risks. The dissemination of information through diverse channels like radio broadcasts, community workshops, and educational materials distributed in schools and public areas was emphasized. Engaging communities empowered individuals to take proactive measures to safeguard their health and that of their surroundings. With school closures, efforts were made to maintain educational continuity through alternative learning methods like home-based materials and community-based educational initiatives, ensuring minimal disruption to learning while curbing disease spread (Heiser, 1907).

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Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, educational initiatives in the Philippines were essential in disseminating accurate information and advocating preventive actions. These efforts aimed to educate the public about the virus, its modes of transmission, and effective preventive measures (Learning From Data: Supporting Education and Social Protection Policies During COVID-19 in the Philippines | IPA, n.d.). Key messages emphasized practices like frequent handwashing, mask-wearing, and maintaining physical distance to minimize infection risks. Various communication channels, including traditional media, social platforms, and community outreach, were utilized to ensure widespread access to reliable information. School closures necessitated a transition to remote learning methods, utilizing online platforms, television broadcasts, and printed materials to sustain educational continuity while mitigating transmission risks among students and educators (Tria, 2020). Encouraging community involvement and collective responsibility were vital components in fostering adherence to health guidelines and supporting vulnerable segments of society.

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The analyses of educational campaigns during the cholera outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines highlight the important role of education in promoting public health and mitigating the spread of infectious diseases. Both instances underscore the importance of disseminating accurate information, promoting hygiene practices, and engaging communities to empower individuals to take proactive measures to safeguard their health. Despite the challenges posed by school closures, efforts to maintain educational continuity through alternative learning methods have been crucial in ensuring minimal disruption to learning while curbing disease spread. These findings emphasize the significance of innovative approaches to education, community engagement, and proactive public health measures in effectively addressing public health crises. Moving forward, continued investment in educational initiatives and community-based interventions will be essential in strengthening resilience and preparedness against future infectious disease outbreaks in the Philippines and beyond.

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Druedahl, L. C., Minssen, T., & Price, W. N. (2021). Collaboration in times of crisis: A study on COVID-19 vaccine R&D partnerships. Vaccine, 39(42), 6291–6295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.08.101

Filip, R., Puscaselu, R. G., Anchidin-Norocel, L., Dimian, M., & Savage, W. K. (2022). Global Challenges to Public Health Care Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of Pandemic Measures and Problems. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(8), 1295. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12081295

Fryer, V. (2023, November 10). Understanding the COVID-19 effect on ecommerce + Trends | BigCommerce. The BigCommerce Blog. https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/covid-19-ecommerce/

Heiser, V. G. (1907). THE OUTBREAK OF CHOLERA IN THE PHILIPPINES IN 1905.THE METHODS USED IN COMBATING IT, WITH STATISTICS TO JAN. 1, 1906. JAMA, XLVIII(10), 856. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1907.25220360014001d

Islam, M. S., Kamal, A. H. M., Kabir, A., Southern, D. L., Khan, S. H., Hasan, S. M. M., Sarkar, T., Sharmin, S., Das, S., Roy, T., Harun, G. D., Chughtai, A. A., Homaira, N., & Seale, H. (n.d.). COVID-19 vaccine rumors and conspiracy theories: The need for cognitive inoculation against misinformation to improve vaccine adherence. PLOS ONE, 16(5), e0251605. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251605

Learning from Data: Supporting Education and Social Protection Policies during COVID-19 in the Philippines | IPA. (n.d.). https://poverty-action.org/impact/learning-data-supporting-education-and-social-protection-policies-during-covid-19

Raynor, M., & Cliff, A. (n.d.). The Epidemiological Legacy of War: The Philippine—American War and the diffusion of cholera in Batangas and La Laguna, South-West Luzón, 1902–1904 on JSTOR. www.jstor.org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26013984

Tria, J. Z. (2020). The COVID-19 Pandemic through the Lens of Education in the Philippines: The New Normal. International Journal of Pedagogical Development and Lifelong Learning, 1(1), ep2001. https://doi.org/10.30935/ijpdll/8311

Trust, B. C. (n.d.). COVID-19 and Bats - Bats and health - Bat Conservation Trust. Bat Conservation Trust. https://www.bats.org.uk/about-bats/bats-and-disease/covid-19-and-bats

Tulchinsky, T. H., Varavikova, E. A., & Cohen, M. J. (2023). A history of public health. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 1–54). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-822957-6.00009-0

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Both pandemics have caused significant economic and social disruptions, affecting economies, jobs, and communities. Vulnerable groups have been hit hardest by both COVID-19 and cholera outbreaks, worsening existing inequalities in societies.

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Cholera and COVID-19 outbreaks caused many deaths in communities. These losses affected families and communities directly, leading to fewer people available to work and impacting productivity in areas like farming, business, and manufacturing. Both events disrupted trade and business in the Philippines, affecting local markets, trade with other countries, and international routes (Fryer, 2023). The COVID pandemic overwhelmed the healthcare and public services in the Philippines. Hospitals and medical centers couldn't cope with the number of patients, resulting in shortages of medical supplies, healthcare staff, and beds. This pressure made the outbreak worse for affected communities (Filip et al., 2022). The loss of lives, disruption of business, and strain on public services slowed down the economy and caused social problems, affecting the country's development in the years after.

The serious impact of both cholera and COVID outbreaks on communities in the Philippines shows how closely linked public health is to economic stability. The disruption of trade, business, and jobs doesn't just affect people's lives right away. It also shows how susceptible societies are to pandemics and how crucial it is to have strong health systems and plans to bounce back economically.

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Both epidemics forced the Philippine government to implement strict public health measures to prevent the spread of the diseases. Quarantine measures were enforced to limit movement and interaction among individuals.

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In both the cholera epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic, isolation and quarantine were one of the most significant strategies implemented. Infected individuals were separated from the rest of the population, and quarantine was enforced for those who had been in contact with the diseases to stop further spreading. However, during the cholera epidemic, the enforcement of quarantine measures was more strict and authoritarian, causing tensions between colonial authorities and local communities (Raynor & Cliff, n.d).

Comparing quarantine enforcement during the cholera epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic highlights changes in public health approaches. Both events recognized the need for isolation and travel limits. However, past authoritarian actions during the cholera outbreak stress the importance of balancing containment with individual rights and community cooperation in today's health strategies.

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The American Garrisons and The Frontliners

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The American Garrisons and The Frontliners

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The COVID-19 pandemic response required collaboration among healthcare workers, scientists, government officials, and public health authorities. They worked together to track the virus, enforce public health measures, distribute vaccines, and offer guidance to the public. Globally, scientists and researchers collaborated to understand the virus, create treatments, and develop vaccines quickly. The response involved a collective effort from different sectors and individuals to reduce the virus's impact and save lives (Druedahl et al., 2021).

During the cholera outbreak in the Philippines, especially under American colonial rule, various factors such as limited medical knowledge, societal structures, and colonial governance dynamics influenced the situation. While it may not be accurate to suggest that the American garrison commander intentionally caused the cholera outbreak, some decisions by colonial authorities could have exacerbated it. During that time, public health issues like cholera outbreaks were managed by military and colonial administrators rather than healthcare workers due to hierarchical colonial governance structures, where military officials held significant power over civil matters (Raynor & Cliff, n.d).

The American colonial administration prioritized military and strategic interests, sometimes at the expense of public health concerns. Military commanders and colonial authorities often prioritized political and military factors over public health needs when making decisions.

Comparing COVID-19 response to cholera management in the Philippines during the American colonial era shows shifts in public health governance. COVID-19 focused on collaboration and scientific progress, while historical contexts highlight colonial hierarchies' impact, potentially worsening crises. Understanding context and collective efforts are crucial in effectively addressing health challenges.

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During the cholera outbreak, the American garrison commander primarily helped mitigate the spread of the disease. However, in the COVID pandemic, frontline workers like healthcare professionals, scientists, government officials, and public health authorities played key roles in treating patients, conducting tests, and providing essential medical care.